Egypt - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Arab Republic of Egyptجمھوریة مصر العربیة (Arabic)

Ǧumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah

Flag Coat of arms

Anthem:

"Bilady, Bilady, Bilady"My country, my country, my country

Capital(and largest city)

Cairo30°2′N 31°13′E

Official language(s) Arabic[1] [a]

Ethnic groups 99% Egyptians0.9% Nubians0.1% Greeks

Demonym Egyptian

Government Semi-presidential republicunder Emergency Law(Law No. 162 of 1958)[2]

EgyptFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Egypt ( i /ˈiː dʒɪpt/; ,مصر Miṣr, Arabic: [mesˤɾ]; Egyptian

Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: , Kīmi), officially the ArabRepublic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, withthe Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia.Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power inAfrica, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East and theIslamic world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 squarekilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by theMediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel tothe northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south andLibya to the west.

Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and theMiddle East. The great majority of its estimated 79 millionpeople[3] live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area ofabout 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where theonly arable land is found. The large areas of the SaharaDesert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residentslive in urban areas, with most spread across the denselypopulated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and othermajor cities in the Nile Delta.

Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization, with famousmonuments such as the Giza pyramid complex and its GreatSphinx. Its ancient ruins, such as those of Memphis, Thebes,and Karnak and the Valley of the Kings outside Luxor, are asignificant focus of archaeological study. The tourism and theRed Sea Riviera employ about 12% of Egypt's workforce.

The economy of Egypt is one of the most developed anddiversified in the Middle East, with sectors such as tourism,agriculture, industry and service at almost equal productionlevels.

Contents1 Name2 History

2.1 Pre-historic Egypt2.2 Ancient Egypt

2/5/2011 Egypt - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt 1/31

since 1967, except for an18-month break in 1980.

- President Hosni Mubarak - Vice President Omar Suleiman - Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik

- Speaker of thePeople's Assembly

Ahmad Fathi Sorour

- SupremeConstitutionalCourt Chairman

Farouk Sultan

Establishment - Formal

independencefrom the OttomanEmpire

1867

- End ofprotectorate withthe UnitedKingdom

28 February 1922

- Republic declared 18 June 1953 - Current

constitution11 September 1971

Area - Total 1,002,450 km2 (30th)

387,048 sq mi - Water (%) 0.632

Population - Sept,

2010 estimate79,089,650 [3]

- 2006 census 76,699,427 [3]

- Density 82.3/km2 (120th)214.4/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate - Total $496.604 billion[4]

- Per capita $6,347[4]

GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate - Total $215.845 billion[4]

- Per capita $2,758[4]

Gini (1999–00) 34.5 (medium)

HDI (2010)0.620[5] (medium) (101st)

Currency Egyptian pound (EGP)

Time zone EET (UTC+2) - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)

Drives on the right

2.3 Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt2.4 Arab and Ottoman Egypt2.5 Muhammad Ali dynasty2.6 Modern Egypt

2.6.1 Kingdom2.6.2 Republic

3 Geography3.1 Climate

4 Politics4.1 2011 protests4.2 Foreign relations4.3 Military4.4 Administrative divisions4.5 Human rights

5 Economy6 Demographics

6.1 Languages6.2 Religion

7 Culture7.1 Identity7.2 Art and architecture7.3 Media7.4 Literature7.5 Music7.6 Festivals7.7 Sports

8 See also9 References10 External links

NameThe English name Egypt was borrowed from Middle FrenchEgypte, from Latin Aegyptus, from ancient Greek Aígyptos(Αἴγυπτος), from earlier Linear B a-ku-pi-ti-yo. The adjective aigýpti-, aigýptios was borrowed intoCoptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic asqubṭī, back formed into qubṭ, whence English Copt. TheGreek forms were borrowed from Late Egyptian (Amarna)Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptianname Hwt-ka-Ptah ( ), meaning "home of the ka



ISO 3166 code EG

Internet TLD .eg, .مصر

Calling code +20

^ a. Arabic is the official language;[1] spoken languages &varieties are: Egyptian Arabic, Sa'idi Arabic, EasternEgyptian Bedawi Arabic, Sudanese Arabic, Domari, Nobiin,Beja & Siwi. Main taught foreign languages are English,French, German & Italian.

(soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah atMemphis.[6] Strabo attributed the word to a folk etymologyin which Aígyptos (Αἴγυπτος) evolved as a compound fromAigaiou huptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below theAegean".

Miṣr, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (EgyptianArabic:Maṣr), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate withother Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew יִם ַ ר צְ ִ מ(Mitzráyim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference tothe dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[7] The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" andmeans "country", or "frontier-land".

The ancient Egyptian name of the country is Kemet (km.t) [ ], which means "black land", referring to thefertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from the deshret (dšṛt), or "red land" of the desert.[8] The name isrealized as kīmi and kīmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία(Khēmía).[9] Another name was "land of the riverbank".[10] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt wereTa-Sheme'aw ( ) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew ( ) "northland", respectively.

