EDUCATION - BAFED Home PageDr. A.T.R. Rahman is the founder and chairman of Volunteers Association...
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ISSN 1811 - 0762 EDUCATION Volume 15 Number 1 June 2016
Transcript of EDUCATION - BAFED Home PageDr. A.T.R. Rahman is the founder and chairman of Volunteers Association...
ISSN 1811 - 0762
EDUCATION
Volume 15 Number 1
June 2016
EDUCATION
Manzoor AhmedAdvisory Editor
Abu Hamid LatifEditor
Volume 15 Number 1 June 2016
A half-yearly journal published by BAFED with financial assistance from BRAC Institute of Educational Development
BAFEDI n s p i r i n g E x c e l l e n c e
BRAC Institute of Educational DevelopmentBRAC University (BIED, BRACU)
EDUCATION
Manzoor AhmedAdvisory Editor
Abu Hamid LatifEditor
Volume 15 Number 1 June 2016
A half-yearly journal published by BAFED with financial assistance from BRAC Institute of Educational Development
BAFEDI n s p i r i n g E x c e l l e n c e
BRAC Institute of Educational DevelopmentBRAC University (BIED, BRACU)
BANGLADESH EDUCATION JOURNALA half-yearly journal published by BAFED with financial assistance
from BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Editorial Board
Advisory EditorManzoor Ahmed
Editor
Abu Hamid Latif
Members
Sekander Hayat Khan
Siddiqur Rahman
Harunur Rashid Khan
Cover Design
Abul Mansur
Manan Morshed
Publication Information
Bangladesh Education Journal is published by Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED). Articles for publication in this journal are required to be of high standard and meet the criteria set by the editorial board. The articles are collected by BAFED or these can be sent directly to the editor. The journal follows a peer review process and is edited by a board of editors. The journal is published from Bangladesh twice a year in English Language and the ISSN of the journal is 1811-0762.
Another publication of BAFED is the Bangladesh Shikhsha Shamoiki (Bangladesh Education Periodical) published in Bangla. This is also published by following same procedures as in the case of English journal. Bangladesh Shikhsha Shamoiki follows a peer review process. The journal is published twice a year (ISSN 1991-6655).
Both the Journals are disseminated widely in print at national and international levels. They have a wide readership among those who are working in the area of education and development, both in the government and outside, as academics, researchers, policy makers, development partners and civil-society members. The contents of both Journals are posted on the website: http://www.bafed.net/Journal.php
Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 15, Number 1, June 2016. Published by Nazmul Haq, Executive Secretary, BAFED, on behalf of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED), 278/3 Elephant Road (3rd Floor), Kataban, Dhaka 1205. Phone: 9668593, E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.bafed.net
Printed by Arka, 3/1, Block-F, Lalmatia, Dhaka. Phone: 9126171.
Price : in Bangladesh Tk. 100.00, Abroad US$ 5.00
BANGLADESH EDUCATION JOURNALA half-yearly journal published by BAFED with financial assistance
from BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Editorial Board
Advisory EditorManzoor Ahmed
Editor
Abu Hamid Latif
Members
Sekander Hayat Khan
Siddiqur Rahman
Harunur Rashid Khan
Cover Design
Abul Mansur
Manan Morshed
Publication Information
Bangladesh Education Journal is published by Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED). Articles for publication in this journal are required to be of high standard and meet the criteria set by the editorial board. The articles are collected by BAFED or these can be sent directly to the editor. The journal follows a peer review process and is edited by a board of editors. The journal is published from Bangladesh twice a year in English Language and the ISSN of the journal is 1811-0762.
Another publication of BAFED is the Bangladesh Shikhsha Shamoiki (Bangladesh Education Periodical) published in Bangla. This is also published by following same procedures as in the case of English journal. Bangladesh Shikhsha Shamoiki follows a peer review process. The journal is published twice a year (ISSN 1991-6655).
Both the Journals are disseminated widely in print at national and international levels. They have a wide readership among those who are working in the area of education and development, both in the government and outside, as academics, researchers, policy makers, development partners and civil-society members. The contents of both Journals are posted on the website: http://www.bafed.net/Journal.php
Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 15, Number 1, June 2016. Published by Nazmul Haq, Executive Secretary, BAFED, on behalf of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED), 278/3 Elephant Road (3rd Floor), Kataban, Dhaka 1205. Phone: 9668593, E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.bafed.net
Printed by Arka, 3/1, Block-F, Lalmatia, Dhaka. Phone: 9126171.
Price : in Bangladesh Tk. 100.00, Abroad US$ 5.00
Notes from the Editor
This issue of Bangladesh Journal addresses a range of policy and practical topics – education agenda in the context of SDG, shaping of gender role in high school, perception about children’s play, recognition of prior learning in skill development, and quality concerns at the secondary level.
Manzoor Ahmed and Md. Mostafizur Rahaman write about aligning national and global education agenda in the context of SDG4 and the Bangladesh 7th plan. Their paper focuses specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan Education objectives. The authors argue that it is not so important to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators or between the national and the global agenda. It is more important, in their view, to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for education and sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh.
Shamnaz Arifin Mim in her paper about “Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School” describes how daily practices within the school context shape gender identities. She takes gender role as the analytical frame to explore the nature of schooling through interaction among the existing heterogeneous groups of teachers and students in a school setting. Her conclusions have a bearing on training and orientation of teachers and concepts about curriculum and learning objectives for promoting a gender neutral experience for adolescents in their socialization process.
Shahidullah Sharif in his paper “Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play in Children’s Learning and Development” attempts to fill the gap in research and writing in this area in Bangladesh. The study with children of 3-5 years and their mothers show that mothers in rural Bangladesh have lacks in clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play. They prefer academic activities rather than play activities for their children. On the issue of gender differences in play, mothers' educational level makes differences in perceptions regarding gender orientation in child's play. The writer reports that parents seldom play with their children, and do so only when they are requested by their children. At best, they play a supervisory role in their children’s play.
Haripada Das describes the concept and rationale of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and the mechanism and process to be applied in this effort in his short article on this topic. The challenges and lessons are noted briefly. An annex includes a fact sheet on RPL as a ready reference for readers.
Dr. A.T.R. Rahman is the founder and chairman of Volunteers Association for Bangladesh (VAB), a non- profit organization, established in 1998 by Non-resident Bangladeshis (NRB) in USA to expand opportunities for rural children of Bangladesh in quality education and skill training. Over the last fifteen years, working with over a hundred rural secondary schools, VAB has helped more than 50,000 young men and women and their families in the villages and underprivileged areas of Bangladesh to overcome poverty and elevate their lives. Press report about a meeting hosted by the Ministry of Education on education quality on 26 May, 2016 prompted Dr. Rahman to offer some insightful comments which are presented for our readers in the short article “Challenges of Quality Education at the Secondary Level.”
Notes from the Editor
This issue of Bangladesh Journal addresses a range of policy and practical topics – education agenda in the context of SDG, shaping of gender role in high school, perception about children’s play, recognition of prior learning in skill development, and quality concerns at the secondary level.
Manzoor Ahmed and Md. Mostafizur Rahaman write about aligning national and global education agenda in the context of SDG4 and the Bangladesh 7th plan. Their paper focuses specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan Education objectives. The authors argue that it is not so important to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators or between the national and the global agenda. It is more important, in their view, to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for education and sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh.
Shamnaz Arifin Mim in her paper about “Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School” describes how daily practices within the school context shape gender identities. She takes gender role as the analytical frame to explore the nature of schooling through interaction among the existing heterogeneous groups of teachers and students in a school setting. Her conclusions have a bearing on training and orientation of teachers and concepts about curriculum and learning objectives for promoting a gender neutral experience for adolescents in their socialization process.
Shahidullah Sharif in his paper “Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play in Children’s Learning and Development” attempts to fill the gap in research and writing in this area in Bangladesh. The study with children of 3-5 years and their mothers show that mothers in rural Bangladesh have lacks in clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play. They prefer academic activities rather than play activities for their children. On the issue of gender differences in play, mothers' educational level makes differences in perceptions regarding gender orientation in child's play. The writer reports that parents seldom play with their children, and do so only when they are requested by their children. At best, they play a supervisory role in their children’s play.
Haripada Das describes the concept and rationale of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and the mechanism and process to be applied in this effort in his short article on this topic. The challenges and lessons are noted briefly. An annex includes a fact sheet on RPL as a ready reference for readers.
Dr. A.T.R. Rahman is the founder and chairman of Volunteers Association for Bangladesh (VAB), a non- profit organization, established in 1998 by Non-resident Bangladeshis (NRB) in USA to expand opportunities for rural children of Bangladesh in quality education and skill training. Over the last fifteen years, working with over a hundred rural secondary schools, VAB has helped more than 50,000 young men and women and their families in the villages and underprivileged areas of Bangladesh to overcome poverty and elevate their lives. Press report about a meeting hosted by the Ministry of Education on education quality on 26 May, 2016 prompted Dr. Rahman to offer some insightful comments which are presented for our readers in the short article “Challenges of Quality Education at the Secondary Level.”
C o n t e n t s
Notes from the Editor
SDG4/Education 2030 and 7th Five-Year Plan of Bangladesh:Aligning National and Global Objectives
Strategies and IndicatorsManzoor Ahmed
Md. Mostafizur Rahaman9-28
Nature of Schooling: Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School
Shamnaz Arifin Mim29-37
Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play inChildren’s Learning and Development in Bangladesh
Shahidullah Sharif 38-50
Challenges of Quality Education atSecondary Level- A Commentary
Dr. A. T. R. Rahman51-54
Certifying Informally Developed Skills throughRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
Hari Pada Das55-59
C o n t e n t s
Notes from the Editor
SDG4/Education 2030 and 7th Five-Year Plan of Bangladesh:Aligning National and Global Objectives
Strategies and IndicatorsManzoor Ahmed
Md. Mostafizur Rahaman9-28
Nature of Schooling: Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School
Shamnaz Arifin Mim29-37
Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play inChildren’s Learning and Development in Bangladesh
Shahidullah Sharif 38-50
Challenges of Quality Education atSecondary Level- A Commentary
Dr. A. T. R. Rahman51-54
Certifying Informally Developed Skills throughRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
Hari Pada Das55-59
Abstract The Sustainable Development Goals 2030, titled“Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” with 17 goals and 169 targets (including 43 means of implementation) were adopted at the United Nations in September 2015. The education goal SDG 4 has 7 targets and 3 means of implementation.
The Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen” for the years 2016-2020, produced by General Economics Division, Planning Commission, can be regarded as the blueprint for the early critical phase of SDG implementation.
Bangladesh prepared its own post-2015 Development Agenda and contributed to the international discourse through UN. With the lead of the General Economics Division (GED) of the Planning Commission, based on a consultative process initiated in 2013, goals and targets were developed in the context of Bangladesh. Through this process, 11 goals along with 58 targets with corresponding 241 measurable indicators were proposed. (See “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.) Civil society in Bangladesh also produced what is described as “a people-centred, equitable, inclusive, and sustainable Post-2015 Development Agenda.” It came up with 13 Goals, 50 Targets and 199 Indicators. (See “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.) There is considerable overlap and some differences between these two agenda.
The authors argue that it is not so important at this stage to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators or between the national and the global agenda. It is more important to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh. This paper focuses
thSDG4/Education 2030 and 7 Five-Year Plan of Bangladesh:Aligning National and Global Objectives
Strategies and Indicators
Manzoor Ahmed**
Md. Mostafizur Rahaman
*
* Professor Emeritus, BRAC University** Programme Manager, Policy Advocacy and Mass Communication, CAMPE
Note: A version of this paper was presented and discussed in a seminar on 20 May, 2016 organized by Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED) and Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) at the Institute of Education and Research, University of Dhaka
Abstract The Sustainable Development Goals 2030, titled“Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” with 17 goals and 169 targets (including 43 means of implementation) were adopted at the United Nations in September 2015. The education goal SDG 4 has 7 targets and 3 means of implementation.
The Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen” for the years 2016-2020, produced by General Economics Division, Planning Commission, can be regarded as the blueprint for the early critical phase of SDG implementation.
Bangladesh prepared its own post-2015 Development Agenda and contributed to the international discourse through UN. With the lead of the General Economics Division (GED) of the Planning Commission, based on a consultative process initiated in 2013, goals and targets were developed in the context of Bangladesh. Through this process, 11 goals along with 58 targets with corresponding 241 measurable indicators were proposed. (See “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.) Civil society in Bangladesh also produced what is described as “a people-centred, equitable, inclusive, and sustainable Post-2015 Development Agenda.” It came up with 13 Goals, 50 Targets and 199 Indicators. (See “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.) There is considerable overlap and some differences between these two agenda.
The authors argue that it is not so important at this stage to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators or between the national and the global agenda. It is more important to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh. This paper focuses
thSDG4/Education 2030 and 7 Five-Year Plan of Bangladesh:Aligning National and Global Objectives
Strategies and Indicators
Manzoor Ahmed**
Md. Mostafizur Rahaman
*
* Professor Emeritus, BRAC University** Programme Manager, Policy Advocacy and Mass Communication, CAMPE
Note: A version of this paper was presented and discussed in a seminar on 20 May, 2016 organized by Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED) and Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) at the Institute of Education and Research, University of Dhaka
10 Bangladesh Education Journal
specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan Education objectives.
Key words: SDG4, Education 2030, 7th Five Year Plan of Bangladesh, Civil society SDG Agenda, Education targets and priorities.
1. BackgroundIn September 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 with a pledge to “transform our world”was adopted by world leaders at the United Nations. Earlier in May 2015, the World Education Forum 2015 in Incheon, Korea, set the ambitious Education 2030 agenda, replacing EFA 2015, to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN 2015). The Education 2030 agenda is reflected in SDG for education (SDG4), one of the 17 SDGs.
Bangladesh prepared its own post-2015 Development Agenda and contributed to the international discourse through UN. With the lead of the General Economics Division (GED) of the Planning Commission, based on a consultative process initiated in 2013, goals and targets were developed in the context of Bangladesh. Through this process, 11 goals along with 58 targets with corresponding 241 measurable indicators were proposed. (See “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.)
The GED-led process organized consultation with government agencies, research and academic institutions and civil society. Civil society in Bangladesh, especially the development NGOs held their own dialogue about progressin MDG and the post-MDG agenda beyond 2015. With the coordination of Dr. Q. K. Ahmed, the exercise, produced what is described as “a people-centred, equitable, inclusive, and sustainable Post-2015 Development Agenda” as a contribution to the international discourse and to the national formulation of an appropriate framework along with goals and associated targets and indicators. The civil society came up with 13 Goals, 50 Targets and 199 Indicators. (See “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.)
There was a large degree of overlap between the official and the civil society agenda as well as some differences. The civil society concern was that in some ways MDGs were restrictive and became more so in implementation, which should be avoided in formulating the psot-2015 agenda and implementation strategy. For example, in respect of education, MDG (and EFA goals) narrowed the educational canvas severely by focusing on universal primary education and gender parity at least in terms of targets and indicators. Other areas, such as early childhood education and development, skills and learning for youth and adults and quality of education did not find a place in MDG. Tertiary education was kept outside the scope of MDG and EFA. Even though a broader range of objectives was mentioned in EFA,
Bangladesh Education Journal 11
not having necessary elaboration of targets and strategies signaled a lower priority to these objectives. Moreover, even the minimal goals in MDG were not fully achieved. Civil society concern was that the lessons of this experience be fully taken into account in the post-2015 agenda.
As shown in the Annex, there is substantial commonality between the official and civil society (PFM) proposed targets and indicators for education. Both, for example, emphasize implementation of compulsory education up to grade 8. Livelihood and life-skills are given priority in both. Quality inputs with adequate facilities and sufficient trained teachers are given priority.
Both have various non-education targets which are relevant and important for creating the conditions for learners and population groups to participate in education effectively and benefit from education. For instance, the target of elimination of child labour is intricately linked with responsive education opportunities for children. Fighting violence against women in all its forms is given priority by both. Natural disasters, to take another example, predictably affect some population and some areas every year and preparedness plan must include provisions for keeping education services going. Coping with natural disasters must also be part of the curriculum and educational experience of students.
There are also differences both in specific targets and emphases between the two agenda statements. A few may be highlighted here.
PFM has two out of 13 proposed goals for education highlighting basic education at an early age, for children and youth and skills and capacity development through lifelong learning. This reflects PFM’s priority to human capability, agency and dignity as a central element in sustainable human development. GED’s single education goal focuses on formal education and expanding access and completion of the formal education stages.
The GED agenda emphasize mainstreaming the current TVET programme which serves under 2 percent of the secondary school age-group. PFM puts stress on skills and capability of workers to be developed in diverse ways. It mentions ‘skills for all” through expanding opportunities and participation in lifelong learning.
GED takes a conventional view of literacy with an “elimination” target date of 2020. This ignores past negative experience and the global lessons regarding meaningful and functional literacy as part of continuing learning opportunities. PFM proposes literacy as a component of planned and well-supported lifelong learning activities in every community.
Looking at the non-education goals and their potential links to achieving the education goals, some differences can be noted. PFM gives prominence to equity urging identification of the disadvantaged and taking pro-active measures to reach and serve them. Early detection of disabilities and special needs of children and necessary responses are mentioned by PFM.
Gender goals are seen more broadly by PFM with attention to participation in politics, economic activities and various social and civic roles.
10 Bangladesh Education Journal
specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan Education objectives.
Key words: SDG4, Education 2030, 7th Five Year Plan of Bangladesh, Civil society SDG Agenda, Education targets and priorities.
1. BackgroundIn September 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 with a pledge to “transform our world”was adopted by world leaders at the United Nations. Earlier in May 2015, the World Education Forum 2015 in Incheon, Korea, set the ambitious Education 2030 agenda, replacing EFA 2015, to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN 2015). The Education 2030 agenda is reflected in SDG for education (SDG4), one of the 17 SDGs.