HistoryMain article: History of Egypt

See also: Population history of Egypt

Pre-historic Egypt

Main article: Prehistoric Egypt

There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a cultureof hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the NileRiver where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[11]

By about 6000 BC a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[12] During the Neolithic era, several predynasticcultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqadaseries are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda,predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexistedwith their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintainingfrequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared duringthe predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[13]

Ancient Egypt

Main article: Ancient Egypt



Giza Pyramids

The Great Sphinx and the Pyramidsof Giza, built during the Old Kingdom,are modern national icons that are atthe heart of Egypt's thriving tourism

industry.

A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BC by King Menes, leading to aseries of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptianculture flourished during this long period and remained distinctivelyEgyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two rulingdynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the ThirdDynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.

The First Intermediate Periodushered in a time of politicalupheaval for about 150years.[14] Stronger Nile floodsand stabilization of government,however, brought backrenewed prosperity for thecountry in the Middle Kingdomc. 2040 BC, reaching a peakduring the reign of PharaohAmenemhat III. A secondperiod of disunity heralded thearrival of the first foreign rulingdynasty in Egypt, that of theSemitic Hyksos. The Hyksosinvaders took over much of

Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptianforce led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.

The New Kingdom c. 1550−1070 BC began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as aninternational power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, andincluded parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, includingHatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historicallyattested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nationsbrought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians andAssyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.[15]

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BCafter the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle.

Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt

Main articles: Ptolemaic Egypt and Roman Egypt

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene tothe west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture andtrade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to thePharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments inEgyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[16][17]



The Hanging Church ofCairo, first built in the third orfourth century AD, is one of

the most famous CopticChurches in Egypt.

The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide with her lover Marc Antony, afterCaesar Augustus had captured them. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by anunwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and itsannexation by Rome. Nevertheless Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.

Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the1st century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a greatnumber of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian.After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[18]

Arab and Ottoman Egypt

Main article: History of Muslim Egypt

The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persianinvasion early in the 7th century, until in AD 639, Egypt was absorbed into theIslamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine Armiesin Egypt, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country. Early in this period,Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices,leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day. These earlier riteshad survived the period of Coptic Christianity.[19]

Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt forthe next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids.With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian militarycaste, took control about AD 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked theRed Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[20][20] They continued to govern thecountry until the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which itbecame a province of the Ottoman Empire. The mid-14th-century Black Deathkilled about 40% of the country's population.[21]

After the 15th century, the Ottoman invasion pushed the Egyptian system intodecline. The defensive militarization damaged its civil society and economicinstitutions.[20] The weakening of the economic system combined with the effectsof plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[22] Egypt suffered sixfamines between 1687 and 1731.[23] The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[24]

Muhammad Ali dynasty

Main article: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty

Further information: French Campaign in Egypt and Syria, Ottoman–Saudi War, Muhammad Ali'sseizure of power, First Turko-Egyptian War, Second Turko-Egyptian War, and Khedivate of Egypt

The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French in 1801by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, andAlbanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans, wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the



Battle of the Pyramids, July 21,1798, by François-Louis-Joseph

Watteau.

British admiral Codrington negotiatingwith Muhammad Ali Pasha in the

latter's palace in Alexandria.

Mosque of Muhammad Ali

commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali MehmedAli Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledgedby the Sultan in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title impliedsubordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottomanpower in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and ableleader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of1952. In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[25]

His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 theEuropean powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forcedhim to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept theSudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting result ofhis military ambition is that it required him to modernize the country.Eager to adopt the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of thegreat powers, he sent students to the West and invited training missions toEgypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport,and reformed the civil service.[25]

The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety ofwhich became famous, transformed its agriculture into a cash-cropmonoculture before the end of the century. The social effects of this wereenormous: land ownership became concentrated and many foreignersarrived, shifting production towards international markets.[25]

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said(in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863). Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail wereambitious developers, but they spent beyond their means. The Suez Canal, built inpartnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The cost of this and otherprojects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and causedpopular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875 Ismailwas forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British Government. Withinthree years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat inthe Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behindthem, were the real power in the Government."[26]

Modern Egypt

Main article: History of modern Egypt

Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministrycommitted to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their control,the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Telel-Kebir.[27] They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[28]



Female nationalistsdemonstrating in Cairo, 1919

In 1914 the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state,which had changed from pasha to khedive in 1867, was changed to sultan, torepudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing theCentral powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replacedby his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.[29]

In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join thenationalist movement. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the WafdParty led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local LegislativeAssembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March8, 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UKgovernment to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February22, 1922.[30]

Kingdom

Main article: Kingdom of Egypt

The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on aparliamentary system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing politicalinvolvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952Revolution. The Free Officers Movement forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad. Britishmilitary presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[31]

Republic

On June 18, 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President ofthe Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President in June, 1956. Britishforces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on June 13, 1956. He nationalized the SuezCanal on July 26, 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez Crisis.

Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and wassucceeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the UnitedStates, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clampingdown on religious and secular opposition.

In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupyingthe Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was an attempt to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured6 years earlier. Sadat hoped to seize some territory through military force, and then regain the rest of the peninsulaby diplomacy. The conflict sparked an international crisis between the US and the USSR, both of whom intervened.The second UN-mandated ceasefire halted military action. While the war ended with a military Israeli victory, itpresented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.[32]

Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal



Topography of Egypt

from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from theArab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[33] A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat inCairo in 1981. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak.

In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kefaya, was launched to oppose the Mubarakregime and to establish democratic reforms and greater civil liberties.

In January 2011, a popular protest began against the Mubarak government, consisting of a wide range of classdemographics. The objective of the protest is for the removal of Mubarak from power. (See also 2011 protests.)

GeographyMain article: Geography of Egypt

At 1,002,450 square kilometers (387,050 sq mi),[34] Egypt is the world's30th-largest country. In land area, it is about the same size as all CentralAmerica,[35] twice the size of Spain,[36] four times the size of the UnitedKingdom,[37] and the combined size of the US states of Texas andCalifornia.[38] It lies between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 24°and 36°E.

Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres areconcentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[39]

Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by theGaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopoliticsstems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses aland bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed bya navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of theRed Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peakat more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. Thesedeserts that protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats were referred to as the "red land" inancient Egypt.

Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptiancapital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga,Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases includeBahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, ZaranikProtectorate and Siwa.

See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.



Satellite image of Egypt, generatedfrom raster graphics data supplied by

The Map Library

The Nile at Cairo White Desert, Farafra. The coastline ofAlexandria, Egypt'ssecond largest city.

A street in NaamaBay,Sharm el-Sheikh.

The Nile at Cairo The Nile River nearAswan.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Egypt

Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[40] South of Cairo, rainfallaverages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervalsof many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall canbe as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[41] mostly between October and March.Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities suchas Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria. Frost isalso known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.

Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) insummer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Wintertemperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C). Asteady wind from the northwest helps lower temperatures near theMediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from thesouth in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises thetemperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).

Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile)replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave the country consistent harvest throughout the years.



Mohammad Hosni Mubarak

The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip andhave grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographicpressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end ofthe century, according to some climate experts.[42]

PoliticsMain article: Politics of Egypt

Egypt has been officially named a "Republic" since June 18, 1953. However, it has been under Emergency Lawcontinually since 1967 (with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980).[43] Since 1981, Egypt has been ruledautocratically by Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, who came to power after the assassination of President MohammedAnwar El-Sadat.[44] Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office (28 years). Mubarak is the leader of theruling National Democratic Party (NDP). Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik was sworn in as Prime Minister on January29, 2011, following the resignation of Ahmed Nazif.

Although power is nominally organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive poweris theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with thePresident who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holdsregular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutiveterm, was held in September 2005. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the NDP,described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long term goal". Dessouki also stated that"the real center of power in Egypt is the military".[45]

In late February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of thecountry's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election.For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a listof various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidateefforts for more freedom and democracy."[46] However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates,designed to prevent well-known politicians such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved theroad for his easy re-election victory.[47]

After the 2005 presidential elections observers alleged government interference inthe election process through fraud and vote-rigging, and police brutality andviolence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[48] Afterthe election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, and the U.S. government statedthe "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections,calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule oflaw."[49]

Most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the intentof the election rules. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registeredvoters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005elections.[50]

Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007



Mubarak in the G8 Summit in Italy2009

prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law toreplace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, authorize broad police powers of arrest and surveillance; givethe president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial election monitoring.[51] Opposition members ofparliament abstained from voting on the proposed changes. Only 27% of registered voters turned out under heavypolice presence and tight political control. It was officially announced on March 27, 2007 that 75.9% of those whoparticipated in the referendum approved the constitutional amendments. The results were endorsed by the rumpparliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of opposition elements, particularly Islamists.

The Egyptian military receives billions of dollars of aid from the United States. It remains Egypt's most powerfulinstitution. It has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods, and it exempts itself fromlaws that apply to other sectors.[44]

Mubarak is reportedly unlikely to stand for office when his present term expires in 2011. It was previously assumedthat his successor would be his son Gamal and as the governing party's candidate, he was all but certain to ascendto power, but the civil unrest of January 2011 makes that now unlikely.(See link at top of page). The real strugglefor power used to occur behind the scenes since the NDP candidate all but certainly would become president. TheEgyptian military could work behind the scenes to prevent Mubarak's succession if he were not already ousted.[44]

The CIA World Factbook states that the legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleoniccodes); and that judicial review takes place by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction onlywith reservations.[52]

2011 protests

Main article: 2011 Egyptian protests

On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's regime. By 29 January it was becoming clearthat Mubarak's regime had lost control when a curfew order was ignored, and the army took a semi-neutral stanceon enforcing the curfew decree. Some protesters, a very small minority in Cairo, expressed nationalistic viewsagainst what they deemed was foreign interference, highlighted by the then held view that the U.S. administrationhad failed to take sides, as well as linking the regime with Israel.[53]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt

Egypt's foreign policy is supported by its population size, historicalevents, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographicalposition. It has extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East.Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture forcenturies, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center ofthe region's social and cultural development.