Bangladesh prepared its own post-2015 Development Agenda and contributed to the international discourse through UN. With the lead of the General Economics Division (GED) of the Planning Commission, based on a consultative process initiated in 2013, goals and targets were developed in the context of Bangladesh. Through this process, 11 goals along with 58 targets with corresponding 241 measurable indicators were proposed. (See “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.)
The GED-led process organized consultation with government agencies, research and academic institutions and civil society. Civil society in Bangladesh, especially the development NGOs held their own dialogue about progressin MDG and the post-MDG agenda beyond 2015. With the coordination of Dr. Q. K. Ahmed, the exercise, produced what is described as “a people-centred, equitable, inclusive, and sustainable Post-2015 Development Agenda” as a contribution to the international discourse and to the national formulation of an appropriate framework along with goals and associated targets and indicators. The civil society came up with 13 Goals, 50 Targets and 199 Indicators. (See “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.)
There was a large degree of overlap between the official and the civil society agenda as well as some differences. The civil society concern was that in some ways MDGs were restrictive and became more so in implementation, which should be avoided in formulating the psot-2015 agenda and implementation strategy. For example, in respect of education, MDG (and EFA goals) narrowed the educational canvas severely by focusing on universal primary education and gender parity at least in terms of targets and indicators. Other areas, such as early childhood education and development, skills and learning for youth and adults and quality of education did not find a place in MDG. Tertiary education was kept outside the scope of MDG and EFA. Even though a broader range of objectives was mentioned in EFA,
Bangladesh Education Journal 11
not having necessary elaboration of targets and strategies signaled a lower priority to these objectives. Moreover, even the minimal goals in MDG were not fully achieved. Civil society concern was that the lessons of this experience be fully taken into account in the post-2015 agenda.
As shown in the Annex, there is substantial commonality between the official and civil society (PFM) proposed targets and indicators for education. Both, for example, emphasize implementation of compulsory education up to grade 8. Livelihood and life-skills are given priority in both. Quality inputs with adequate facilities and sufficient trained teachers are given priority.
Both have various non-education targets which are relevant and important for creating the conditions for learners and population groups to participate in education effectively and benefit from education. For instance, the target of elimination of child labour is intricately linked with responsive education opportunities for children. Fighting violence against women in all its forms is given priority by both. Natural disasters, to take another example, predictably affect some population and some areas every year and preparedness plan must include provisions for keeping education services going. Coping with natural disasters must also be part of the curriculum and educational experience of students.
There are also differences both in specific targets and emphases between the two agenda statements. A few may be highlighted here.
PFM has two out of 13 proposed goals for education highlighting basic education at an early age, for children and youth and skills and capacity development through lifelong learning. This reflects PFM’s priority to human capability, agency and dignity as a central element in sustainable human development. GED’s single education goal focuses on formal education and expanding access and completion of the formal education stages.
The GED agenda emphasize mainstreaming the current TVET programme which serves under 2 percent of the secondary school age-group. PFM puts stress on skills and capability of workers to be developed in diverse ways. It mentions ‘skills for all” through expanding opportunities and participation in lifelong learning.
GED takes a conventional view of literacy with an “elimination” target date of 2020. This ignores past negative experience and the global lessons regarding meaningful and functional literacy as part of continuing learning opportunities. PFM proposes literacy as a component of planned and well-supported lifelong learning activities in every community.
Looking at the non-education goals and their potential links to achieving the education goals, some differences can be noted. PFM gives prominence to equity urging identification of the disadvantaged and taking pro-active measures to reach and serve them. Early detection of disabilities and special needs of children and necessary responses are mentioned by PFM.
Gender goals are seen more broadly by PFM with attention to participation in politics, economic activities and various social and civic roles.
Transparent, accountable and participatory governance is emphasized in PFM. More resources for education, specifically, setting a target for 6% of GDP for education and 4% for health is proposed in line with the overarching goal of placing human development at the centre of the vision for the “world we want.”
The authors argue that it is not so important at this stage to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators. It is more important to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh. This paper focuses specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan (SFYP) Education objectives.
2. SDG and SFYPSDG titled “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” has been now formally adoptedat United Nations in September 2015, including the overarching education goal SDG 4 (“Ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”).
At the same time, the Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen”produced by the Planning Commission is the blueprint for the early critical phase of SDG implementation. So it is necessary to look critically at the alignment between SDG and 7FYP, and adaptation and elaboration of SDG for Bangladesh. This is essential to develop the framework for implementation of both SDG and SFYP in a mutually complementary way.
SDG4 urged ensuring quality education for all. The Goal is comprised of 10 targets including three means of implementation. An exercise was undertaken to look at the degree of alignment between 7FYP and SDG targets. Apart from the 7FYP, two major sectoral policies, National Education Policy 2010 and the National Skill Development Policy 2011, were consulted for this exercise. As shown below (Table 1), each of the SDG4 targets has quantitative and subjective elements. Similarly, the 7FYPtargets also have quantitative and qualitative aspects. A judgment about commonality or overlap between the two can be only tentative and indicative, subject to further elaboration and clarification, as noted in the comments column.
12 Bangladesh Education Journal
SDG Targets
4.1 By 2030, ensure that all
girls and boys complete free,
equitable and quality primary
and secondary education
leading to relevant and
effective learning outcomes
Table 1: Target alignment: SDGs vs. SFYP
SFYP targets
By 2020, achieving 100
percent net enrollment rate for
primary and secondary
education.
Percentage of cohort reaching
grade 5 to be increased to 100
from current 80 percent
Comments
Learning outcome and quality
missing. Official and civil
society SDG target is grade 8.
Global goal encourages
universal full secondary
education by 2030.
Bangladesh Education Journal 13
SDG Targets
4.2 By 2030, ensure that all
girls and boys have access to
quality early childhood
development, care and pre-
primary education so that they
are ready for primary
education
4.3 By 2030, ensure equal
access for all women and men
to affordable and quality
technical, vocational and
tertiary education, including
university
4.4 By 2030, substantially
increase the number of youth
and adults who have relevant
skills, including technical and
vocational skills, for
employment, decent jobs and
entrepreneurship
4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender
disparities in education and
ensure equal access to all
levels of education and
vocational training for the
vulnerable, including persons
with disabilities, indigenous
peoples and children in
vulnerable situations
4.6 By 2030, ensure that all
youth and a substantial
proportion of adults, both men
and women, achieve literacy
and numeracy
4.7 By 2030, ensure that all
learners acquire the knowledge
and skills needed to promote
sustainable development,
SFYP targets
One-year pre-primary education
for all children entering
primary; no specific target for
early childhood development
except a framework and policy
for ECD (Ministry of Women
and Children Affairs as the
focal Ministry)
By 2020, increase female
enrolment in technical and
vocational education to 40 per
cent
Strengthening education and
training programmes to
motivate the youth to
complete education and to
enable the working youth and
the older workforce to acquire
required skills.
By 2020, the ratio of literate
female to male for age group
20-24 to be raised to 100
percent from the current 86
percent.
Female to male ratio in
tertiary education to be raised
from current 70 percent to 100
percent
By 2020, increase literacy rate
to 100 per cent.
MoPMENFEplan mentions
network of community
learning centers
This is a catch-all target in the
global agenda without
specifying of quality and
quantity dimensions.
Comments
A lower target than official
and civil society SDG – which
proposed universal preprimary
for 2yrs.
Does not address quality and
relevance issues of skills
programme. (Within present
structure, target may not be
realized and may not serve the
goal).
Targets arevague – not
quantified. Diverse skills
opportunities, market
responsive, private-public
partnership approach needed,
ensuring quality and relevance
rather than expanding existing
types of institutions.
Literacy definition in a narrow
sense is problematic; the 2020
target of full female literacy
repeats past ‘illiteracy
eradication” targets, repeatedly
missed and not very
meaningful. PFM proposed
functional literacy and lifelong
learning opportunity.
Functional literacy approach
through CLC’s collaborating
with NGOs with known
capacity and track record need
to be promoted , with local
government and community
ownership
Both PFM and GED agenda
adopted various targets for
sustainable development
promotion and action which
Transparent, accountable and participatory governance is emphasized in PFM. More resources for education, specifically, setting a target for 6% of GDP for education and 4% for health is proposed in line with the overarching goal of placing human development at the centre of the vision for the “world we want.”
The authors argue that it is not so important at this stage to dwell on the specific differences between the official and civil society formulation of post-2015 goals, objectives, targets and indicators. It is more important to look ahead in order to come to a consensus on the agenda for sustainable development that serve the aspirations for development and change for the people of Bangladesh. This paper focuses specifically on the education agenda of SDG 4 and Education 2030 as well as the Seventh Five-Year Plan (SFYP) Education objectives.
2. SDG and SFYPSDG titled “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” has been now formally adoptedat United Nations in September 2015, including the overarching education goal SDG 4 (“Ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”).
At the same time, the Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen”produced by the Planning Commission is the blueprint for the early critical phase of SDG implementation. So it is necessary to look critically at the alignment between SDG and 7FYP, and adaptation and elaboration of SDG for Bangladesh. This is essential to develop the framework for implementation of both SDG and SFYP in a mutually complementary way.
SDG4 urged ensuring quality education for all. The Goal is comprised of 10 targets including three means of implementation. An exercise was undertaken to look at the degree of alignment between 7FYP and SDG targets. Apart from the 7FYP, two major sectoral policies, National Education Policy 2010 and the National Skill Development Policy 2011, were consulted for this exercise. As shown below (Table 1), each of the SDG4 targets has quantitative and subjective elements. Similarly, the 7FYPtargets also have quantitative and qualitative aspects. A judgment about commonality or overlap between the two can be only tentative and indicative, subject to further elaboration and clarification, as noted in the comments column.
12 Bangladesh Education Journal
SDG Targets
4.1 By 2030, ensure that all
girls and boys complete free,
equitable and quality primary
and secondary education
leading to relevant and
effective learning outcomes
Table 1: Target alignment: SDGs vs. SFYP
SFYP targets
By 2020, achieving 100
percent net enrollment rate for
primary and secondary
education.
Percentage of cohort reaching
grade 5 to be increased to 100
from current 80 percent
Comments
Learning outcome and quality
missing. Official and civil
society SDG target is grade 8.
Global goal encourages
universal full secondary
education by 2030.
Bangladesh Education Journal 13
SDG Targets
4.2 By 2030, ensure that all
girls and boys have access to
quality early childhood
development, care and pre-
primary education so that they
are ready for primary
education
4.3 By 2030, ensure equal
access for all women and men
to affordable and quality
technical, vocational and
tertiary education, including
university
4.4 By 2030, substantially
increase the number of youth
and adults who have relevant
skills, including technical and
vocational skills, for
employment, decent jobs and
entrepreneurship
4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender
disparities in education and
ensure equal access to all
levels of education and
vocational training for the
vulnerable, including persons
with disabilities, indigenous
peoples and children in
vulnerable situations
4.6 By 2030, ensure that all
youth and a substantial
proportion of adults, both men
and women, achieve literacy
and numeracy
4.7 By 2030, ensure that all
learners acquire the knowledge
and skills needed to promote
sustainable development,
SFYP targets
One-year pre-primary education
for all children entering
primary; no specific target for
early childhood development
except a framework and policy
for ECD (Ministry of Women
and Children Affairs as the
focal Ministry)
By 2020, increase female
enrolment in technical and
vocational education to 40 per
cent
Strengthening education and
training programmes to
motivate the youth to
complete education and to
enable the working youth and
the older workforce to acquire
required skills.
By 2020, the ratio of literate
female to male for age group
20-24 to be raised to 100
percent from the current 86
percent.
Female to male ratio in
tertiary education to be raised
from current 70 percent to 100
percent
By 2020, increase literacy rate
to 100 per cent.
MoPMENFEplan mentions
network of community
learning centers
This is a catch-all target in the
global agenda without
specifying of quality and
quantity dimensions.
Comments
A lower target than official
and civil society SDG – which
proposed universal preprimary
for 2yrs.
Does not address quality and
relevance issues of skills
programme. (Within present
structure, target may not be
realized and may not serve the
goal).
Targets arevague – not
quantified. Diverse skills
opportunities, market
responsive, private-public
partnership approach needed,
ensuring quality and relevance
rather than expanding existing
types of institutions.
Literacy definition in a narrow
sense is problematic; the 2020
target of full female literacy
repeats past ‘illiteracy
eradication” targets, repeatedly
missed and not very
meaningful. PFM proposed
functional literacy and lifelong
learning opportunity.
Functional literacy approach
through CLC’s collaborating
with NGOs with known
capacity and track record need
to be promoted , with local
government and community
ownership
Both PFM and GED agenda
adopted various targets for
sustainable development
promotion and action which
14 Bangladesh Education Journal
SDG Targets
including, among others,
through education for
sustainable development and
sustainable lifestyles, human
rights, gender equality,
promotion of a culture of
peace and non-violence, global
citizenship and appreciation of
cultural diversity and of
culture’s contribution to
sustainable development
4.a Build and upgrade
education facilities that are
child, disability and gender
sensitive and provide safe,
non-violent, inclusive and
effective learning
environments for all
4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing states and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
SFYP targets
Similarly, in SFYP, no specific
target – but some are implicit
in other targets.
All children will have access
to an appropriate, relevant,
affordable and effective
education regardless of
gender, age, physical or
financial ability, ethnicity,
being autistic & disabled, with
impairment or HIV status;
All primary schools to have at
least one and all secondary
schools to have at least three
multimedia classrooms; 30 per
cent of primary schools and
100 per cent of all secondary
schools to have an ICT
laboratory
No specific target set. There
are opportunities and need for
specialized professional
development in the education
sector in collaboration with
overseas institutions provided
that this is undertaken as part
of a human resource
development plan and policy
in the education sector.
Comments
implies education, awareness
raising and behavior change of
population; educational
implications should be made
explicit and included in targets
and indicators. Similarly,
responsible citizenship,
tolerance and respect for
diversity can be explicit
educational target.
Specific targets can be set for
facilities and infrastructure
development to meet quality
standards including acceptable
class-size, single shift full-day
school, playgrounds, safe
premises and boundary walls
of schools etc.
There are professional
development needs in
specialized technical areas
such as curriculum
development, ICT-mediated
learning, assessment of
learning, educational
measurement and evaluation,
educational management,
language and science teaching.
There should be plan for
international collaboration for
specialized
professional/technical capacity
development.
SDG Targets
4.c By 2030, substantially
increase the supply of
qualified teachers, including
through international
cooperation for teacher
training in developing
countries, especially least
developed countries and small
island developing States
SFYP targets
Expand in-service training to
teachers;
Establish 12 Primary Teacher
Training Institutes
Comments
Bangladesh does not have a system of pre-service professional preparation for teaching though teaching is the single largest occupation for absorbing tertiary education graduates. Teaching is the last choice as an occupation for talented college/university graduates. New thinking is needed, more than just more in-service teacher training. Four connected steps may be - education as part of undergraduate general degree, attracting best students to this programme in some 100 degree colleges with incentives, ensuring academic standard for this course, initiating a National Teaching Service Corps with high salary and status.
Bangladesh Education Journal 15
Source: Adapted from CPD, Education Budget Trends in Bangladesh (draft).
Recognising the importance of qualitative aspects of the targets and their adaptation to specific national contexts, an international Technical Advisory Group (TAG) has been at work in developing indicators for SDG4. Four levels of indicators are proposed:
a) Global - a small set of globally comparable indicators for all SDGs, including SDG 4. These are under development through a consultative process led by the United Nations Statistical Commission to monitor progress towards the associated targets;
b) Thematic: a broader set of globally comparable indicators proposed by the education community to track the education targets more comprehensively across countries; they will include the global indicators; 43 such indicators for all SDGs have been formulated and broad agreement has been reached.
c) Regional: Additional indicators may be developed to take account of a specific regional context and relevant policy priorities.
d) National: Indicators selected or developed by countries to take account of their national context and which will correspond to their education systems, plans and policy agendas.
The thematic indicators may be the take-off point for preparation of national indicators The thematic as well as the national indicators are expected to be based on five criteria: relevance
14 Bangladesh Education Journal
SDG Targets
including, among others,
through education for
sustainable development and
sustainable lifestyles, human
rights, gender equality,
promotion of a culture of
peace and non-violence, global
citizenship and appreciation of
cultural diversity and of
culture’s contribution to
sustainable development
4.a Build and upgrade
education facilities that are
child, disability and gender
sensitive and provide safe,
non-violent, inclusive and
effective learning
environments for all
4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing states and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
SFYP targets
Similarly, in SFYP, no specific
target – but some are implicit
in other targets.
All children will have access
to an appropriate, relevant,
affordable and effective
education regardless of
gender, age, physical or
financial ability, ethnicity,
being autistic & disabled, with
impairment or HIV status;
All primary schools to have at
least one and all secondary
schools to have at least three
multimedia classrooms; 30 per
cent of primary schools and
100 per cent of all secondary
schools to have an ICT
laboratory
No specific target set. There
are opportunities and need for
specialized professional
development in the education
sector in collaboration with
overseas institutions provided
that this is undertaken as part
of a human resource
development plan and policy
in the education sector.
Comments
implies education, awareness
raising and behavior change of
population; educational
implications should be made
explicit and included in targets
and indicators. Similarly,
responsible citizenship,
tolerance and respect for
diversity can be explicit
educational target.
Specific targets can be set for
facilities and infrastructure
development to meet quality
standards including acceptable
class-size, single shift full-day
school, playgrounds, safe
premises and boundary walls
of schools etc.
There are professional
development needs in
specialized technical areas
such as curriculum
development, ICT-mediated
learning, assessment of
learning, educational
measurement and evaluation,
educational management,
language and science teaching.
There should be plan for
international collaboration for
specialized
professional/technical capacity
development.