The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairoand the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally beenEgyptian. Former Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current group'sSecretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis



Egyptian Air Force F-16refueling during Operation

Bright Star

in 1978 to protest the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, returning in 1989.

Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the treaty. Despite thepeace treaty, Israel is still largely considered an enemy country within Egypt.[54] Egypt has historically played animportant role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute.Egypt is a major ally of the United States.

Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nationsfrom 1991 to 1996.

In the 21st century, Egypt has had a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans flee poverty and war.Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[55]

Military

Main article: Egyptian Armed Forces

The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000active personnel.[56] According to the Israeli chair of the former Knesset ForeignAffairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force hasroughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and farmore Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than theIDF.[57]

The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernizationmostly in their Air Force. Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the first country inthe region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch 3 moresatellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years.[58]

The United States of America provide an annual military assistance, which in2009 amounted to US$ 1.3 billion (inflation adjusted US$ 1.33 billion in2011).[59]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Regions of Egypt

Egypt is divided into 29 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain townsand villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.

In April 2008, Cairo and Giza were subdivided into 4 governorates, namely the governorates of Cairo, Giza, 6October and Helwan. In 2009, the city of Luxor was declared an independent governorate.

The Upper governorates are located south of Cairo, while the Lower governorates are located in the Delta of theNile north of Cairo.



Members of the Kefaya democracymovement protesting a fifth term for

Governorate Capital Location

Alexandria Alexandria Northern

Aswan Aswan Upper

Asyut Asyut Upper

Beheira Damanhur Lower

Beni Suef Beni Suef Upper

Cairo Cairo Middle

Dakahlia Mansura Lower

Damietta Damietta Lower

Faiyum Faiyum Upper

Gharbia Tanta Lower

Giza Giza Upper

Helwan Helwan Middle

Ismailia Ismailia Canal

Kafr el-Sheikh Kafr el-Sheikh Lower

Luxor Luxor Upper

Governorate Capital Location

Matruh Mersa Matruh Western

Minya Minya Upper

Monufia Shibin el-Kom Lower

New Valley Kharga Western

North Sinai Arish Sinai

Port Said Port Said Canal

Qalyubia Banha Lower

Qena Qena Upper

Red Sea Hurghada Eastern

Sharqia Zagazig Upper

Sohag Sohag Upper

South Sinai el-Tor Sinai

Suez Suez Canal

6th of October 6th of October Middle

Humanrights

Main article: Human rights in Egypt

See also: Sudanese refugees in Egypt

Several local and international human rights organizations, includingAmnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many yearscriticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President HosniMubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped downon democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serioushuman rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, areroutine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and statesecurity courts.[60]

Egypt has also been cited for discriminatory personal status lawsgoverning marriage, custody and inheritance, which critics say put womenat a disadvantage. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place

Matruh

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Damietta

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6th of October

FaiyumBeni Suef

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President Hosni Mubarak. See alsovideo

(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbEM6soTHOA) .

restrictions on church building and open worship have been recentlyeased, but major construction still requires Government approval, whilesporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[61] Intolerance ofBahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, alsoremains a problem.[60]

The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the Governmentmoved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtainidentification documents.[62] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identitycards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[63] (For more on the status of religiousminorities, see the Religion section.)

In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least freerating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[64] It however noted that "Egypt witnessedits most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and anincreasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[65] For freedom of the press, Egyptwas deemed "Partly Free" in 2008, ranking 124 out of the 196 countries surveyed.[66]

In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegaldetention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations sendsuspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorismlaws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees toEgypt.[67] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair,as well as causing deep offense.[68]

The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence ofhuman rights in Egypt.[69] In 2003, the Government established the National Council for Human Rights,headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reportsto the President.[70] The council has come under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it undermineshuman rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the Government to excuse its violations[71] and togive legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[72] Egypt had announced in 2006that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[73] but in March 2007, Mubarak approved severalconstitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers ofarrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law will remain for the long haul.[74]

According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women havesuffered female genital mutilation.[75]

EconomyMain article: Economy of Egypt

Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more thanthree million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of theAswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in



Suez Canal Bridge

Tourists ride in a traditionalNile boat.

the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nileall continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[76]

The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypthas received U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year)and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following theIraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic thatgoes through the Suez Canal.

Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydropower. Substantial coal deposits are in the northeast Sinai, and are mined at therate of about 600,000 metric tons (590,000 LT; 660,000 ST) per year. Oil andgas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the NileDelta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometres (470cu mi), and LNG is exported to many countries.

Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period ofstagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by theGovernment, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stockmarket. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economicreforms.[77] Some major economic reforms taken by the new Government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing ofcustoms and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into Egypt has increased considerably in the pastfew years, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due to the recent economic liberalizationmeasures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.

Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickledown of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize theirGovernment for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living orpurchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited byEgyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.[78][79][80] TheGovernment promises major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, usingmoney paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat.[81]

Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the Orascom Group andRaya Contact Center. The IT sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years,with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe,operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other majorcorporations, as well as many small and medium enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed ContactCenter, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs withGovernment encouragement.

An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country throughremittances (US$ 7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[82]



Egypt population density (people perkm2)

DemographicsMain articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians

Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third mostpopulous on the African continent, at about 80 million inhabitants in2009.[83] Population grew rapidly from 1970-2010 due to medicaladvances and increases in agricultural productivity,[84] enabled by theGreen Revolution.[85] Egypt's population was estimated at only 3 millionwhen Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[86] In 1939, Egypt had apopulation of 16.5 million.[87]

The population is concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo andAlexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% ofthe population adheres to Islam and most of the rest to Christianity,primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[88] Apart from religiousaffiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who livein the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages.

Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 91% of the total population.[88] Ethnic minorities include theAbazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are alsotribal Beja communities concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner, and a number of Dom clans mostly in theNile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases. According to theInternational Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% ofEgyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30 % are living mostly in Europe and NorthAmerica (318,000 in the US, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[82]

Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, estimated to be between 500,000 and 3million.[89] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[89] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[90]

but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[91] The once-vibrant Greek and Jewishcommunities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but manyEgyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historicalsites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.

Languages

Main articles: Languages of Egypt, Egyptian language, and Coptic language

The official language of the Republic is Modern Standard Arabic.[1] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic(68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%),Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others. Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian are the main languages ofimmigrants. In Alexandria in the 19th century there was a huge community of Italo-Egyptians and Italian was the"lingua franca" of the city.



Cairo's unique cityscape with itsancient mosques. Cairo is known asthe "city of a thousand minarets"

Millions of Egyptians follow the

The main taught foreign languages in schools are English, French, German and sometimes Italian.

The Egyptian languages (also known as Copto-Egyptian) consist of ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and form aseparate branch among the family of Afro-Asiatic languages.

The "Koiné" dialect of the Greek language was important in Hellenistic Alexandria, and was used in the philosophyand science of that culture, and was also studied by later Arabic scholars.

Religion

Egypt hosts two major religious institutions, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle ofthe 1st century by Saint Mark the Evangelist, and Al-Azhar University founded in 970 A.D by the Fatimids as thefirst Islamic University in the world.

Islam

Egypt is a predominantly Muslim country with Islam as its state religion.The percentage of the adherents of various religions is a controversialtopic in Egypt, with different sources citing different figures. Around 90%are identified as Muslim.[92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100] A significantnumber of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[101] and thereis a minority of Shi'a. Islam plays a central role in the lives of mostEgyptian Muslims. The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) is heard five times aday, and has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything frombusiness to media and entertainment.Cairo is famous for its numerousmosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000minarets".[102] Cairo also comprises a significant number of churchtowers.

According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic law; however,the constitution bans political parties with a religious agenda.[103]

Christianity

Main articles: Christianity in Egypt, Copts, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and Persecutionof Copts

There is a significant minority of Christians in Egypt, who make upbetween 5% and 10% of the population.[92][93][95][96][97][98] Over 90%of Egyptian Christians belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church ofAlexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Church.[95][96][104] Other nativeEgyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, theEvangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations.Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regionsof Cairo and Alexandria.

According to ambassador Akbar Ahmed and bishop John Bryson



Christian faith as members of theCoptic Orthodox Church of

Alexandria.

Chane, Christian Copts are under severe pressure and siege, and usuallylive in fear for their lives and "Christian girls are being kidnapped byshadowy Muslim groups and lured into Muslim marriages, with the statelooking the other way." [105] They face discrimination and marginalizationon many levels.[106] In terms of religious freedom, the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifthworst country in the world, after Saudi Arabia, Iran, Uzbekistan and China.[107][108][109] In addition, Egypt ranksamong the 12 worst countries in the world in terms of religious violence against religious minorities and in terms ofsocial hostilities against Christians.[108][109] Furthermore, the United States Commission on International ReligiousFreedom has placed Egypt on its watch list for religious freedom that requires close monitoring due to the natureand extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[110]