SDG Targets
4.c By 2030, substantially
increase the supply of
qualified teachers, including
through international
cooperation for teacher
training in developing
countries, especially least
developed countries and small
island developing States
SFYP targets
Expand in-service training to
teachers;
Establish 12 Primary Teacher
Training Institutes
Comments
Bangladesh does not have a system of pre-service professional preparation for teaching though teaching is the single largest occupation for absorbing tertiary education graduates. Teaching is the last choice as an occupation for talented college/university graduates. New thinking is needed, more than just more in-service teacher training. Four connected steps may be - education as part of undergraduate general degree, attracting best students to this programme in some 100 degree colleges with incentives, ensuring academic standard for this course, initiating a National Teaching Service Corps with high salary and status.
Bangladesh Education Journal 15
Source: Adapted from CPD, Education Budget Trends in Bangladesh (draft).
Recognising the importance of qualitative aspects of the targets and their adaptation to specific national contexts, an international Technical Advisory Group (TAG) has been at work in developing indicators for SDG4. Four levels of indicators are proposed:
a) Global - a small set of globally comparable indicators for all SDGs, including SDG 4. These are under development through a consultative process led by the United Nations Statistical Commission to monitor progress towards the associated targets;
b) Thematic: a broader set of globally comparable indicators proposed by the education community to track the education targets more comprehensively across countries; they will include the global indicators; 43 such indicators for all SDGs have been formulated and broad agreement has been reached.
c) Regional: Additional indicators may be developed to take account of a specific regional context and relevant policy priorities.
d) National: Indicators selected or developed by countries to take account of their national context and which will correspond to their education systems, plans and policy agendas.
The thematic indicators may be the take-off point for preparation of national indicators The thematic as well as the national indicators are expected to be based on five criteria: relevance
16 Bangladesh Education Journal
to the population to be served, alignment with the concepts in the target, feasibility for regular annual or periodic data collection, ease of communication to stakeholders, and interpretability for policy and action. (UNESCO, 2015,Education 2030 Framework for Action)
The importance of national adaptation and formulation of targets and indicators are illustrated by the fact that there are several other targets that were mentioned in the SFYP and the National Education Policy 2010 which do not directly correspond to the SDG4 targets. (Table 2). These targets relate to certain national priorities for Bangladesh.
Table2: Additional Selected SFYP targets mentioned in subsector description of strategies
All primary schools to have at least one and all secondary schools to have at least three multimedia classrooms; 30 per cent of primary schools and 100 per cent of all secondary schools to have an ICT laboratory
Provide leadership training to head teachers
Ensure decentralization of primary education management
Establish a career path for teachers
Establish at least one primary school in the villages that have none
The ratio of teacher and students in primary education will be 1:30 by 2018
Continue competency-based national assessment for G5 (nomention of G8), but at the same time continue public examinations and increase pass rate in public examinations
SFYP mentions participation in Program for International Student Assessment (PISA); not mentioned by MOE
Provide non-formal education to diverse types of children deprived of education, like un-enrolled or dropout children and hardtoreach children to enhance their employability and productivity through skill training; nationwide network of community learning centers, starting with at least 5000 centers, one in each union/ward.
“Basic literacy” for 32.5 million youth and adults by 2018
Stipends for 100% of students at primary and secondary level and for selected girls in tertiary education
Increase higher education participation rate from 12 per cent to 20 per cent
Strengthen role and authority of UGC for quality assurance in tertiary education (recasting it as National Higher Education Council as recommended in NEP?)
Source: Based on education subsector texts in SFYP, chapter 11.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, especially the PFM formulation, has put increased emphasis on the recognition of the relevance of a lifelong learning perspective in linking skills to productivity. A prominent part of this perspective is the reality of the spectrum of skills including cognitive, non-cognitive and technical skills acquired through quality primary and secondary education as well as vocational-technical education and various forms of on-the-job learning including apprenticeship. This will help the future
Bangladesh Education Journal 17
generation to be more skilled and better equipped for the job market and contribute to the economic growth of Bangladesh.
It is noteworthy that SFYP or its sectoral chapter for education does not mention resource constraints and a declining trend in resource allocation as a share of GDP and the national budget as a major obstacle to achieving SDG4 and indeed the SFYP targets. In fact, rather surprisingly, projection under the medium Term Budget Framework projects a continuation of the proportionate decline for public education resources in the future.
The vital area of governance and management of education receives cursory attention with repetition of platitudes about decentralisation and greater authority and responsibility at school and local level. Specific strategies, objectives and targets in this respect are not indicated. The anomaly of two Ministries of education running school education creating serious coordination, continuity, and articulation problems in respect of curriculum, teachers, maintaining quality and standards and expanding services in a rationalized way finds no mention. The slow progress in implementing the National Education Policy 2010 and the need for a permanent Education Commission (recommended in the Policy) with appropriate role and authority to guide and monitor education reform is not noted as an issue.
The brief review of achievements and challenges in education raise the critical point that effective action has to be taken to translate the targets, strategies and indicators into results in terms of learning, skills and capabilities of people. Adequacy of resources and budgets is a necessary condition for realizing this aim. However, how the resources are used will make the real difference. Adequacy has to be examined along with efficiency and effectiveness of resource use, as well as the consequences for equity in educational opportunities which is a social priority.
3. What targets meanThe tabular comparison above may not have done full justice to the objectives and targets of different sub-sectors of education. In fact, as indicated above, various education subsector needs, current development initiatives, strategies, priorities, objectives and targets in the medium term are described in SFYP– not altogether in a consistent form. Moreover, what these mean in respect of what actually is going to be done over the next five to ten-years , availability of necessary resources, priorities among various needs or objectives, and implementation and monitoring mechanisms are not clear.
It appears that various development projects with some external inputs, though the external share is only a small fraction of total expenditure, drives the development activities – cases in point are PEDP3 and projects of the Ministry of Education for secondary education and TVET. These appear to reflect only partially the priorities, and strategies of the Five Year Plan. How SDG4, SFYP and the sectoral activities in education will be aligned and constitute a coherent development programme in the next five years and beyond is not clear.
It may be recalled that priorities emphasised in the strategic directions for the Sixth Plan included: extending compulsory primary education to grade 8, eliminating adult illiteracy,
16 Bangladesh Education Journal
to the population to be served, alignment with the concepts in the target, feasibility for regular annual or periodic data collection, ease of communication to stakeholders, and interpretability for policy and action. (UNESCO, 2015,Education 2030 Framework for Action)
The importance of national adaptation and formulation of targets and indicators are illustrated by the fact that there are several other targets that were mentioned in the SFYP and the National Education Policy 2010 which do not directly correspond to the SDG4 targets. (Table 2). These targets relate to certain national priorities for Bangladesh.
Table2: Additional Selected SFYP targets mentioned in subsector description of strategies
All primary schools to have at least one and all secondary schools to have at least three multimedia classrooms; 30 per cent of primary schools and 100 per cent of all secondary schools to have an ICT laboratory
Provide leadership training to head teachers
Ensure decentralization of primary education management
Establish a career path for teachers
Establish at least one primary school in the villages that have none
The ratio of teacher and students in primary education will be 1:30 by 2018
Continue competency-based national assessment for G5 (nomention of G8), but at the same time continue public examinations and increase pass rate in public examinations
SFYP mentions participation in Program for International Student Assessment (PISA); not mentioned by MOE
Provide non-formal education to diverse types of children deprived of education, like un-enrolled or dropout children and hardtoreach children to enhance their employability and productivity through skill training; nationwide network of community learning centers, starting with at least 5000 centers, one in each union/ward.
“Basic literacy” for 32.5 million youth and adults by 2018
Stipends for 100% of students at primary and secondary level and for selected girls in tertiary education
Increase higher education participation rate from 12 per cent to 20 per cent
Strengthen role and authority of UGC for quality assurance in tertiary education (recasting it as National Higher Education Council as recommended in NEP?)
Source: Based on education subsector texts in SFYP, chapter 11.
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, especially the PFM formulation, has put increased emphasis on the recognition of the relevance of a lifelong learning perspective in linking skills to productivity. A prominent part of this perspective is the reality of the spectrum of skills including cognitive, non-cognitive and technical skills acquired through quality primary and secondary education as well as vocational-technical education and various forms of on-the-job learning including apprenticeship. This will help the future
Bangladesh Education Journal 17
generation to be more skilled and better equipped for the job market and contribute to the economic growth of Bangladesh.
It is noteworthy that SFYP or its sectoral chapter for education does not mention resource constraints and a declining trend in resource allocation as a share of GDP and the national budget as a major obstacle to achieving SDG4 and indeed the SFYP targets. In fact, rather surprisingly, projection under the medium Term Budget Framework projects a continuation of the proportionate decline for public education resources in the future.
The vital area of governance and management of education receives cursory attention with repetition of platitudes about decentralisation and greater authority and responsibility at school and local level. Specific strategies, objectives and targets in this respect are not indicated. The anomaly of two Ministries of education running school education creating serious coordination, continuity, and articulation problems in respect of curriculum, teachers, maintaining quality and standards and expanding services in a rationalized way finds no mention. The slow progress in implementing the National Education Policy 2010 and the need for a permanent Education Commission (recommended in the Policy) with appropriate role and authority to guide and monitor education reform is not noted as an issue.
The brief review of achievements and challenges in education raise the critical point that effective action has to be taken to translate the targets, strategies and indicators into results in terms of learning, skills and capabilities of people. Adequacy of resources and budgets is a necessary condition for realizing this aim. However, how the resources are used will make the real difference. Adequacy has to be examined along with efficiency and effectiveness of resource use, as well as the consequences for equity in educational opportunities which is a social priority.
3. What targets meanThe tabular comparison above may not have done full justice to the objectives and targets of different sub-sectors of education. In fact, as indicated above, various education subsector needs, current development initiatives, strategies, priorities, objectives and targets in the medium term are described in SFYP– not altogether in a consistent form. Moreover, what these mean in respect of what actually is going to be done over the next five to ten-years , availability of necessary resources, priorities among various needs or objectives, and implementation and monitoring mechanisms are not clear.
It appears that various development projects with some external inputs, though the external share is only a small fraction of total expenditure, drives the development activities – cases in point are PEDP3 and projects of the Ministry of Education for secondary education and TVET. These appear to reflect only partially the priorities, and strategies of the Five Year Plan. How SDG4, SFYP and the sectoral activities in education will be aligned and constitute a coherent development programme in the next five years and beyond is not clear.
It may be recalled that priorities emphasised in the strategic directions for the Sixth Plan included: extending compulsory primary education to grade 8, eliminating adult illiteracy,
18 Bangladesh Education Journal
removing education gap between the rich and the poor, creating a new generation equipped with skills and scientific knowledge, and overall improvement in quality of education. (Sixth Five Year Plan Part 1, p. 117) Little progress during the plan period has been made in respect of the first two clearly specified priorities on compulsory education up to grade 8 and elimination of illiteracy. The other priorities of general nature, with no specific targets, were also not areas of stellar success.
Another strategic priority was to empower local government “as the engine of delivering services and carrying out development activities” (ibid.). No qualitative change in development budgets and activities reflecting this strategy can be noted in the development budgets and activities during the Sixth Plan period.
4. What is MissingThe new Plan can indeed be an opportunity to articulate goals and objectives for education and skills development in the light of Education Policy, National Skills Development Policy, aspirations for a middle income country and the global SDG 2030 and Education 2030 agenda.
The Plan needs to identify structural and operational constraints for education and skills development and indicate what should be done to overcome these obstacles. The structural weaknesses will require a sustained and longer term effort, yet must be pursued with a sense of urgency. More immediate steps need to be taken on operational issues, but still designed within a framework of structural reforms.
Major structural issues which, on the basis of recent studies and policy advocacy of education researchers and stakeholders, have come to the fore, include:
• Very low level of public resources for education by international comparison, lack of criteria and benchmarks for resource allocation (and proportional reduction of education allocations as share of GDP and total government budget) in recent years;
• Extremely centralised governance and management structures for the large educational system of the country;
• Insufficient numbers of teachers of required quality standards and inability of system to attract and retain capable people in the teaching profession;
• Supply-driven skills development with low quality and relevance, and minimal attention to apprenticeship and needs of the informal economy (though it accounts for over 80% of employment);
• Unacceptably low quality of degree colleges (with three quarters of tertiary enrolment in these colleges, which also are the suppliers of primary and secondary teachers -- creating a vicious cycle in quality of education);
• School education divided under two ministries (unlike anywhere else in the world), creating problems of curriculum continuity, student assessment and teacher preparation and supervision.
Bangladesh Education Journal 19
Major operational issues includethe following.
• Dysfunctional learning assessment with too many public examinations which do not measure competency and distort teaching-learning;
• Serious problems of discipline, even criminal involvement, of political party-affiliated student bodies in tertiary education vitiating academic atmosphere;
• Curriculum burden and weak continuity and articulation through grades;
• Geographical, ethnic, and language-based access deficits; severely inadequate opportunities for children with disabilities;
• Proliferation of private universities without essential quality control; and
• Slow and fragmented approach to Education Policy 2010 implementation.
If the government recognises the need to prioritise and guide educational development to serve national development aspirations, the planning function has to be strengthened in appropriate ways. A panel of education experts with insight and interest in the interface of education and national development should be brought into the process of crafting and elaborating the Plan. The Plan has to be used as the basis for budgets in the two education ministries(Ahmed. 2015).
The Seventh Plan comes at a critical juncture for shaping development priorities and strategies to let the country move into the rank of middle-income countries and adapt national goals to SDG2030 and EFA2030 agenda for Bangladesh. Education and skills part of the Plan has a key role in this effort.
5. Ensuring SDG/7FYP Implementation
Need for a coordinated national effortGED has identified, in attempting to map Ministries/Divisions role for implementation of SDG Targets, 49 Ministries/Divisions including the Prime Minister’s Office and the Cabinet Division, who would be directly or in supportive role involved in implementation of the SDG targets. Probably, as many as 40 Ministries /Divisions will have to take the lead role for attaining SDG targets. Six constitutional and/or quasi-judicial government bodies, listed below, and the national Parliament also will be involved in SDG implementation.
1. Bangladesh Jatio Shangsad (National Parliament)
2. Anti-Corruption Commission
3. Human Rights Commission
4. Comptroller and Auditor General
5. Election Commission
6. Bangladesh Bank
7. Information Commission.
18 Bangladesh Education Journal
removing education gap between the rich and the poor, creating a new generation equipped with skills and scientific knowledge, and overall improvement in quality of education. (Sixth Five Year Plan Part 1, p. 117) Little progress during the plan period has been made in respect of the first two clearly specified priorities on compulsory education up to grade 8 and elimination of illiteracy. The other priorities of general nature, with no specific targets, were also not areas of stellar success.
Another strategic priority was to empower local government “as the engine of delivering services and carrying out development activities” (ibid.). No qualitative change in development budgets and activities reflecting this strategy can be noted in the development budgets and activities during the Sixth Plan period.
4. What is MissingThe new Plan can indeed be an opportunity to articulate goals and objectives for education and skills development in the light of Education Policy, National Skills Development Policy, aspirations for a middle income country and the global SDG 2030 and Education 2030 agenda.
The Plan needs to identify structural and operational constraints for education and skills development and indicate what should be done to overcome these obstacles. The structural weaknesses will require a sustained and longer term effort, yet must be pursued with a sense of urgency. More immediate steps need to be taken on operational issues, but still designed within a framework of structural reforms.
Major structural issues which, on the basis of recent studies and policy advocacy of education researchers and stakeholders, have come to the fore, include:
• Very low level of public resources for education by international comparison, lack of criteria and benchmarks for resource allocation (and proportional reduction of education allocations as share of GDP and total government budget) in recent years;
• Extremely centralised governance and management structures for the large educational system of the country;
• Insufficient numbers of teachers of required quality standards and inability of system to attract and retain capable people in the teaching profession;
• Supply-driven skills development with low quality and relevance, and minimal attention to apprenticeship and needs of the informal economy (though it accounts for over 80% of employment);
• Unacceptably low quality of degree colleges (with three quarters of tertiary enrolment in these colleges, which also are the suppliers of primary and secondary teachers -- creating a vicious cycle in quality of education);
• School education divided under two ministries (unlike anywhere else in the world), creating problems of curriculum continuity, student assessment and teacher preparation and supervision.
Bangladesh Education Journal 19
Major operational issues includethe following.
• Dysfunctional learning assessment with too many public examinations which do not measure competency and distort teaching-learning;
• Serious problems of discipline, even criminal involvement, of political party-affiliated student bodies in tertiary education vitiating academic atmosphere;
• Curriculum burden and weak continuity and articulation through grades;
• Geographical, ethnic, and language-based access deficits; severely inadequate opportunities for children with disabilities;
• Proliferation of private universities without essential quality control; and
• Slow and fragmented approach to Education Policy 2010 implementation.
If the government recognises the need to prioritise and guide educational development to serve national development aspirations, the planning function has to be strengthened in appropriate ways. A panel of education experts with insight and interest in the interface of education and national development should be brought into the process of crafting and elaborating the Plan. The Plan has to be used as the basis for budgets in the two education ministries(Ahmed. 2015).
The Seventh Plan comes at a critical juncture for shaping development priorities and strategies to let the country move into the rank of middle-income countries and adapt national goals to SDG2030 and EFA2030 agenda for Bangladesh. Education and skills part of the Plan has a key role in this effort.
5. Ensuring SDG/7FYP Implementation
Need for a coordinated national effortGED has identified, in attempting to map Ministries/Divisions role for implementation of SDG Targets, 49 Ministries/Divisions including the Prime Minister’s Office and the Cabinet Division, who would be directly or in supportive role involved in implementation of the SDG targets. Probably, as many as 40 Ministries /Divisions will have to take the lead role for attaining SDG targets. Six constitutional and/or quasi-judicial government bodies, listed below, and the national Parliament also will be involved in SDG implementation.
1. Bangladesh Jatio Shangsad (National Parliament)
2. Anti-Corruption Commission
3. Human Rights Commission
4. Comptroller and Auditor General
5. Election Commission
6. Bangladesh Bank
7. Information Commission.
20 Bangladesh Education Journal
All the six Divisions of the Planning Commission, including GED will be linked with maintaining an oversight of national SDG implementation. (As explained in a presentation by Shamsul Alam, Member of the Planning Commission to Consultation on Stakeholders’ Engagement on SDG Implementation in Bangladesh, Planning Commission, 30 March 2016.)
Role of CSOs, NGOs, MediaGED has noted “Possible role of the CSOs, NGOs and media on SDG Implementation.” The roles of these bodies mentioned were:
• Effective and coherent role of CSOs, NGOs, and media on SDG awareness and promotion will be sought and to be devised.
• CSOs and NGOs support to Government in strengthening capacity across the board (including private sector and media) for SDG implementation
• Catalytic role of CSOs and NGOs in promoting innovative ideas to generate resources at local level.
• NGOs support should be based on their action plan relating to SDGs targets
• A vibrant multi-stakeholder mechanism to support the Government in SDG implementation, particularly in participatory monitoring and accountability.
• CSO and NGO involvement in monitoring of SDG implementation especially for the governance related targets of SDG 16. (Ibid,)
It may be noted that CSO/NGO role is mostly seen in public awareness raising, capacity development, and generating local resources. They are also seen as supporting the government in monitoring and accountability. They could carry out their own activities based on their own action plan, presumably by raising their own funds for this purpose. The areas of activities mentioned are important and the modality of collaboration in a supportive and supplementary mode is also necessary.
But what about a genuine partnership approach in which CSOs and NGOs in respective areas where they are active and have a track record and the government agencies, especially at the local government level come together to plan, design, strategise, carry out implementation and assess and monitor results? One would think that Bangladesh NGOs which have carved out a record of success in various areas of development and social services such as education, health, poverty alleviation, micro-credit, environmental protection, and human rights, would be seen as partners in fulfilling the national sustainable development agenda.
An M&E FrameworkGED’s roadmap for aligning SDG and 7FYP also anticipates the preparation of an M&E framework for SDG Target implementation including development of national and local indicators and Key Performance Indicators; identification of data gaps and ways of overcoming these;as well as refining assessment of resource needs.(Ibid.)
These essential steps will be fruitful only when a credible and workable plan for implementation of the SFYP/SDG combined, aligned and adapted for the national context is worked out. As the discussion above on the education objectives and targets shows, there is much that remained to be done in this respect, with good faith efforts from both sides.
6. Challenges AheadGED has appropriately alerted all about the challenges ahead for initiating the formulation of a credible and implementable action plan for each sector. Necessary steps indicated are:
1. Placing SDG and SFYP for the sector within a longer term framework of priorities and objectives beyond the Seventh Plan at least up to 2030.
2. Critically reviewing SFYP targets, each Ministry’s own on-going plans and activities and anticipated needs and priorities including external assistance possibilities where appropriate
3. Engaging other Ministries, agencies and stakeholders including NGOs and CSOs who may have a role in implementing the plan
4. Developing participatory monitoring and accountability approach, methods and tools involving key stakeholders.
5. Identifying areas of change and criteria for prioritising and localizing SDG actions.
6. Analysing financial and capacity needs and identifying current and possible new sources of funds and partnerships.
7. Updating sectoral plan with necessary adjustments keeping in view the alignment of SDG-7FYP and sectoral priorities.
This process is expected to be guided by a national Steering Committee headed by the PM. (Ibid.)
The steps indicated for each Ministry/Division as listed above constitute an essential process that has to be undertaken seriously and methodically. How meticulously and diligently this is done with appropriate participation and involvement of stakeholders will determine how credible and workable the subsector strategy and plan are and how these fit into the national SDG plan and strategy.
The complexities of balancing priorities, diverse interests, capacities and resources in order to develop a workable and coherent subsector plan that also contributes to national SDG implementation cannot be underestimated. The issues and challenges have been discussed. The peculiarity of the education sector is that the main work of the sector is divided between two Ministries without a strong rationale for dividing school education between two Ministries (or a rationale that has outlived its usefulness). It would be appropriate to form a high level joint taskforce of the two Ministries and other stakeholders including concerned NGOs, academic and research institutions, civil society and the private sector to examine and formulate the objectives, targets, strategies and indicators for education that would constitute the common SFYP and SDG4 targets and indicators for education.
Bangladesh Education Journal 21
20 Bangladesh Education Journal
All the six Divisions of the Planning Commission, including GED will be linked with maintaining an oversight of national SDG implementation. (As explained in a presentation by Shamsul Alam, Member of the Planning Commission to Consultation on Stakeholders’ Engagement on SDG Implementation in Bangladesh, Planning Commission, 30 March 2016.)
Role of CSOs, NGOs, MediaGED has noted “Possible role of the CSOs, NGOs and media on SDG Implementation.” The roles of these bodies mentioned were:
• Effective and coherent role of CSOs, NGOs, and media on SDG awareness and promotion will be sought and to be devised.
• CSOs and NGOs support to Government in strengthening capacity across the board (including private sector and media) for SDG implementation
• Catalytic role of CSOs and NGOs in promoting innovative ideas to generate resources at local level.
• NGOs support should be based on their action plan relating to SDGs targets
• A vibrant multi-stakeholder mechanism to support the Government in SDG implementation, particularly in participatory monitoring and accountability.
• CSO and NGO involvement in monitoring of SDG implementation especially for the governance related targets of SDG 16. (Ibid,)
It may be noted that CSO/NGO role is mostly seen in public awareness raising, capacity development, and generating local resources. They are also seen as supporting the government in monitoring and accountability. They could carry out their own activities based on their own action plan, presumably by raising their own funds for this purpose. The areas of activities mentioned are important and the modality of collaboration in a supportive and supplementary mode is also necessary.
But what about a genuine partnership approach in which CSOs and NGOs in respective areas where they are active and have a track record and the government agencies, especially at the local government level come together to plan, design, strategise, carry out implementation and assess and monitor results? One would think that Bangladesh NGOs which have carved out a record of success in various areas of development and social services such as education, health, poverty alleviation, micro-credit, environmental protection, and human rights, would be seen as partners in fulfilling the national sustainable development agenda.
An M&E FrameworkGED’s roadmap for aligning SDG and 7FYP also anticipates the preparation of an M&E framework for SDG Target implementation including development of national and local indicators and Key Performance Indicators; identification of data gaps and ways of overcoming these;as well as refining assessment of resource needs.(Ibid.)
These essential steps will be fruitful only when a credible and workable plan for implementation of the SFYP/SDG combined, aligned and adapted for the national context is worked out. As the discussion above on the education objectives and targets shows, there is much that remained to be done in this respect, with good faith efforts from both sides.
6. Challenges AheadGED has appropriately alerted all about the challenges ahead for initiating the formulation of a credible and implementable action plan for each sector. Necessary steps indicated are:
1. Placing SDG and SFYP for the sector within a longer term framework of priorities and objectives beyond the Seventh Plan at least up to 2030.
2. Critically reviewing SFYP targets, each Ministry’s own on-going plans and activities and anticipated needs and priorities including external assistance possibilities where appropriate
3. Engaging other Ministries, agencies and stakeholders including NGOs and CSOs who may have a role in implementing the plan
4. Developing participatory monitoring and accountability approach, methods and tools involving key stakeholders.
5. Identifying areas of change and criteria for prioritising and localizing SDG actions.
6. Analysing financial and capacity needs and identifying current and possible new sources of funds and partnerships.
7. Updating sectoral plan with necessary adjustments keeping in view the alignment of SDG-7FYP and sectoral priorities.
This process is expected to be guided by a national Steering Committee headed by the PM. (Ibid.)
The steps indicated for each Ministry/Division as listed above constitute an essential process that has to be undertaken seriously and methodically. How meticulously and diligently this is done with appropriate participation and involvement of stakeholders will determine how credible and workable the subsector strategy and plan are and how these fit into the national SDG plan and strategy.
The complexities of balancing priorities, diverse interests, capacities and resources in order to develop a workable and coherent subsector plan that also contributes to national SDG implementation cannot be underestimated. The issues and challenges have been discussed. The peculiarity of the education sector is that the main work of the sector is divided between two Ministries without a strong rationale for dividing school education between two Ministries (or a rationale that has outlived its usefulness). It would be appropriate to form a high level joint taskforce of the two Ministries and other stakeholders including concerned NGOs, academic and research institutions, civil society and the private sector to examine and formulate the objectives, targets, strategies and indicators for education that would constitute the common SFYP and SDG4 targets and indicators for education.
Bangladesh Education Journal 21
Considerable groundwork has already been done. The job now would be to refine, elaborate, andensure consistency and alignment with national priorities, especially giving attention to issues which have not been addressed adequately. Based on the discussion above, the issues that the proposed task force would need to give particular attention are recapitulated below (also brought out in CPD-CAMPE paper on Education Budget Trends).
First, the downward trend in public funds for education, as share of GDP and the national budget in recent yearsis inconsistent with the government’s own proclaimed goals. One of the lowest positions globally in this respect is not acceptable and must be reversed. Within a medium term time-table the proportion of GDP for public education budget should be raised to at least 4% and eventually to 6% and/or 20% of national budget.The education budget planning needs to be informed by the ambition of attaining the SDGs and 7FYP targets.
Second, the existing national objectives and targets as regards education included in SFYPneed to be placed in and aligned with the framework of the targets and indicators of SDG4/Education 2030 and overall SDGs. The objectives and policies will need to be backed up by a set of quantifiable annual targets. The exercise to enact a new education law is a good opportunity to improve the legal framework for some of the targets, provided that the law reflects the education priorities.
The draft Act at present has no mention of adequacy and efficiency of resources and budgets for education or criteria and principles for education resource mobilization and allocation. A rights and equity-based education system, for example, requires that public education resources are allocated equitably, applying certain criteria, among upazilas, proportional to student population in each.
The highly centralized structure of education governance with decision-making and management concentrated in the capital city for a student population of some 40 million and 200,000 institutions remain essentially intact under the proposed draft law. Education resource mobilization and budget making and management can be strengthened by Upazila and district based-planning and management of basic and school education. Thiscould be envisaged in the education law inline with the stated Education Policy 2010 objectives and the constitutionally required role of local government bodies in this respect.
Third, new thinking about teachers is needed. By far the largest expenditure item in education is the teaching personnel. Finance and budget measures have to provide for sufficient numbers of teachers and ensure effective teaching-learning. Apart from improving current in-service training of teachers, measures have to be taken to make teaching one of the first career choices for talented young people, rather than the last one. A ten-year plan has to be taken to bring about this transformation – learning from both developed OECD countries and those in East Asia including China.
Three key elements in this plan would be: (a) the creation of a National Teaching Service Corps (NTSC) with high remuneration and prestige, (b) attracting bright young people with stipend and lure of NTSC job into a teacher preparation track to be introduced in the four year
22 Bangladesh Education Journal
general degree program (BA or BSc) with education as a subject, and (c) ensuring high quality of this degree programme by enforcing quality standards in at least 100 government degree colleges in the country.
A nucleus of quality teaching personnel in thousands of primary and secondary schools could be created in ten years by placing 2 or 3 NTSC teachers in each school.
Fourth, non-formal alternatives for out-of-school children have to be effectively funded. Four to five million children of primary school age are still out of school, either because they have never enrolled in school or have dropped out early. Bangladesh NGOs, led by BRAC, pioneered the non-formal second chance primary education programme in the 1980s which has been successfully scaled up. A second chance programme must be a part of the main strategy for universal primary education, but this can work only if a partnership is built with the NGOs which have proven their commitment and capacity. The NFPE option will also be needed for anticipated compulsory grades 6-8.
Fifth, expansion of pre-primary education with acceptable quality has to be supported. A good start has been made in expanding a year of preprimary education now serving more than half of those entering primary school. Expansion of preschools with quality was foreseen to be undertaken through GO-NO collaboration by coordinated planning in each upazila. A GO-NGO collaboration guideline was prepared by the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, but was not implemented for lack of public funding for NGO contribution. Early childhood development for younger children also need to be expanded, for which the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is the focal point. A programme without acceptable quality for young children can do more harm than good.
Sixth, lifelong learning has to be supported with literacy as the first step. The principles and practice of lifelong learning have come to the fore again in the context of SDG2030 and SDG-4 on education. To make lifelong learning a reality and expand functional literacy for youth and adults, a network of community learning centres(CLCs) offering relevant learning activities and supported by essential resources, complementing formal education, must be built up. NGOs have shown their commitment in this area with some 5,000 gonokendros (people’s centers) run by different organisations. Core resources have to be provided by the government and partnership modalities have to be developed among government, NGOs and communities to build a nationwide network of CLCs.
Seventh, ideally, a significant increase in the revenue share of GDP and enhancing revenue-raising capacity of local government bodies should provide for necessary increase in education budgets. Both of these possibilities are up against formidable political constraints and a lack of political will to overcome the constraints. These would be still the longer term direction to be pursued. Meanwhile, two pragmatic measures could be considered -- an education cess (taking the positive and negative lessons from India and other countries into account) and tax incentives for individual and corporate contribution to education. Both of these measures have to be designed carefully with assurance of transparency and efficient
Bangladesh Education Journal 23
Considerable groundwork has already been done. The job now would be to refine, elaborate, andensure consistency and alignment with national priorities, especially giving attention to issues which have not been addressed adequately. Based on the discussion above, the issues that the proposed task force would need to give particular attention are recapitulated below (also brought out in CPD-CAMPE paper on Education Budget Trends).
First, the downward trend in public funds for education, as share of GDP and the national budget in recent yearsis inconsistent with the government’s own proclaimed goals. One of the lowest positions globally in this respect is not acceptable and must be reversed. Within a medium term time-table the proportion of GDP for public education budget should be raised to at least 4% and eventually to 6% and/or 20% of national budget.The education budget planning needs to be informed by the ambition of attaining the SDGs and 7FYP targets.
Second, the existing national objectives and targets as regards education included in SFYPneed to be placed in and aligned with the framework of the targets and indicators of SDG4/Education 2030 and overall SDGs. The objectives and policies will need to be backed up by a set of quantifiable annual targets. The exercise to enact a new education law is a good opportunity to improve the legal framework for some of the targets, provided that the law reflects the education priorities.
The draft Act at present has no mention of adequacy and efficiency of resources and budgets for education or criteria and principles for education resource mobilization and allocation. A rights and equity-based education system, for example, requires that public education resources are allocated equitably, applying certain criteria, among upazilas, proportional to student population in each.
The highly centralized structure of education governance with decision-making and management concentrated in the capital city for a student population of some 40 million and 200,000 institutions remain essentially intact under the proposed draft law. Education resource mobilization and budget making and management can be strengthened by Upazila and district based-planning and management of basic and school education. Thiscould be envisaged in the education law inline with the stated Education Policy 2010 objectives and the constitutionally required role of local government bodies in this respect.
Third, new thinking about teachers is needed. By far the largest expenditure item in education is the teaching personnel. Finance and budget measures have to provide for sufficient numbers of teachers and ensure effective teaching-learning. Apart from improving current in-service training of teachers, measures have to be taken to make teaching one of the first career choices for talented young people, rather than the last one. A ten-year plan has to be taken to bring about this transformation – learning from both developed OECD countries and those in East Asia including China.
Three key elements in this plan would be: (a) the creation of a National Teaching Service Corps (NTSC) with high remuneration and prestige, (b) attracting bright young people with stipend and lure of NTSC job into a teacher preparation track to be introduced in the four year
22 Bangladesh Education Journal
general degree program (BA or BSc) with education as a subject, and (c) ensuring high quality of this degree programme by enforcing quality standards in at least 100 government degree colleges in the country.
A nucleus of quality teaching personnel in thousands of primary and secondary schools could be created in ten years by placing 2 or 3 NTSC teachers in each school.
Fourth, non-formal alternatives for out-of-school children have to be effectively funded. Four to five million children of primary school age are still out of school, either because they have never enrolled in school or have dropped out early. Bangladesh NGOs, led by BRAC, pioneered the non-formal second chance primary education programme in the 1980s which has been successfully scaled up. A second chance programme must be a part of the main strategy for universal primary education, but this can work only if a partnership is built with the NGOs which have proven their commitment and capacity. The NFPE option will also be needed for anticipated compulsory grades 6-8.
Fifth, expansion of pre-primary education with acceptable quality has to be supported. A good start has been made in expanding a year of preprimary education now serving more than half of those entering primary school. Expansion of preschools with quality was foreseen to be undertaken through GO-NO collaboration by coordinated planning in each upazila. A GO-NGO collaboration guideline was prepared by the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, but was not implemented for lack of public funding for NGO contribution. Early childhood development for younger children also need to be expanded, for which the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is the focal point. A programme without acceptable quality for young children can do more harm than good.
Sixth, lifelong learning has to be supported with literacy as the first step. The principles and practice of lifelong learning have come to the fore again in the context of SDG2030 and SDG-4 on education. To make lifelong learning a reality and expand functional literacy for youth and adults, a network of community learning centres(CLCs) offering relevant learning activities and supported by essential resources, complementing formal education, must be built up. NGOs have shown their commitment in this area with some 5,000 gonokendros (people’s centers) run by different organisations. Core resources have to be provided by the government and partnership modalities have to be developed among government, NGOs and communities to build a nationwide network of CLCs.
Seventh, ideally, a significant increase in the revenue share of GDP and enhancing revenue-raising capacity of local government bodies should provide for necessary increase in education budgets. Both of these possibilities are up against formidable political constraints and a lack of political will to overcome the constraints. These would be still the longer term direction to be pursued. Meanwhile, two pragmatic measures could be considered -- an education cess (taking the positive and negative lessons from India and other countries into account) and tax incentives for individual and corporate contribution to education. Both of these measures have to be designed carefully with assurance of transparency and efficient
Bangladesh Education Journal 23
24 Bangladesh Education Journal
use of funds for visible results in order to make these steps acceptable to the public.