Coptic Christians are minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and are beingdiscriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[60][106] The Coptic community, as well asseveral human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying Government postsis not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt. They are also the victims of discriminatory religious laws, anti-Christian judges, and anti-Christian state police. Anti-Christian laws include laws governing repairing old churchesor constructing new ones, which are usually impossible tasks, requiring presidential permission to build a newchurch, and a governor’s permission to renovate even the bathroom in an already-built church.[106] Anti-Christianjudges tend to "legislate from the bench". An example includes an Egyptian court's refusal to grant Muslim Egyptianswho convert to Christianity identity cards that display their new religion.[105][106] On the other hand, converting toIslam does not even require going to court.[111] Copts are denied equal opportunities in recruitment and promotion.Very few are appointed to key positions in the government, and political parties almost never choose Copticcandidates for parliamentary positions. In addition, enrollment of Copts in police academies and military schools isheavily restricted. Along the same lines, very few Copts are granted positions as school teachers or universityprofessors.[112]

Moreover, Copts are usually on the receiving end of anti-Christian hate crimes, the number of which has been risingsince the 1970s.[113][114] Since Mubarak took office in 1981, more than 1,500 violent attacks against Copts leftthousands of Christians killed and injured.[115][116] The violent anti-Christian attacks in Upper Egypt during the1990s forced thousands of Copts to flee to larger cities in Egypt or to immigrate; a form of unrecognized ethniccleansing. The last 10 years witnessed a dramatic increase in the scale of anti-Christian hate crimes, including anumber of massacres such as the 2001 Kosheh massacre, the 2010 Nag Hammadi massacre and the 2011Alexandria bombing. Copts also complain that the Egyptian government and the Egyptian judicial system are doinglittle to punish such attacks on the Coptic community, failing to prosecute the criminals, and thus leading to furtherpersecution of the Copts.[114][117][118] For instance, all the criminals responsible for the 2001 killing of 21 Copts inKosheh, most of whom were children and women, were set free by court order.[119][120]

Meanwhile, according to the independent Egyptian newspaper Al-Masry Al-Youm, «(President Hosni) Mubarakcalls on Coptic Pope to cut back religious rhetoric».[121]

Religious minorities

The Egyptian religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious extremism, witnessing a 2006 judgementof Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e.,Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and all other religious beliefs.[62] This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbidspractice of all but the three globally largest sized Abrahamic religions.[122] This judgment had made it necessary for



Life in Egypt

Culture

CuisineCinemaMusicMedia

TourismHolidays

Healthcare

Demography

PeopleLanguages

ReligionHuman rights

Politics

ParliamentMilitary

EconomyTransportation

CommunicationsEducation

Wildlife

Bibliotheca Alexandrina is acommemoration of the ancient

Library of Alexandria in Egypt'ssecond largest city.

non-recognised religious communities to either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (seeEgyptian identification card controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minoritiesmay obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[63]

There is also a small, but nonetheless historically significant, non-immigrant Bahá'í population of around 2000,[62]

who have intrinsically been banned from practising Baha'i. There's an even smaller community of Jews of about200,[62][123] then a tiny number of Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic.

CultureMain article: Culture of Egypt

Egyptian culture has six thousandyears of recorded history.Ancient Egypt was among theearliest civilizations and formillennia, Egypt maintained astrikingly complex and stableculture that influenced latercultures of Europe, the MiddleEast and other African countries.After the Pharaonic era, Egyptitself came under the influence ofHellenism, Christianity, andIslamic culture. Today, many

aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements,including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancientEgypt.

Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renownedfor centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has thehighest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. SomeEgyptian born politicians were or are at the helm of major internationalorganizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations andMohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.

Egypt is a recognized cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world,and contemporary Arab culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature,music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the1950s and 1960s, which gave a further enduring boost to the standing ofEgyptian culture in the Arab world.[124]

Identity

Main article: Egyptians#Identity



Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt'sRenaissance 1919–1928,

Cairo University

Eighteenth dynasty painting from thetomb of Theban governor Ramose in

Deir el-Madinah

The Nile Valley was home to one of theoldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history.When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left anindelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in thespan of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two newreligions, Islam and Christianity; and a new language, Arabic, and its spokendescendant, Egyptian Arabic.[125]

After two thousand years of occupation, three ideologies competed for theattention of newly independent Egyptians: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism,secular Arab nationalism/pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalismpredates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th centuryand becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activistsand intellectuals until the early 20th century.[126] Arab nationalism reached a peakunder Nasser but subsided under Sadat; meanwhile, the ideology espoused byIslamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is present in small segments of thelower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[127]

The work of early 19th-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi led to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transitionfrom Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptiansociety to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptologyschool that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselvesstudied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[128]

Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like MuhammadAbduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, SalamaMoussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment topersonal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[129]

Art and architecture

The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify designelements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service ofthe Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptiancivilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades andmonumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoserdesigned by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and thetemple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be asdiverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernaculararchitecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to MahmoudMokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography ofIsaac Fanous.

The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in theEgyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late 19th century, today with more thanthirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as



the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated asone of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers'Associations.[130] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian GulfArab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, haveachieved worldwide fame.