Eighth, Bangladesh’s foreign aid strategy for education will need to be redesigned in view of targets of the SFYP and the SDGs. Foreign aid will be an important source for financing education, in spite of Bangladesh being labelled as a (lower) middle income country. It is necessary to engage in dialogue with the traditional development partners on a continuing basis for continued support to fulfil the SDG4 agenda appropriately adapted and indicators for assessing and reporting progress elaborated. External assistance has to fit into the priorities and strategies designed through participation and dialogue with stakeholders The open dialogue needs to include the structural concerns which have to be addressed.
These are not the only issues which should be considered for the SFYP and SDG education agenda for Bangladesh. These are highlighted because these have been neglected or not given due consideration so far.
References
Ahmed. M. (2015). “Education in 7th Plan, Daily Star, 12 January, 2015.
Alam, S. (2016).“Consultation on Stakeholders’ Engagement on SDG Implementation in Bangladesh,” Presentation by Dr. ShamsulAlam, Member Planning Commission, 30 March 2016.
CAMPE (2013).“Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.
CPD and CAMPE (2016).Education Budget Trends in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Center for Policy Dialogue and Campaign for Popular Education.
Planning Commission (2011).Sixth Five Year Plan Part 1.Dhaka: General Economics Division, Planning Commission.
Planning Commission (2013).“Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.
Planning Commission (2015).The Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), 2016-2020, “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen.”Dhaka: General Economics Division, Planning Commission. .
UN (2015) “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” New York: United Nations.
UNESCO (2015). Education 2030 Framework for Action, World Education Forum, Incheon, Korea, May 2015.
ANNEX
Education Target and Indicators in SDG proposed by GED and PFM
1. GED-led Post-2015 Agenda – Goals, Targets and Indicators proposed for Education Goal 6: Ensure quality education and skills for all Targets Indicators
6.1 Ensure quality basic education for all
Indicators
• Proportion of children completing pre-primary education by age cohort
• Proportion of children completing education up to grade VIII
• Percentage of dropout by level
• Teacher-student ratio by level
• Percentage of female teachers at primary level
• Percentage of literate adults with livelihood and life skills
• Percentage of teachers trained Post 2015 Development Agenda
6.2 Mainstream Technical & Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and skills education in post primary curriculum
Indicators
• Percentage of education budget for TVET
• Percentage of students in TVET system
• Percentage of 15+ dropout children completing vocational and skills training regardless of level of education
• Availability of integrated TVET in post primary level
• Percentage of industries linked with TVET and skills development institutions
• Percentage of „out of school children‟ join skills equivalence programme and obtain certificate
6.3 Ensure quality secondary and higher education
Indicators
• Percentage of students qualified in light of programme for international student assessment (PISA)
• Percentage of science graduates at secondary and tertiary levels
• Percentage of teachers trained
• Percentage of dropout
• Percentage of the higher education establishing with accreditation council
• Percentage of budget allocation for higher education.
6.4 Promote quality research (for knowledge creation/innovation)
• Proportion of budget assigned to research and innovation
• Number of research findings/innovations patented
• Proportion of investment in research and development (R&D) by the private sector
Other targets and Indicators relevant to the education agenda
1.1 Ensure rights of all children and strengthen protection of children from all sorts of
Bangladesh Education Journal 25
24 Bangladesh Education Journal
use of funds for visible results in order to make these steps acceptable to the public.
Eighth, Bangladesh’s foreign aid strategy for education will need to be redesigned in view of targets of the SFYP and the SDGs. Foreign aid will be an important source for financing education, in spite of Bangladesh being labelled as a (lower) middle income country. It is necessary to engage in dialogue with the traditional development partners on a continuing basis for continued support to fulfil the SDG4 agenda appropriately adapted and indicators for assessing and reporting progress elaborated. External assistance has to fit into the priorities and strategies designed through participation and dialogue with stakeholders The open dialogue needs to include the structural concerns which have to be addressed.
These are not the only issues which should be considered for the SFYP and SDG education agenda for Bangladesh. These are highlighted because these have been neglected or not given due consideration so far.
References
Ahmed. M. (2015). “Education in 7th Plan, Daily Star, 12 January, 2015.
Alam, S. (2016).“Consultation on Stakeholders’ Engagement on SDG Implementation in Bangladesh,” Presentation by Dr. ShamsulAlam, Member Planning Commission, 30 March 2016.
CAMPE (2013).“Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.
CPD and CAMPE (2016).Education Budget Trends in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Center for Policy Dialogue and Campaign for Popular Education.
Planning Commission (2011).Sixth Five Year Plan Part 1.Dhaka: General Economics Division, Planning Commission.
Planning Commission (2013).“Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.
Planning Commission (2015).The Seventh Five Year Plan of Bangladesh (SFYP), 2016-2020, “Accelerating Growth, Empowering Every Citizen.”Dhaka: General Economics Division, Planning Commission. .
UN (2015) “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” New York: United Nations.
UNESCO (2015). Education 2030 Framework for Action, World Education Forum, Incheon, Korea, May 2015.
ANNEX
Education Target and Indicators in SDG proposed by GED and PFM
1. GED-led Post-2015 Agenda – Goals, Targets and Indicators proposed for Education Goal 6: Ensure quality education and skills for all Targets Indicators
6.1 Ensure quality basic education for all
Indicators
• Proportion of children completing pre-primary education by age cohort
• Proportion of children completing education up to grade VIII
• Percentage of dropout by level
• Teacher-student ratio by level
• Percentage of female teachers at primary level
• Percentage of literate adults with livelihood and life skills
• Percentage of teachers trained Post 2015 Development Agenda
6.2 Mainstream Technical & Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and skills education in post primary curriculum
Indicators
• Percentage of education budget for TVET
• Percentage of students in TVET system
• Percentage of 15+ dropout children completing vocational and skills training regardless of level of education
• Availability of integrated TVET in post primary level
• Percentage of industries linked with TVET and skills development institutions
• Percentage of „out of school children‟ join skills equivalence programme and obtain certificate
6.3 Ensure quality secondary and higher education
Indicators
• Percentage of students qualified in light of programme for international student assessment (PISA)
• Percentage of science graduates at secondary and tertiary levels
• Percentage of teachers trained
• Percentage of dropout
• Percentage of the higher education establishing with accreditation council
• Percentage of budget allocation for higher education.
6.4 Promote quality research (for knowledge creation/innovation)
• Proportion of budget assigned to research and innovation
• Number of research findings/innovations patented
• Proportion of investment in research and development (R&D) by the private sector
Other targets and Indicators relevant to the education agenda
1.1 Ensure rights of all children and strengthen protection of children from all sorts of
Bangladesh Education Journal 25
abuses (politically, economically, socially)
1.2 Ensure productive opportunities for youth
3.1. Halve the number of undernourished children under 5 years old
5.1. Eliminate violence against girls and women
5.4. Eliminate child marriage
7.1 Ensure decent and productive employment for all
7.4. Reduce child labour and eliminate worst form of child labour
8.4 Enhance the financial and administrative power of local government institutions 8.6 Promote equitable access to services
9.4 Encourage 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) approach for use of products and resources, reuse, recycled
10.3 Reduce the vulnerability and exposure of the communities to disasters
10.4 Ensure safe disposal and management of hazardous waste 10.10 Ensure reduction of ozone depleting substances
11.6 Encourage global partnership among philanthropic, corporate entities and civil society organizations.
(From “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.)
2. PFM Civil Society Post-2015 Agenda for Education
Two Education Goals out of 13 Sustainable Development Goals Proposed
Goal 4: Ensure that All Children Complete Primary Education (up to class 8 in Bangladesh, and as appropriate in other countries) of Acceptable Quality
Target 4.1 Ensure that all children of age 4+ up to reaching age 6 participate in pre-primary preparatory schooling.
Indicators: Proportion of children 4+ up to reaching 6 years of age participating in pre-primary schooling: by income quintile and location (rural, urban) also for particularly disadvantaged groups such as disabled.
Target 4.2 Ensure acceptable quality of education at both pre-primary and primary levels. children, ethnic minorities, slum dwellers, etc.
Indicators: a. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same schools teach both, then by level) with adequate and attractive physical environment (classrooms, teaching aid, first aid medical facility, recreation facility, play ground, etc.) for imparting of education.
b. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same school, then by level) with qualified teachers by location (rural, urban):
Target 4.3 Completion of primary education (up to class 8 as in Bangladesh and up to the relevant class in different countries) by all eligible children.
Indicators: a. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same school then by level)
26 Bangladesh Education Journal
with effective school management arrangements: effective school management committee, parent-teacher committee, students committee.
b. % of schools under proper supervision arrangements: by government officials by community committees
c. Enrollment rate at primary level, by location (rural, urban) and sex.
d. Proportion of enrolled students passing class 5, by location (rural, urban), sex, and level of performance.
e. Proportion of enrolled students passing class 8 or the top primary level class, by location (rural, urban), sex, and level of performance.
f. Dropout rate by class from class 1 to top primary level class, by location (rural, urban) and sex.
g. Identification of particularly disadvantaged groups and measuring their dropout rates by class and sex.
Goal 5: Create Skill Development Opportunities for All, Suitable to Their Ages (Children under 15, 15+-45, 45+) for Them to Make Best Possible Contribution to Their Own and National Sustainable Development
Target 5.1 Universal (with reference to demand) availability of skills imparting/training centres with adequate spaces, programmes, and teaching aid.
Indicators: a. Current availability of such centres adequately equipped in % of all existing centres by location (rural, urban) with briefs on types of training provided.
b. Proportions of youth and adults making use of the available learning centres by sex and location (rural, urban).
c. % of the skill learning/ training centres properly supervised and monitored for quality.
Target 5.2 Ensure literacy competency of the total population; and appropriate skills level of those who participate in the skill development programmes.
Indicators: a. Literacy and numeracy rates of population above 15 years of age and among total population by sex, location (rural, urban), and among disadvantaged groups such as ethnic minorities, disabled people, etc. b. Assessment of competency achievement of youth and adults in literacy and numeracy at basic and functional, self-sustaining levels.
c. Proportion of youth and adults, participating in vocational and livelihood skills training.
d. Competency achieved by those who have completed their chosen courses, by sex, age and location (rural, urban); also in the case of various disadvantaged groups.
e. Proportion of youth and adults participating in lifelong learning.
Other targets relevant for the education agenda (illustrative)
1.2 Identification of particularly disadvantaged population groups nationally and take steps to rid them of poverty
2.3 Ensure sustainable access to basic hygienic sanitation.
2.4 Reduce the proportion of undernourished children and improve their nutritional status.
Bangladesh Education Journal 27
abuses (politically, economically, socially)
1.2 Ensure productive opportunities for youth
3.1. Halve the number of undernourished children under 5 years old
5.1. Eliminate violence against girls and women
5.4. Eliminate child marriage
7.1 Ensure decent and productive employment for all
7.4. Reduce child labour and eliminate worst form of child labour
8.4 Enhance the financial and administrative power of local government institutions 8.6 Promote equitable access to services
9.4 Encourage 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) approach for use of products and resources, reuse, recycled
10.3 Reduce the vulnerability and exposure of the communities to disasters
10.4 Ensure safe disposal and management of hazardous waste 10.10 Ensure reduction of ozone depleting substances
11.6 Encourage global partnership among philanthropic, corporate entities and civil society organizations.
(From “Post-2015 Development Agenda: Bangladesh Proposal to UN,” General Economics Division, Planning Commission, June 2013.)
2. PFM Civil Society Post-2015 Agenda for Education
Two Education Goals out of 13 Sustainable Development Goals Proposed
Goal 4: Ensure that All Children Complete Primary Education (up to class 8 in Bangladesh, and as appropriate in other countries) of Acceptable Quality
Target 4.1 Ensure that all children of age 4+ up to reaching age 6 participate in pre-primary preparatory schooling.
Indicators: Proportion of children 4+ up to reaching 6 years of age participating in pre-primary schooling: by income quintile and location (rural, urban) also for particularly disadvantaged groups such as disabled.
Target 4.2 Ensure acceptable quality of education at both pre-primary and primary levels. children, ethnic minorities, slum dwellers, etc.
Indicators: a. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same schools teach both, then by level) with adequate and attractive physical environment (classrooms, teaching aid, first aid medical facility, recreation facility, play ground, etc.) for imparting of education.
b. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same school, then by level) with qualified teachers by location (rural, urban):
Target 4.3 Completion of primary education (up to class 8 as in Bangladesh and up to the relevant class in different countries) by all eligible children.
Indicators: a. Proportion of schools (preprimary and primary; if same school then by level)
26 Bangladesh Education Journal
with effective school management arrangements: effective school management committee, parent-teacher committee, students committee.
b. % of schools under proper supervision arrangements: by government officials by community committees
c. Enrollment rate at primary level, by location (rural, urban) and sex.
d. Proportion of enrolled students passing class 5, by location (rural, urban), sex, and level of performance.
e. Proportion of enrolled students passing class 8 or the top primary level class, by location (rural, urban), sex, and level of performance.
f. Dropout rate by class from class 1 to top primary level class, by location (rural, urban) and sex.
g. Identification of particularly disadvantaged groups and measuring their dropout rates by class and sex.
Goal 5: Create Skill Development Opportunities for All, Suitable to Their Ages (Children under 15, 15+-45, 45+) for Them to Make Best Possible Contribution to Their Own and National Sustainable Development
Target 5.1 Universal (with reference to demand) availability of skills imparting/training centres with adequate spaces, programmes, and teaching aid.
Indicators: a. Current availability of such centres adequately equipped in % of all existing centres by location (rural, urban) with briefs on types of training provided.
b. Proportions of youth and adults making use of the available learning centres by sex and location (rural, urban).
c. % of the skill learning/ training centres properly supervised and monitored for quality.
Target 5.2 Ensure literacy competency of the total population; and appropriate skills level of those who participate in the skill development programmes.
Indicators: a. Literacy and numeracy rates of population above 15 years of age and among total population by sex, location (rural, urban), and among disadvantaged groups such as ethnic minorities, disabled people, etc. b. Assessment of competency achievement of youth and adults in literacy and numeracy at basic and functional, self-sustaining levels.
c. Proportion of youth and adults, participating in vocational and livelihood skills training.
d. Competency achieved by those who have completed their chosen courses, by sex, age and location (rural, urban); also in the case of various disadvantaged groups.
e. Proportion of youth and adults participating in lifelong learning.
Other targets relevant for the education agenda (illustrative)
1.2 Identification of particularly disadvantaged population groups nationally and take steps to rid them of poverty
2.3 Ensure sustainable access to basic hygienic sanitation.
2.4 Reduce the proportion of undernourished children and improve their nutritional status.
Bangladesh Education Journal 27
28 Bangladesh Education Journal
3.1 Enhance employment opportunities.
3.4 Eliminate child (under 14) labour.
6.4 Increase early detection, referral and care of disabilities and special needs of children with reference to 2015 baseline (percent reduction targets to be set by individual countries).
7.3 Elimination of violence against women.
7.4 Equal participation of men and women in education, politics, economic activities, and civic roles.
8.2 Enhanced management of climate change adaptation consistent with evolving climate change impacts, mitigation consistent with the vision of global warming by less then 2oC by end 2100 with reference to pre-industrial level; and integration of disaster risk reduction in the process of sustainable development.
8.6 Increase resilience of communities and nations to natural disasters
8.7 Enhance quality of water, air and sound through minimising pollution
9.2 Reduce substantially men-women, rural-urban and rich-poor disparity from 2015 baseline in the field of digitization.
10.1 Improve effective participation and representation of all segments of population in governance at all levels of society from local to central and ensure effective, transparent governance.
10.2 Strengthen democratic local governance.
11.1 Development of mechanisms and mobilization of resources by the international community, aid providers and advocacy agencies to assist the vulnerable populations, communities and governments in fragile states and states in conflict/conflict zones to resolve the issues(s).
11.2 Intensification of efforts by the international community, national governments and civil society to protect children and women in fragile states and states or zones in conflict.
12.1 Increase domestic resource mobilization, with a target of 25% of GDP as the share of public revenue, and its proper allocation for sustainable development.
12.2 Increase public allocations for human capability enhancement, with a target of 6% of GDP for education and skills development and 4 % for health care.
(From “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.)
Abstract Schooling bears the potentiality to nurture and construct an individuals’ behavioral pattern, roles and responsibilities in terms of societal norms. To develop a nuanced understanding of the processes of schooling through a gender perspective, this paper concentrates on how daily practices within the school context shape gender identities. Gender role and relationis thus taken as the analytical frame of this studyto explore the nature of schooling through interaction among the existing heterogeneous groups of teachers and students in a school setting. This ethnographic study, conducted in a period of six months, was framed within a feminist standpoint theory. Data revealed how physical spaces, subject interests, leadership positions, nature of discipline, and division of labor created gender boundaries through routine work methods and practices in a secondary coeducational school setting. The conclusions of the study have a bearing on training and orientation of teachers and concepts about curriculum and learning objectives for promoting a gender neutral experience for adolescents in their socialization process.
Keywords: Gendered identities, coeducation, schooling, secondary school
1. Introduction: framing the research issueAlthough Bangladesh is one of the least developed countries, it has achieved notable progress towards numerical gender equality in access to schoolingat both primary and secondary levels. The gender gap favoring boys in school enrollment, visible in the past, has been largely eliminated(BANBEIS, 2013). The prevailing paradoxis that despiteachieving statistical equality, differences persist in political and economic power of men and women. This situation suggests the importance of adopting a broad perspective on socialization including how schools nurture individuals’ inner possibilities – beyond just academic achievement of students. Schooling has the potentiality to nurture and construct an individuals’ behavioral pattern, roles and sense of responsibilities in terms of societal norms (Stromquist, 2007). The tendency to polarize the gender categories and behavioral norms within the school context is common (Butler, 1990; Dunne, 2007). The consequences are thepersistent discrimination in professional life, leadership in society, double burden of home and work for women, and the political and social dynamics that support the status quo
Nature of Schooling: Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School
*Shamnaz Arifin Mim
*Educational Specialist, BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University
Email: [email protected]
28 Bangladesh Education Journal
3.1 Enhance employment opportunities.
3.4 Eliminate child (under 14) labour.
6.4 Increase early detection, referral and care of disabilities and special needs of children with reference to 2015 baseline (percent reduction targets to be set by individual countries).
7.3 Elimination of violence against women.
7.4 Equal participation of men and women in education, politics, economic activities, and civic roles.
8.2 Enhanced management of climate change adaptation consistent with evolving climate change impacts, mitigation consistent with the vision of global warming by less then 2oC by end 2100 with reference to pre-industrial level; and integration of disaster risk reduction in the process of sustainable development.
8.6 Increase resilience of communities and nations to natural disasters
8.7 Enhance quality of water, air and sound through minimising pollution
9.2 Reduce substantially men-women, rural-urban and rich-poor disparity from 2015 baseline in the field of digitization.
10.1 Improve effective participation and representation of all segments of population in governance at all levels of society from local to central and ensure effective, transparent governance.
10.2 Strengthen democratic local governance.
11.1 Development of mechanisms and mobilization of resources by the international community, aid providers and advocacy agencies to assist the vulnerable populations, communities and governments in fragile states and states in conflict/conflict zones to resolve the issues(s).
11.2 Intensification of efforts by the international community, national governments and civil society to protect children and women in fragile states and states or zones in conflict.
12.1 Increase domestic resource mobilization, with a target of 25% of GDP as the share of public revenue, and its proper allocation for sustainable development.
12.2 Increase public allocations for human capability enhancement, with a target of 6% of GDP for education and skills development and 4 % for health care.
(From “Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda – Perspectives and Recommendations from Bangladesh Civil Society,” People’s Forum on MDGs, published by CAMPE in September, 2013.)
Abstract Schooling bears the potentiality to nurture and construct an individuals’ behavioral pattern, roles and responsibilities in terms of societal norms. To develop a nuanced understanding of the processes of schooling through a gender perspective, this paper concentrates on how daily practices within the school context shape gender identities. Gender role and relationis thus taken as the analytical frame of this studyto explore the nature of schooling through interaction among the existing heterogeneous groups of teachers and students in a school setting. This ethnographic study, conducted in a period of six months, was framed within a feminist standpoint theory. Data revealed how physical spaces, subject interests, leadership positions, nature of discipline, and division of labor created gender boundaries through routine work methods and practices in a secondary coeducational school setting. The conclusions of the study have a bearing on training and orientation of teachers and concepts about curriculum and learning objectives for promoting a gender neutral experience for adolescents in their socialization process.
Keywords: Gendered identities, coeducation, schooling, secondary school
1. Introduction: framing the research issueAlthough Bangladesh is one of the least developed countries, it has achieved notable progress towards numerical gender equality in access to schoolingat both primary and secondary levels. The gender gap favoring boys in school enrollment, visible in the past, has been largely eliminated(BANBEIS, 2013). The prevailing paradoxis that despiteachieving statistical equality, differences persist in political and economic power of men and women. This situation suggests the importance of adopting a broad perspective on socialization including how schools nurture individuals’ inner possibilities – beyond just academic achievement of students. Schooling has the potentiality to nurture and construct an individuals’ behavioral pattern, roles and sense of responsibilities in terms of societal norms (Stromquist, 2007). The tendency to polarize the gender categories and behavioral norms within the school context is common (Butler, 1990; Dunne, 2007). The consequences are thepersistent discrimination in professional life, leadership in society, double burden of home and work for women, and the political and social dynamics that support the status quo
Nature of Schooling: Construction of Gendered Identities in a Secondary School
*Shamnaz Arifin Mim
*Educational Specialist, BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University
Email: [email protected]
30 Bangladesh Education Journal
as noted and analyzed in several research studies in the Bangladesh context (Mim, 2015; Kabeer, 2000).
The focus of this paper is thus to explore the ways in which a school both produce and regulate gender identities. The paper argues that school itself constructs gender identities while practicing the daily routine. The idea of conducting this study is inspired by the argument of Dunne (2007:26) when she said, “to be a girl/boy is to act in specific feminine/masculine ways to assert that gender identity. These gender performances are a persistent feature of daily life in schools which the organizational structures frame appropriate gender behavior; and where these structures are also regulated by teachers and peers.” To develop the nuanced understanding of the processes of schooling through a gender perspective I concentrate on how the daily practice within the school context contributes to constructing gender identities.
In the context of a patriarchal society as Bangladesh, an understanding of gender identity-formation is likely to createthe space for the educationist, teachers and school managing committee (SMC) to develop awareness of a gender neutral schooling and learning environment. The context of a school is a collective and complex phenomenon which varies from one to another (Nath&Mahbub,2008). This paper, focusing on a single school, allows me to probe deeply the nuanced and gendered nature of the schooling process, though caution has to be exercised in drawing any broad generalization.
2. The conceptual frameGender role and relations provide the analyticalframe for this studyand allow me to explorethe nature of schooling from the interaction of existing heterogeneous groups of teachersand students within the school setting. According to Scott (2010:9), gender refers to:
…how and under what conditions different roles and functions have been defined for each sex; how the very meanings of the categories ‘man’ and ‘woman’ varied according to time, context, and place; how regulatory norms of sexual deportment were created and enforced; how issues of power and rights played into definitions of masculinity and femininity; how symbolic structures affected the lives and practices of ordinary people; how sexual identities were forged within and against social prescriptions.
Looking at schools as key sites for the construction of masculinities and femininities has required close attention to everyday practices, conscious or unconscious (Francis & Skelton, 2001). Reay (2001:153) revealed that, “gendered power relations are more complicated than any simplistic binary discourse of the girls versus boys.” Thus, this study highlights the multiplicity of competing gender discourses that formed within the school where the adolescents socialize.
Talking about gender debate, it is also important to consider the hegemonic masculinity which is referred as “the configuration of the legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees (or it’s taken to guarantee) the dominant position of men and the subordination of women”
Bangladesh Education Journal 31
(Connell, 1995:77). Here my ideas and approach to conceptualizing schools are consistent with Ozkazanc&Sayilon (2008:1), where they refer school as “hegemonic site where gender is reconstructed within the context of a particular gender regime.”The aforementioned concepts in discussing gendered nature of schooling will allow an understanding of the dynamics of social roles, responsibilities and attitude in apatriarchal context.
3. MethodologyThe research framework led me methodologically to design a case study according to the maxims of critical ethnography (Lee, 1990). Lee (1990) defined critical ethnography as an approach which “involves keeping alert to structural factors while probing meanings and asks how these meanings relate to wider cultural and ideological forms” (cited in Ozkanac & Sayilan, 2008:3). Here I tried to explore the academic and management structure of the school framed by a feminist perspective which allowed me to look into the subjectivities existing in the gender and power relations within the school in a patriarchalsocial context (Wickramasinghe, 2010).
I was an intern teacher in a coeducational secondary school in central Dhaka, Bangladesh where the field work of this study took place for six months. The content of this paper is based on interview (teachers and students) and observation data drawn from this school context. This school is characterised by common features of non-government secondary schools, most numerous of secondary schools in Bangladesh (BANBEIS, 2008). As a secondary coeducational school, it allowed me to tap arich data source on gendered nature of schooling from the adolescents’ perspective (Tapan, 2010).
4. Construction of gendered identities: results and discussionSeveral themes on gendered identities emerged from the collected data within the coeducational school setting. The following thematic analysis of the findings attempts to present the nuanced ways of creating and exercising the gendered boundariesin school.
4.1. Segregation of physical spacesGender segregation was evident through management and arrangement regarding space in the school premises. A strong and persistent way of segregating gender was to use the physical spaces allocating indoors for girls and outdoors for boys. This segregation results in differentiated use of and dominance over space. From daily observation data, it was found that every morning the girls cleaned the classrooms and the boys the playground. Apart from gender roles or duties related to physical spaces, clear gender discrimination was observed in terms of playing sports; boys played outdoor games like, cricket and football and girls played indoor games like, ludu.
During assembly, girls were found to gather in periphery being minorities and boys in larger central part of the school playground. Such segregated arrangement was also common inside the classroom where girls found sitting together in front benches and boys at the back. Brenner (1998) found that, in Liberia students mostly sit in separate parts of the classroom by
30 Bangladesh Education Journal
as noted and analyzed in several research studies in the Bangladesh context (Mim, 2015; Kabeer, 2000).
The focus of this paper is thus to explore the ways in which a school both produce and regulate gender identities. The paper argues that school itself constructs gender identities while practicing the daily routine. The idea of conducting this study is inspired by the argument of Dunne (2007:26) when she said, “to be a girl/boy is to act in specific feminine/masculine ways to assert that gender identity. These gender performances are a persistent feature of daily life in schools which the organizational structures frame appropriate gender behavior; and where these structures are also regulated by teachers and peers.” To develop the nuanced understanding of the processes of schooling through a gender perspective I concentrate on how the daily practice within the school context contributes to constructing gender identities.
In the context of a patriarchal society as Bangladesh, an understanding of gender identity-formation is likely to createthe space for the educationist, teachers and school managing committee (SMC) to develop awareness of a gender neutral schooling and learning environment. The context of a school is a collective and complex phenomenon which varies from one to another (Nath&Mahbub,2008). This paper, focusing on a single school, allows me to probe deeply the nuanced and gendered nature of the schooling process, though caution has to be exercised in drawing any broad generalization.
2. The conceptual frameGender role and relations provide the analyticalframe for this studyand allow me to explorethe nature of schooling from the interaction of existing heterogeneous groups of teachersand students within the school setting. According to Scott (2010:9), gender refers to:
…how and under what conditions different roles and functions have been defined for each sex; how the very meanings of the categories ‘man’ and ‘woman’ varied according to time, context, and place; how regulatory norms of sexual deportment were created and enforced; how issues of power and rights played into definitions of masculinity and femininity; how symbolic structures affected the lives and practices of ordinary people; how sexual identities were forged within and against social prescriptions.
Looking at schools as key sites for the construction of masculinities and femininities has required close attention to everyday practices, conscious or unconscious (Francis & Skelton, 2001). Reay (2001:153) revealed that, “gendered power relations are more complicated than any simplistic binary discourse of the girls versus boys.” Thus, this study highlights the multiplicity of competing gender discourses that formed within the school where the adolescents socialize.
Talking about gender debate, it is also important to consider the hegemonic masculinity which is referred as “the configuration of the legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees (or it’s taken to guarantee) the dominant position of men and the subordination of women”
Bangladesh Education Journal 31
(Connell, 1995:77). Here my ideas and approach to conceptualizing schools are consistent with Ozkazanc&Sayilon (2008:1), where they refer school as “hegemonic site where gender is reconstructed within the context of a particular gender regime.”The aforementioned concepts in discussing gendered nature of schooling will allow an understanding of the dynamics of social roles, responsibilities and attitude in apatriarchal context.
3. MethodologyThe research framework led me methodologically to design a case study according to the maxims of critical ethnography (Lee, 1990). Lee (1990) defined critical ethnography as an approach which “involves keeping alert to structural factors while probing meanings and asks how these meanings relate to wider cultural and ideological forms” (cited in Ozkanac & Sayilan, 2008:3). Here I tried to explore the academic and management structure of the school framed by a feminist perspective which allowed me to look into the subjectivities existing in the gender and power relations within the school in a patriarchalsocial context (Wickramasinghe, 2010).
I was an intern teacher in a coeducational secondary school in central Dhaka, Bangladesh where the field work of this study took place for six months. The content of this paper is based on interview (teachers and students) and observation data drawn from this school context. This school is characterised by common features of non-government secondary schools, most numerous of secondary schools in Bangladesh (BANBEIS, 2008). As a secondary coeducational school, it allowed me to tap arich data source on gendered nature of schooling from the adolescents’ perspective (Tapan, 2010).
4. Construction of gendered identities: results and discussionSeveral themes on gendered identities emerged from the collected data within the coeducational school setting. The following thematic analysis of the findings attempts to present the nuanced ways of creating and exercising the gendered boundariesin school.
4.1. Segregation of physical spacesGender segregation was evident through management and arrangement regarding space in the school premises. A strong and persistent way of segregating gender was to use the physical spaces allocating indoors for girls and outdoors for boys. This segregation results in differentiated use of and dominance over space. From daily observation data, it was found that every morning the girls cleaned the classrooms and the boys the playground. Apart from gender roles or duties related to physical spaces, clear gender discrimination was observed in terms of playing sports; boys played outdoor games like, cricket and football and girls played indoor games like, ludu.
During assembly, girls were found to gather in periphery being minorities and boys in larger central part of the school playground. Such segregated arrangement was also common inside the classroom where girls found sitting together in front benches and boys at the back. Brenner (1998) found that, in Liberia students mostly sit in separate parts of the classroom by
32 Bangladesh Education Journal
avoiding interaction with the opposite sex. Besides the instruction coming from the school authority on gender segregated space arrangements, the students themselves were willing to create the single-sex friendship group and were comfortable in communicating within that cohort. Some of the students said their parents put restrictions in communicating with the opposite sex. The students also became accustomed to segregated space arrangements by following their seniors in the school. Dunne noted an interesting finding regarding students’ gendered pattern of sitting arrangement. As she put it, “the teachers used this as a discipline strategy in which a misbehaving boy would be made to sit among the girls” (2007:27).
The adolescent’s socialization is strongly influenced by the nature of schooling (Nath&Mahbub, 2008).Stromquistand other researchers emphasized the ways in which school setting “offers influential messages about gender”(Stromquist, 2007:20; Francis& Skelton, 2001).Their ideas on constructing femininities and masculinities in the school is illustrated by the above mentioned data on how the gender roles and socialization in a patriarchal context lead adolescents to establish control over specific physical spaces deliberately. Thus physical spaces were used to separate the single-sex friendship groups which strengthened the gender boundaries and led to control over those spaces which had been segregated in a “natural” process.
4.2. Gendering academic subjectsIn spite of having daily routines of each grade, the school often started late and ended early. On investigation, it was found that some of the teachers had their own ideas about maintaining the daily routine and took classes on the basis of their ideas on “important” or “non-important” subjects. As a result, late start and early end of school led to lowering contact time and neglecting some subjects which were considered as less “valuable” and “feminine” subjects. According to Dunne (2007), such feminine subjects are religious education, home economics and languages.
Data revealed persistent gender stereotyping of subjects, which also showed boys outperforming girls in “technical”subjects like science and mathematics and girls performing better in languages and social studies. Leder, Forgasz & Jackson (2014) found that there are people, including teachers, students and parents, who believe that boys are more capable in technical subjects whereas girls capable in “humanities.” Such traditional gender stereotyping negatively influenced learners who may have the potentials to do well in any subject area (Mim, 2015). Such stereotyping also affected teachers; male teachers were over-represented in technical subjects and females in languages and social sciences.
Kelly (1985) showed how subjects are gendered because of their perceived masculine and feminine traits. She explained that technical subjects were “associated with factors such as difficulty, hard rather than soft, things rather than people, and thinking rather than feeling, all of which are part of the cultural stereotype of masculinity,”The opposite patterns could be observed in respect of social sciences and languages which belonged to the feminine stereotypes in a patriarchal context (1985:135).This argument is in line with Connell’s (1995) distinct category of masculinity and femininity and reflected the normative ways of
Bangladesh Education Journal 33
looking into the school subjects. Societal practice and stereotyped views thus led to and reinforced gender stereotyping of school subjects.
4.3. School leadership: the dominance of masculinityThe existing gendered power relations within the school premises were revealed in the way it positions men and their masculinity to leadership roles in the schooling process. During my six month’s observation in the school, I found during the first two months a male head teacher who performed independently and confidently as the school head. On his retirement a women head teacher was appointed, but despite her formal position, she was subjected to control by the SMC (consisting of a majority of male members), unlike the practice in the past. The woman head teacher was often found dominated by the senior male teachers in taking several important decisions on school management. Looking at the situation through the feminist lens (Wickramasinghe, 2010), it appears to illustrate how the gender hierarchies and its underlying masculinities affect women’s performance even if they formally hold the “leading” position.
The gendered view regarding the leading position has also been observed among students which showed that the appointed class representative or the class captain is always a boy. Being the captain, the senior grade boys had more authority in the school; for example, they were responsible for leading assembly and ringing bells in absence of the assigned teacher. While I asked senior girls about their feelings on always being led by male captains, one of them replied:
I never think to be a class captain. I do not think my other fellow girl-mates think that either, because from our primary grades we are used to see male captains in our school. I think it is a tough job where the teachers depend a lot on the boys; may be they are more capable than us to serve in this position.
The opinion of this girl along with the overall environment depicts how the legitimacy of patriarchy is well entrenched and accepted in schooling for years. Connell’s (1995) concept of hegemonic masculinity explains how the societal structure guarantees the dominant positions of masculinity.
4.4.Discipline: exercising gender biased attitude by teachers The authority relations between teacher and student, where the teachers are allowed to discipline, motivate and punish students, as a part of the core structure of schooling also reveal gender role and behavior. The teachers were found to punish both boys and girls but the ways were different. The boys were found to be punished through beating with a stick and pulling of ears by the male teachers mainly. The girls were not seen to be punished in the same way by the male teachers; girls were generally subjected to scolding. On the other hand, the majority of the female teachers of the school were found to threaten by showing sticks mainly to the boys and sometimes pinching the girls as punishment. Dunne found, “female teachers asserted their authority in disciplinary strategies that often included less demonstrative forms of physical violence” (2007:28). Drawing on Connell’s (1995) concept on gender, it can be argued that such gender specific nature of punishment affirms the femininity and masculinity of female and male teachers respectively.