Media

Main article: Media of Egypt

Egyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasingfreedom from government control.[131][132] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, manylaws still restrict this right.[131][133] After the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, Ahmed Selim, office director forInformation Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."[132]

Today, the Egyptian media is experiencing greater freedom. Several Egyptian Talk shows, like 90 Minutes and Al-Ashera Masa'an, which air on private channels, and even state television programs such as El-beit beitak criticizethe Government, which was previously banned.

Literature

Literature is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first toexperiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitatedthroughout the Middle East.[134] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal waspublished in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[135] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-languagewriter to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for herfeminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition.

Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of AhmedFouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi. In their belief, boats were used by the dead toaccompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was referred to as “Upper Waters”. In Egyptian mythology, everynight the serpentine god Apophis would attack the Sun Boat as it brought the sun (and as such order )back to theKingdom in the morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of Millions” as all the gods and souls of the blessed dead mayat one point or another be needed to defend or operate it.

Music

Main article: Music of Egypt

Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity,Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion andvocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian musictraces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, whoinfluenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed AbdelWahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly importantin Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities. Some of



Upper Egyptian folkmusicians from Kom Ombo.

Cairo International Stadium

the most prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab andMohamed Mounir.

Festivals

Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known asmulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but areoften celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has aspecial flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known asfawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock toEgypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival ofSham en Nisim (Coptic: shom en nisim) has beencelebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptianmonths of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

Egypt is one of the boldest countries in the middle east in the music industry. The next generation of the Egyptianmusic is considered to be the rise, as the music was disrupted by some foreign influences, bad admixing, andabused oriental styles. The new arising talents starting from the late 1990s are taking over the rein now as they playdifferent genres of many cultures. Rock And Metal music are prevailing widely in Egypt now,as much as the orientaljazz and folk music are becoming well-known now to the Egyptian and non-Egyptian fans

Sports

Football is the Popular National Sport of Egypt. Egyptian Football clubsEl Ahly, El Zamalek, Ismaily, El-Ittihad El-Iskandary and El Masry arethe most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regionalchampions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized aspeople fill the streets when their favorite team wins. The Cairo Derby isone of the fiercest derbies in Africa and the world, the BBC even pickedit as one of the toughest 7 derbies in the world.[136] Egypt is rich insoccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. TheEgyptian national football team is ranked among the best in the worldaccording to the FIFA World Rankings. The country is home to manyAfrican championships such as the Africa Cup of Nations. While, Egypt'snational team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990, theEgyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented seven times, including two times in a row in 1957and 1959 and an unprecedented three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010 setting a world record.

Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fiercecompetition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana is Egypt's best player and the winner ofthe world open three times and the best player of 2006.

The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the African Handball NationsChampionship was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times thirdplace, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men'sHandball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics.



In 2007, Omar Samra joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) inputting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on 25March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On the 17th of May at precisely 9:49 am Nepal time, Omar becamethe first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everestfrom its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953.

Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympics since 1912.

See alsoMain articles: Outline of Egypt and Index of Egypt-related articles

List of ancient Egypt topicsList of international rankingsList of modern Egypt-related topics

2011 EgyptianprotestsCanal of thePharaohsCommunications inEgyptAncient EgyptianreligionFlag of Egypt

Armenians inEgyptGreeks in EgyptItalians in EgyptHistory of theJews in Egypt

Holy Family inEgyptEducation in EgyptIndustry in EgyptLanguages ofEgyptTerrorism in Egypt

Egyptian Arabic(Masri dialect)Public holidays inEgyptRed Sea RivieraTransport in Egypt

Rail transportin Egypt

Lists:

Main list: List of basic Egypt topics

List of writers from EgyptList of Egyptian companiesList of Egypt-related topicsList of EgyptiansList of Egyptian products & manufacturersList of Egyptian universitiesList of writers about Egypt till the 19th centuryList of Rulers and heads of state of EgyptVice President of Egypt

References

1. ^ a b c Constitution of Egypt, Article.2: “Islam is the Religion of the State. Arabic is its official language, and the



1. ^ a b c Constitution of Egypt, Article.2: “Islam is the Religion of the State. Arabic is its official language, and theIslamic Jurisprudence (Sharia) ia a principal source of legislation.”

2. ^ Law 1958/162 (Emergency Law) (http://www.emerglobal.com/lex/law-1958-162) (Arabic) at EMERglobal Lex(http://emerglobal.com/lex) , part of the Edinburgh Middle East Report. Retrieved 2010-04-02.

3. ^ a b c "Central Agency for Population Mobilisation and Statistics — Population Clock (July 2008)"(http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pls/fdl/tst12e?action=&lname=) . Msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg.http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pls/fdl/tst12e?action=&lname=. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

4. ^ a b c d "Egypt" (http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=469&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=75&pr.y=6) . International Monetary Fund.http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=469&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=75&pr.y=6. Retrieved 2010-04-21.

5. ^ "Human Development Report 2010" (http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf) . United Nations.2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010.

6. ^ Hoffmeier, James K (October 1, 2007). "Rameses of the exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal RamessidResidence" (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2) . Trinity Journal: 1.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2.

7. ^ "Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005" (http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/emagazine/011.html) . Ancient-hebrew.org. http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/emagazine/011.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

8. ^ Rosalie, David (1997). Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce.Routledge. p. 18.

9. ^ "A Brief History of Alchemy" (http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html) . UNIVERSITYOF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html.Retrieved 2008-08-21.

10. ^ Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). Ancient Records of Egypt (http://books.google.com/?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC) . University of Illinois Press. pp. 76;40. ISBN 9780252069758. http://books.google.com/?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC.

11. ^ Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: BlackwellPublishers.

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120. ^ "Middle East Transparent, 14 June 2004" (http://www.metransparent.com/old/texts/elkosheh_violence.htm) .Metransparent.com. http://www.metransparent.com/old/texts/elkosheh_violence.htm. Retrieved 2011-02-01.

121. ^ "Mubarak calls on Coptic Pope to cut back religious rhetoric" (http://almasryalyoum.com/en/news/mubarak-calls-coptic-pope-cut-back-religious-rhetoric) . Al-Masry Al-Youm. 2010-12-22.http://almasryalyoum.com/en/news/mubarak-calls-coptic-pope-cut-back-religious-rhetoric . Retrieved 2011-02-01.

122. ^ Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights (2006-12-16). "Government Must Find Solution for Baha'i Egyptians"(http://web.archive.org/web/20070209221817/http://www.eipr.org/en/press/06/1612.htm) . eipr.org. Archivedfrom the original (http://www.eipr.org/en/press/06/1612.htm) on 2007-02-09.http://web.archive.org/web/20070209221817/http://www.eipr.org/en/press/06/1612.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-16.

123. ^ Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo. Bassatine News(http://web.archive.org/web/20091028204254/http://geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/5855/bassa20.htm) . 2006.

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idnews=49061) . Ipsnews.net. 2009-10-29. http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

125. ^ Raymon Kondos (February 15). "The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easternersor Mediterranean People?" (http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm) .http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-21.

126. ^ Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism.New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244–45

127. ^ Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp.264–65, 267

128. ^ El-Daly, op cit., p. 29129. ^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 130130. ^ Cairo Film Festival information (http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/information.html)

.131. ^ a b Country profiles: Egypt (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm#media)

BBC132. ^ a b "Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections"

(http://www.tbsjournal.com/Archives/Fall05/Levinson.html) , TBS133. ^ "Freedom House 2007 report" (http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007) .

Freedomhouse.org. 2004-05-10. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007. Retrieved2010-08-25.

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135. ^ Vatikiotis, op cit.136. ^ "BBC Sport Academy | Football | Features | Al-Ahly v Zamalek"

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm) . BBC News. 2002-10-05. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html) of the CIA World Factbook.

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents(http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index.htm) of the United States Department of State (BackgroundNotes).Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1991). Before European Hegemony The World System A.D. 1250-1350. NewYork: Oxford UP. p. 243.

External linksGovernment

Egypt's Government Services Portal (http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/) (Arabic, English)Egypt Information Portal (http://www.eip.gov.eg/) (Arabic, English)Egypt Information and Decision Support Center (http://www.idsc.gov.eg/) (Arabic, English)Egypt State Information Services (http://www.sis.gov.eg/) (Arabic, English, French)Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-e/egypt.html)



Egyptian Tourist Authority (http://www.egypt.travel/)

General

Country Profile (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm) from the BBCNewsEgypt (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html) entry at The WorldFactbookEgypt (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/egypt.htm) at UCB Libraries GovPubsEgypt (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Egypt/) at the Open Directory ProjectWikimedia Atlas of EgyptEgypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection (http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/egypt.html)Egypt travel guide from Wikitravel

Other

Leonard William King, History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria in the Light of RecentDiscovery, Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17321) .Egyptian History (urdu) (http://www.ibtada.com/ibtada.php?cur_page=main&sub=submain&mainpage=ajaib_ghar&page=qadeem_mesar&pgno=1)By Nile and Tigris (http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/) , a narrative of journeys in Egypt andMesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge,1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu &layered PDF(http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49xB8x1920/1f/) format)Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt(http://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/Napoleon-on-the-Nile/Joseph--1874.htm) .

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"Categories: Egypt | African countries | African Union member states | Arab League member states | Arab republics |Arabic-speaking countries | Bicontinental countries | Countries bordering the Red Sea | Countries of theMediterranean Sea | Developing 8 Countries member states | Former monarchies | G15 nations | Member states ofLa Francophonie | Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean | Middle Eastern countries | North Africa |Organisation of the Islamic Conference members | States and territories established in 1922 | Western Asia

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