32 Bangladesh Education Journal
avoiding interaction with the opposite sex. Besides the instruction coming from the school authority on gender segregated space arrangements, the students themselves were willing to create the single-sex friendship group and were comfortable in communicating within that cohort. Some of the students said their parents put restrictions in communicating with the opposite sex. The students also became accustomed to segregated space arrangements by following their seniors in the school. Dunne noted an interesting finding regarding students’ gendered pattern of sitting arrangement. As she put it, “the teachers used this as a discipline strategy in which a misbehaving boy would be made to sit among the girls” (2007:27).
The adolescent’s socialization is strongly influenced by the nature of schooling (Nath&Mahbub, 2008).Stromquistand other researchers emphasized the ways in which school setting “offers influential messages about gender”(Stromquist, 2007:20; Francis& Skelton, 2001).Their ideas on constructing femininities and masculinities in the school is illustrated by the above mentioned data on how the gender roles and socialization in a patriarchal context lead adolescents to establish control over specific physical spaces deliberately. Thus physical spaces were used to separate the single-sex friendship groups which strengthened the gender boundaries and led to control over those spaces which had been segregated in a “natural” process.
4.2. Gendering academic subjectsIn spite of having daily routines of each grade, the school often started late and ended early. On investigation, it was found that some of the teachers had their own ideas about maintaining the daily routine and took classes on the basis of their ideas on “important” or “non-important” subjects. As a result, late start and early end of school led to lowering contact time and neglecting some subjects which were considered as less “valuable” and “feminine” subjects. According to Dunne (2007), such feminine subjects are religious education, home economics and languages.
Data revealed persistent gender stereotyping of subjects, which also showed boys outperforming girls in “technical”subjects like science and mathematics and girls performing better in languages and social studies. Leder, Forgasz & Jackson (2014) found that there are people, including teachers, students and parents, who believe that boys are more capable in technical subjects whereas girls capable in “humanities.” Such traditional gender stereotyping negatively influenced learners who may have the potentials to do well in any subject area (Mim, 2015). Such stereotyping also affected teachers; male teachers were over-represented in technical subjects and females in languages and social sciences.
Kelly (1985) showed how subjects are gendered because of their perceived masculine and feminine traits. She explained that technical subjects were “associated with factors such as difficulty, hard rather than soft, things rather than people, and thinking rather than feeling, all of which are part of the cultural stereotype of masculinity,”The opposite patterns could be observed in respect of social sciences and languages which belonged to the feminine stereotypes in a patriarchal context (1985:135).This argument is in line with Connell’s (1995) distinct category of masculinity and femininity and reflected the normative ways of
Bangladesh Education Journal 33
looking into the school subjects. Societal practice and stereotyped views thus led to and reinforced gender stereotyping of school subjects.
4.3. School leadership: the dominance of masculinityThe existing gendered power relations within the school premises were revealed in the way it positions men and their masculinity to leadership roles in the schooling process. During my six month’s observation in the school, I found during the first two months a male head teacher who performed independently and confidently as the school head. On his retirement a women head teacher was appointed, but despite her formal position, she was subjected to control by the SMC (consisting of a majority of male members), unlike the practice in the past. The woman head teacher was often found dominated by the senior male teachers in taking several important decisions on school management. Looking at the situation through the feminist lens (Wickramasinghe, 2010), it appears to illustrate how the gender hierarchies and its underlying masculinities affect women’s performance even if they formally hold the “leading” position.
The gendered view regarding the leading position has also been observed among students which showed that the appointed class representative or the class captain is always a boy. Being the captain, the senior grade boys had more authority in the school; for example, they were responsible for leading assembly and ringing bells in absence of the assigned teacher. While I asked senior girls about their feelings on always being led by male captains, one of them replied:
I never think to be a class captain. I do not think my other fellow girl-mates think that either, because from our primary grades we are used to see male captains in our school. I think it is a tough job where the teachers depend a lot on the boys; may be they are more capable than us to serve in this position.
The opinion of this girl along with the overall environment depicts how the legitimacy of patriarchy is well entrenched and accepted in schooling for years. Connell’s (1995) concept of hegemonic masculinity explains how the societal structure guarantees the dominant positions of masculinity.
4.4.Discipline: exercising gender biased attitude by teachers The authority relations between teacher and student, where the teachers are allowed to discipline, motivate and punish students, as a part of the core structure of schooling also reveal gender role and behavior. The teachers were found to punish both boys and girls but the ways were different. The boys were found to be punished through beating with a stick and pulling of ears by the male teachers mainly. The girls were not seen to be punished in the same way by the male teachers; girls were generally subjected to scolding. On the other hand, the majority of the female teachers of the school were found to threaten by showing sticks mainly to the boys and sometimes pinching the girls as punishment. Dunne found, “female teachers asserted their authority in disciplinary strategies that often included less demonstrative forms of physical violence” (2007:28). Drawing on Connell’s (1995) concept on gender, it can be argued that such gender specific nature of punishment affirms the femininity and masculinity of female and male teachers respectively.
define each sex, it was clear from their assigned socially prescribed tasks and responsibilities, that the teachers were active in playing out their own gendered identities in the heteronormative context.
5. ConclusionsThe analysis and discussion above revealed the ways in which gender boundaries are formed through the routine works and daily practices in the school. As a consequence, gender specific roles, responsibilities, behavior and societal practice contribute to produce the forms of femininity and masculinity in the schooling process (Dunne, 2007). The paper showed how as a social arena school is marked by asymmetric gender power relations and ended up reproducing and promoting in school the traditional gender hierarchical power structures of society.
A deep-rooted association of heteropatriarchal and heteronormative beliefs and practices inside the classroom influence the adolescents’ socialization and lead them to view and reinforce the traditional gender perspective in defining their own gender roles. The daily practice of the school revealed that the gendered behavior by students and teachers was taken for granted and accepted as something intrinsic and “natural”. If the school is seen as a social institution that should be free from gender bias, (Nath&Mahbub, 2008; Francis & Skelton, 2001), there is much to be done in constructing gender values, attitudes, norms and behavior in a coeducational school. This is necessary to counteract the unconscious reinforcement of traditional gender-stereotyping.Training and orientation of teachers, both pre-service and in-service, organization and management of school, looking critically at the curriculum objectives and outcomes, pedagogy in the classroom, and social interaction among students and between students and teachers need to be looked at and assessed through a gender neutral lens. How schooling can present a gender neutral experience to adolescents in their socialization process has remained a neglected concern that demands serious attention from policy-makers and educationists alike.
References
Butler, J. (1990).Gender Trouble, Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London, Routledge.
‘Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics’ BANBEIS (2013). Retrieved May 14, 2015
fromhttp://banbeis.gov.bd/data/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=131:basic-tables-2013&Itemid=226&layout=default
‘Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics’ BANBEIS (2008). Retrieved May 14, 2015 from http://www.banbeis.gov.bd/db_bb/secondary_education_3.htm
Brenner, M. (1998).Gender and Classroom Interaction in Liberia.In M. Bloch, J. Beoku-Betts, & R. Tabachnick (eds.) Women and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 131-156.
Connell, R.W. (1995).Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Dunne, M. (2007). ‘Schools and Gendered Identities’, Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007, 26-29. RetrievedApril, 2015 fromhttp://www.cedol.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/26-30-2007.pdf
Bangladesh Education Journal 3534 Bangladesh Education Journal
Both teachers and students believe that punishment is a good way to keep them on the “right” track. In line with this, by highlighting “punishment as a means of teaching-learning”Nath&Mahbubcited teachers’ opinion that, “owing to fear of punishment the learners become well behaved and attentive” (2008:79). However, a majority of the teachers was of the view that excessive punishment would lead to decreasing its effect and it might not work in the long run. The nature of punishment can possess inner gendered meanings in a heteronormative context. According to Dunne, Humphreys and Leach,
Girls were found being beaten with stick in Tanzania which ‘was rationalized by a few of the girls and women interviewed as being part of their socialization into becoming respectful and obedient wives and mothers. Conversely, the harsh beating of male students by male teachers could be viewed both as performance of domination by an adult male in authority over a juvenile male in an inferior position, and as a juvenile male’s initiation into adulthood (2003:7).
Scott’s (2010) concept of gender emphasized how the meanings and behavioral expectations arising from attitude towards boys and girls can vary depending on context. The nature of punishment, a means of discipline, control and regulation, revealed the ways in which existing symbolic structures in schooling can affect learner’s upbringing by creating the gender identities.
4.5. Gender division of labor inside schoolThe division of labor on the basis of gender represented an important marker of gender identity. Both students and teachers were found to play the stereotyped gendered roles that are expected by society. Whereas girls were responsible to clean the classrooms; boys were assigned to do heavier duties like tree cutting. Some of the teachers were also seen ordering boys to bring snacks from outside whereas they sometimes ask girls to wash their cups and glasses. Different school research on gender socialization process has also showed how the very expected societal roles are practiced in schools (Stromquist, 2007). Dunne (2007:27) found that, “in some duties the girls helped boys, for example by raking and bagging weeds for them to carry to the dump, but the boys did not reciprocate.” This situation can be seen through the feminist lens as an example of how schooling helps establish the“dominant position of men and subordination of women” (Connell, 1995:77).In patriarchal societies like Bangladesh, the gender stereotyped division of labor is nourished both in family and school which may influence the adolescents to take the practice as accepted societal norm. Other researchers such as Reay (2001) argue that the gender power relations are much more complicated than the binary discourses between girls and boys. This complexity may in fact offer the possibilities for change and promoting modification of the norms through schooling.
In organizing cultural programs, i.e. pohelaboishakh (Bengali new year), independence day etc. the teachers were also found to be cast into gender roles that they were used to through socialization from very early ages. Whereas male teachers were responsible to perform duties that required physical exertion and technical managements like organising sports and buying supplies, women were assigned to welcoming guests, offering them seats, and decorating the stage etc. By drawing on Scott’s (2010) argument on how different roles can
define each sex, it was clear from their assigned socially prescribed tasks and responsibilities, that the teachers were active in playing out their own gendered identities in the heteronormative context.
5. ConclusionsThe analysis and discussion above revealed the ways in which gender boundaries are formed through the routine works and daily practices in the school. As a consequence, gender specific roles, responsibilities, behavior and societal practice contribute to produce the forms of femininity and masculinity in the schooling process (Dunne, 2007). The paper showed how as a social arena school is marked by asymmetric gender power relations and ended up reproducing and promoting in school the traditional gender hierarchical power structures of society.
A deep-rooted association of heteropatriarchal and heteronormative beliefs and practices inside the classroom influence the adolescents’ socialization and lead them to view and reinforce the traditional gender perspective in defining their own gender roles. The daily practice of the school revealed that the gendered behavior by students and teachers was taken for granted and accepted as something intrinsic and “natural”. If the school is seen as a social institution that should be free from gender bias, (Nath&Mahbub, 2008; Francis & Skelton, 2001), there is much to be done in constructing gender values, attitudes, norms and behavior in a coeducational school. This is necessary to counteract the unconscious reinforcement of traditional gender-stereotyping.Training and orientation of teachers, both pre-service and in-service, organization and management of school, looking critically at the curriculum objectives and outcomes, pedagogy in the classroom, and social interaction among students and between students and teachers need to be looked at and assessed through a gender neutral lens. How schooling can present a gender neutral experience to adolescents in their socialization process has remained a neglected concern that demands serious attention from policy-makers and educationists alike.
References
Butler, J. (1990).Gender Trouble, Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. London, Routledge.
‘Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics’ BANBEIS (2013). Retrieved May 14, 2015
fromhttp://banbeis.gov.bd/data/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=131:basic-tables-2013&Itemid=226&layout=default
‘Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics’ BANBEIS (2008). Retrieved May 14, 2015 from http://www.banbeis.gov.bd/db_bb/secondary_education_3.htm
Brenner, M. (1998).Gender and Classroom Interaction in Liberia.In M. Bloch, J. Beoku-Betts, & R. Tabachnick (eds.) Women and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 131-156.
Connell, R.W. (1995).Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Dunne, M. (2007). ‘Schools and Gendered Identities’, Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007, 26-29. RetrievedApril, 2015 fromhttp://www.cedol.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/26-30-2007.pdf
Bangladesh Education Journal 3534 Bangladesh Education Journal
Both teachers and students believe that punishment is a good way to keep them on the “right” track. In line with this, by highlighting “punishment as a means of teaching-learning”Nath&Mahbubcited teachers’ opinion that, “owing to fear of punishment the learners become well behaved and attentive” (2008:79). However, a majority of the teachers was of the view that excessive punishment would lead to decreasing its effect and it might not work in the long run. The nature of punishment can possess inner gendered meanings in a heteronormative context. According to Dunne, Humphreys and Leach,
Girls were found being beaten with stick in Tanzania which ‘was rationalized by a few of the girls and women interviewed as being part of their socialization into becoming respectful and obedient wives and mothers. Conversely, the harsh beating of male students by male teachers could be viewed both as performance of domination by an adult male in authority over a juvenile male in an inferior position, and as a juvenile male’s initiation into adulthood (2003:7).
Scott’s (2010) concept of gender emphasized how the meanings and behavioral expectations arising from attitude towards boys and girls can vary depending on context. The nature of punishment, a means of discipline, control and regulation, revealed the ways in which existing symbolic structures in schooling can affect learner’s upbringing by creating the gender identities.
4.5. Gender division of labor inside schoolThe division of labor on the basis of gender represented an important marker of gender identity. Both students and teachers were found to play the stereotyped gendered roles that are expected by society. Whereas girls were responsible to clean the classrooms; boys were assigned to do heavier duties like tree cutting. Some of the teachers were also seen ordering boys to bring snacks from outside whereas they sometimes ask girls to wash their cups and glasses. Different school research on gender socialization process has also showed how the very expected societal roles are practiced in schools (Stromquist, 2007). Dunne (2007:27) found that, “in some duties the girls helped boys, for example by raking and bagging weeds for them to carry to the dump, but the boys did not reciprocate.” This situation can be seen through the feminist lens as an example of how schooling helps establish the“dominant position of men and subordination of women” (Connell, 1995:77).In patriarchal societies like Bangladesh, the gender stereotyped division of labor is nourished both in family and school which may influence the adolescents to take the practice as accepted societal norm. Other researchers such as Reay (2001) argue that the gender power relations are much more complicated than the binary discourses between girls and boys. This complexity may in fact offer the possibilities for change and promoting modification of the norms through schooling.
In organizing cultural programs, i.e. pohelaboishakh (Bengali new year), independence day etc. the teachers were also found to be cast into gender roles that they were used to through socialization from very early ages. Whereas male teachers were responsible to perform duties that required physical exertion and technical managements like organising sports and buying supplies, women were assigned to welcoming guests, offering them seats, and decorating the stage etc. By drawing on Scott’s (2010) argument on how different roles can
Dunne, M., Humphreys, S., & Leach, F. (2003).‘Gender and violence in schools’, UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2003/4 Background paper.
36 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 37
PrimaryEducation 2005 2006 2010 20112007 20092008
(UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2014)
AcknowledgmentThe author is grateful to the school authority for allowing to work there and Institute of Education and Research (IER), Dhaka University to give the internship opportunity in that school.
Gross Enrolment Ration (%)TotalFemaleMaleNet enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemale Male
98.510196.2
91.894.689.1
99.7102.796.8
92.996.289.7
99.3103.195.7
___
97.6100.894.5
90.892.189.5
104.5108
101.1
91.593.389.8
101.2103.998.6
91.896.187.8
114.2117.8110.8
___
SecondaryEducation 2005 2006 2010 20112007 20092008
Gross enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemaleMaleNet enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemale Male
4546.643.5
42.143.640.7
45.646.944.3
42.844.141.5
46.447.645.1
43.644.842.4
44.547.241.9
___
49.952.947
4648.843.4
48.250.146.3
44.646.542.8
50.854.547.2
45.849.342.5
Dunne, M., Humphreys, S., & Leach, F. (2003).‘Gender and violence in schools’, UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2003/4 Background paper.
36 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 37
PrimaryEducation 2005 2006 2010 20112007 20092008
(UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2014)
AcknowledgmentThe author is grateful to the school authority for allowing to work there and Institute of Education and Research (IER), Dhaka University to give the internship opportunity in that school.
Gross Enrolment Ration (%)TotalFemaleMaleNet enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemale Male
98.510196.2
91.894.689.1
99.7102.796.8
92.996.289.7
99.3103.195.7
___
97.6100.894.5
90.892.189.5
104.5108
101.1
91.593.389.8
101.2103.998.6
91.896.187.8
114.2117.8110.8
___
SecondaryEducation 2005 2006 2010 20112007 20092008
Gross enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemaleMaleNet enrolment ratio (%)TotalFemale Male
4546.643.5
42.143.640.7
45.646.944.3
42.844.141.5
46.447.645.1
43.644.842.4
44.547.241.9
___
49.952.947
4648.843.4
48.250.146.3
44.646.542.8
50.854.547.2
45.849.342.5
Abstract The purpose of the study is to explore rural mothers' perceptions of play in children's development and learning in Bangladesh. Because, it was necessary to fulfill the lack in data and research evidences on the issue and to contribute to include play in policies and practices in this regards.
Mixed methods have been used in the study and mothers with children of 3-5 years have been purposively selected. The results show that mothers in rural Bangladesh have lacks of clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play. They prefer academic activities rather than play activities for their children. On the issue of gender differences in play, mothers' educational level makes differences in mothers' perceptions regarding gender orientation in child's play. Parents seldom play with their children and do so only when they are requested by their children. At best, they play supervisory role in their children play.
Key words: Mother’s perceptions of play, Play and child development in Bangladesh, Gender in child development
I. Introduction During the early years of life, children’s opportunities to develop appropriately are influenced by many different factors. These include parents’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices; the cultural norms and values of the wider society; the initiatives of the primary caregivers; and the availability of early childhood development (ECD) programs and services. While it is well known that play is a very important element of child development and learning and “creates the zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1933, p. 552), parents’ behaviors and beliefs toward play in Bangladesh, and how they are influenced by social and cultural values, have received less scrutiny.
More than 16 million children under 5 years live in Bangladesh (BBS, 2001), which was one of the first countries to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). Through this Convention, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), the country is fully committed to improving the status of children and to addressing gender discrimination. But a lack of attention to early childhood development and education and the role of play in it is still evident.
Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play inChildren’s Learning and Development in Bangladesh
* Shahidullah Sharif
* Note: This study is sponsored by BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University
Programme Specialist of BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University.
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract The purpose of the study is to explore rural mothers' perceptions of play in children's development and learning in Bangladesh. Because, it was necessary to fulfill the lack in data and research evidences on the issue and to contribute to include play in policies and practices in this regards.
Mixed methods have been used in the study and mothers with children of 3-5 years have been purposively selected. The results show that mothers in rural Bangladesh have lacks of clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play. They prefer academic activities rather than play activities for their children. On the issue of gender differences in play, mothers' educational level makes differences in mothers' perceptions regarding gender orientation in child's play. Parents seldom play with their children and do so only when they are requested by their children. At best, they play supervisory role in their children play.
Key words: Mother’s perceptions of play, Play and child development in Bangladesh, Gender in child development
I. Introduction During the early years of life, children’s opportunities to develop appropriately are influenced by many different factors. These include parents’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices; the cultural norms and values of the wider society; the initiatives of the primary caregivers; and the availability of early childhood development (ECD) programs and services. While it is well known that play is a very important element of child development and learning and “creates the zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1933, p. 552), parents’ behaviors and beliefs toward play in Bangladesh, and how they are influenced by social and cultural values, have received less scrutiny.
More than 16 million children under 5 years live in Bangladesh (BBS, 2001), which was one of the first countries to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). Through this Convention, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), the country is fully committed to improving the status of children and to addressing gender discrimination. But a lack of attention to early childhood development and education and the role of play in it is still evident.
Rural Mothers’ Perceptions of Play inChildren’s Learning and Development in Bangladesh
* Shahidullah Sharif
* Note: This study is sponsored by BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University
Programme Specialist of BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University.
E-mail: [email protected]
40 Bangladesh Education Journal
Play is a joyful activity that occurs naturally for most children and fosters the social life and constructive activity of the child (Elkind, 2003; Piaget, 1980; Sluss, 2005). Many researchers across different disciplines have found that play is a main activity for children in all cultures and that parents have a significant role in facilitating it. As noted in the writing of Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), playing with an adult or an older child enhances a child’s skills and builds the child’s self-confidence. (Vygotsky, 1966, 1978, 1990). Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1917-2005) ecological model also provides an important framework for considering play as part of child development and the role of parents and family (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In Bangladesh, however, there are gaps in the research on this issue and very limited data have been available for development of an ECD education policy from this perspective..
2. ObjectivesThe primary aim of this study is to answer the research question:
1. What are rural mothers’ perceptions of play for children’s (age 3–5) learning and development in Bangladesh? This main question can be broken down into additional research questions in the Bangladesh context, as listed below.
2. What are the rural mothers’ perceptions of gender difference in children’s play?
3. Do rural mothers’ perceptions of play vary with their level of education?
4. Do rural mothers’ perceptions of play differ based on fathers’ (husbands’) level of education?
5. Do mothers in rural Bangladesh view play differently based on their family income?
3. MethodologyInformation on mothers’ perceptions of play was obtained using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Mothers with children 3–5 years of age were selected. At this age (children 3–5 years of age), parents begin to see children as “learners” and consider the importance of “formal” learning rather than learning through play.
For the quantitative study, 60 mothers from two rural villages in Gazipur District—Singardighi and Kopatiyapara—were purposively selected to participate. The data collection instrument was a structured survey, with a five-point Likert scale, created in collaboration with a team of ECD faculty of BRAC University and other experts working in the country. Eighteen statements regarding play were formulated which covered six development domains: physical, social, cognitive, language and communication, emotional, and creativity. Contents were also evaluated for relevance to life skills, learning and academics, play opportunity, gender, and parents’ involvement in children’s play. A validation panel of five experts was enlisted to rate the relevance and clarity of each item in the survey.
Because the majority of participants had low or no literacy, data were collected through face-to-face interviews. The surveys were conducted by the researcher and a trained research
Bangladesh Education Journal 41
assistant who recorded each mother’s responses to the 18 statements during the interview.
Data analysis generated descriptive statistics of mothers’ responses and included frequencies, percentages, and mean scores with range and standard deviation. Bivariate statistics were used to explore the variations in maternal responses by socioeconomic status, educational background, and child’s age since responses may vary according to the age of the child.
For the qualitative study, eight mothers from each village participated in focus group discussions (FGD) after they completed the quantitative survey. An equal number of mothers with less than primary education and primary education and above were included, and assigned into FGD-A and FGD-B, respectively. Focus group discussions were held with mothers in a location of their choice. Each session was audio-taped with the permission of the respondents. A trained research assistant moderated all FGD sessions on the basis of study objectives and research questions that were shared by the principal researcher, who took notes and organized and monitored the sessions. Each session lasted approximately 40 minutes.
The discussions were recorded and carefully transcribed and compared for accuracy and validity.. Transcriptions were made in Bangla and translated into English. The focus group facilitator resolved any content discrepancies. Using content analysis, major themes were identified, coded, and categorized; excerpts from the transcripts were chosen to illustrate the summary statements, which were also used to validate the findings.
4. FindingsBased on the objectives and research questions of this study, we found significant findings from the survey and focus group discussions that are presented separately below:
4.1. Survey Table 1 summarizes results from the survey of mothers’ perceptions of play for children’s learning and development in Bangladesh. As evident in the table, mothers’ attitudes toward play and its role in early childhood development were very positive. Only some of the key findings are presented below.
Table 1. Quantitative Findings: Mothers’ responses to statements on play and children’s development, by percentage
Strongly Disagree Undecided/ Agree Stronglydisagree neutral agree
“Through play, children learn to live – – 1.7% 3.3% 95.0% with other people as a social being.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play is detrimental to increasing 71.7% 8.3% 10.0% 3.3% 6.7% children’s knowledge.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 Bangladesh Education Journal
Play is a joyful activity that occurs naturally for most children and fosters the social life and constructive activity of the child (Elkind, 2003; Piaget, 1980; Sluss, 2005). Many researchers across different disciplines have found that play is a main activity for children in all cultures and that parents have a significant role in facilitating it. As noted in the writing of Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), playing with an adult or an older child enhances a child’s skills and builds the child’s self-confidence. (Vygotsky, 1966, 1978, 1990). Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1917-2005) ecological model also provides an important framework for considering play as part of child development and the role of parents and family (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In Bangladesh, however, there are gaps in the research on this issue and very limited data have been available for development of an ECD education policy from this perspective..
2. ObjectivesThe primary aim of this study is to answer the research question:
1. What are rural mothers’ perceptions of play for children’s (age 3–5) learning and development in Bangladesh? This main question can be broken down into additional research questions in the Bangladesh context, as listed below.
2. What are the rural mothers’ perceptions of gender difference in children’s play?
3. Do rural mothers’ perceptions of play vary with their level of education?
4. Do rural mothers’ perceptions of play differ based on fathers’ (husbands’) level of education?
5. Do mothers in rural Bangladesh view play differently based on their family income?
3. MethodologyInformation on mothers’ perceptions of play was obtained using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Mothers with children 3–5 years of age were selected. At this age (children 3–5 years of age), parents begin to see children as “learners” and consider the importance of “formal” learning rather than learning through play.
For the quantitative study, 60 mothers from two rural villages in Gazipur District—Singardighi and Kopatiyapara—were purposively selected to participate. The data collection instrument was a structured survey, with a five-point Likert scale, created in collaboration with a team of ECD faculty of BRAC University and other experts working in the country. Eighteen statements regarding play were formulated which covered six development domains: physical, social, cognitive, language and communication, emotional, and creativity. Contents were also evaluated for relevance to life skills, learning and academics, play opportunity, gender, and parents’ involvement in children’s play. A validation panel of five experts was enlisted to rate the relevance and clarity of each item in the survey.
Because the majority of participants had low or no literacy, data were collected through face-to-face interviews. The surveys were conducted by the researcher and a trained research
Bangladesh Education Journal 41
assistant who recorded each mother’s responses to the 18 statements during the interview.
Data analysis generated descriptive statistics of mothers’ responses and included frequencies, percentages, and mean scores with range and standard deviation. Bivariate statistics were used to explore the variations in maternal responses by socioeconomic status, educational background, and child’s age since responses may vary according to the age of the child.
For the qualitative study, eight mothers from each village participated in focus group discussions (FGD) after they completed the quantitative survey. An equal number of mothers with less than primary education and primary education and above were included, and assigned into FGD-A and FGD-B, respectively. Focus group discussions were held with mothers in a location of their choice. Each session was audio-taped with the permission of the respondents. A trained research assistant moderated all FGD sessions on the basis of study objectives and research questions that were shared by the principal researcher, who took notes and organized and monitored the sessions. Each session lasted approximately 40 minutes.
The discussions were recorded and carefully transcribed and compared for accuracy and validity.. Transcriptions were made in Bangla and translated into English. The focus group facilitator resolved any content discrepancies. Using content analysis, major themes were identified, coded, and categorized; excerpts from the transcripts were chosen to illustrate the summary statements, which were also used to validate the findings.
4. FindingsBased on the objectives and research questions of this study, we found significant findings from the survey and focus group discussions that are presented separately below:
4.1. Survey Table 1 summarizes results from the survey of mothers’ perceptions of play for children’s learning and development in Bangladesh. As evident in the table, mothers’ attitudes toward play and its role in early childhood development were very positive. Only some of the key findings are presented below.
Table 1. Quantitative Findings: Mothers’ responses to statements on play and children’s development, by percentage
Strongly Disagree Undecided/ Agree Stronglydisagree neutral agree
“Through play, children learn to live – – 1.7% 3.3% 95.0% with other people as a social being.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play is detrimental to increasing 71.7% 8.3% 10.0% 3.3% 6.7% children’s knowledge.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
42 Bangladesh Education Journal
“Play encourages children’s creativity.” – – 1.7% 10.0% 88.3%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play does not help children’s 70.0% 10.0% – 3.3% 16.3% physical development.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn to 6.7% – 3.3% 5.0% 85.0%express their emotions appropriately.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children’s development of language 86.7% 5.0% 1.7% – 6.7% skills is hampered when they play.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play helps children in learning 1.7% – – 10.0% 88.3% math skills.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn – – 5.0% 6.7% 88.3% logical thinking.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children are encouraged 3.3% – – 11.7% 85.0% to solve problems on their own.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn to follow – – – 6.7% 93.3% rules and instructions.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play is detrimental to children’s learning.” 75.0% 6.7% 1.7% 11.7% 5.0%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children learn to accept a victory or – – – 1.7% 98.3% defeat in play.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“For boys and girls, play should be 58.3% 6.7% 1.7% 6.7% 26.7% different.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“For boys and girls, play materials 38.3% 1.7% – 6.7% 53.3% should be different.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children do not need to have play 90.0% 3.3% – – 6.7% opportunities at home.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“There is no need to have an outdoor 83.3% 5.0% – 5.0% 6.7% playing field (playground) for children.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Parents should play with their children.” 3.3% – – 6.7% 90.0%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play should be a regular routine as a 6.7% – – 3.3% 90.0% class subject in preprimary education.”
4.1.1. Mothers’ level of educationWhen the mean score was compared between mothers with different levels of education, no significant difference was found except for the following three statements. Mothers with lower levels of education were more likely to agree with the statement, “Through play, children learn to follow rules and instructions.” Mothers in the lower education group were also more likely to agree that “children do not need play opportunities at home.” However, mothers with higher education were more likely to agree with the statement, “Parents should play with their children.”
4.1.2. Fathers’ level of educationMean score comparisons were made between the level of fathers’ education and respondents’ agreement with the 18 survey statements in the quantitative study. No significant differences were found.
4.1.3. Family incomeAn analysis of variance, or ANOVA test, was carried out to determine the influence of income on maternal perceptions of play. No significant differences were found between participants’ responses when analyzed by their family income.
4.2. Focus GroupFor fulfilling the objective of the study and obtaining in-depth data in qualitative study, two groups of mothers of different types were recruited purposively (N= (8+8)16). Some of the key findings and comparisons of the two focus groups—mothers with less than primary education (FGD-A) and mothers with primary education and above (FGD-B)—are presented below.
4.2.1. Defining value of play for children 3–5 years oldParticipants in both focus groups responded similarly to the questions, “What do your children do throughout the day? Among those activities, which are play or games and which are not—and why?” The mothers said that children in this age group play all the time, with joy, pausing only when called for specific tasks such as eating, drinking, and bathing. Activities they defined as play include playing with dolls or toys; games such as football, cricket, and running competitively; rough-and-tumble play; cooking; collecting leaves from a banana tree; making things with mud and throwing things into a pond; dancing and wearing a sari; riding a bicycle; pretend shop-keeping with roles as a seller or a buyer; and digging in the mud like a farmer. They differentiated these activities from “risky” activities such as swimming or climbing trees, which they mentioned as “harmful play,” “unhealthy play,” or “naughty work.”
4.2.2. Benefits of playFocus group participants were asked to discuss the positive and negative benefits of play for 3- to 5-year-old children. Both groups agreed that play increases knowledge, supports language and math skills, and increases psychological well-being. They regarded physical play as activities that keep children’s bodies healthy, enhancing children’s weight and
Bangladesh Education Journal 43
42 Bangladesh Education Journal
“Play encourages children’s creativity.” – – 1.7% 10.0% 88.3%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play does not help children’s 70.0% 10.0% – 3.3% 16.3% physical development.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn to 6.7% – 3.3% 5.0% 85.0%express their emotions appropriately.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children’s development of language 86.7% 5.0% 1.7% – 6.7% skills is hampered when they play.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play helps children in learning 1.7% – – 10.0% 88.3% math skills.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn – – 5.0% 6.7% 88.3% logical thinking.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children are encouraged 3.3% – – 11.7% 85.0% to solve problems on their own.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Through play, children learn to follow – – – 6.7% 93.3% rules and instructions.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play is detrimental to children’s learning.” 75.0% 6.7% 1.7% 11.7% 5.0%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children learn to accept a victory or – – – 1.7% 98.3% defeat in play.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“For boys and girls, play should be 58.3% 6.7% 1.7% 6.7% 26.7% different.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“For boys and girls, play materials 38.3% 1.7% – 6.7% 53.3% should be different.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Children do not need to have play 90.0% 3.3% – – 6.7% opportunities at home.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“There is no need to have an outdoor 83.3% 5.0% – 5.0% 6.7% playing field (playground) for children.”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Parents should play with their children.” 3.3% – – 6.7% 90.0%------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“Play should be a regular routine as a 6.7% – – 3.3% 90.0% class subject in preprimary education.”
4.1.1. Mothers’ level of educationWhen the mean score was compared between mothers with different levels of education, no significant difference was found except for the following three statements. Mothers with lower levels of education were more likely to agree with the statement, “Through play, children learn to follow rules and instructions.” Mothers in the lower education group were also more likely to agree that “children do not need play opportunities at home.” However, mothers with higher education were more likely to agree with the statement, “Parents should play with their children.”
4.1.2. Fathers’ level of educationMean score comparisons were made between the level of fathers’ education and respondents’ agreement with the 18 survey statements in the quantitative study. No significant differences were found.
4.1.3. Family incomeAn analysis of variance, or ANOVA test, was carried out to determine the influence of income on maternal perceptions of play. No significant differences were found between participants’ responses when analyzed by their family income.
4.2. Focus GroupFor fulfilling the objective of the study and obtaining in-depth data in qualitative study, two groups of mothers of different types were recruited purposively (N= (8+8)16). Some of the key findings and comparisons of the two focus groups—mothers with less than primary education (FGD-A) and mothers with primary education and above (FGD-B)—are presented below.
4.2.1. Defining value of play for children 3–5 years oldParticipants in both focus groups responded similarly to the questions, “What do your children do throughout the day? Among those activities, which are play or games and which are not—and why?” The mothers said that children in this age group play all the time, with joy, pausing only when called for specific tasks such as eating, drinking, and bathing. Activities they defined as play include playing with dolls or toys; games such as football, cricket, and running competitively; rough-and-tumble play; cooking; collecting leaves from a banana tree; making things with mud and throwing things into a pond; dancing and wearing a sari; riding a bicycle; pretend shop-keeping with roles as a seller or a buyer; and digging in the mud like a farmer. They differentiated these activities from “risky” activities such as swimming or climbing trees, which they mentioned as “harmful play,” “unhealthy play,” or “naughty work.”
4.2.2. Benefits of playFocus group participants were asked to discuss the positive and negative benefits of play for 3- to 5-year-old children. Both groups agreed that play increases knowledge, supports language and math skills, and increases psychological well-being. They regarded physical play as activities that keep children’s bodies healthy, enhancing children’s weight and
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physical strength. Some mothers, especially those in FGD-B, mentioned that children who are physically active become agile in all other activities, including academics. Regarding the negative aspects of play, the mothers’ opinion in both groups was very clear: they felt that there is no disadvantage to play unless children participate in hazardous games.
4.2.3. Gender differences in children’s playParticipants in both focus groups felt that boys and girls play differently. But there were some variations in the activities they identified as interesting to girls or boys, as shown in table 2.
Table 2. Gender differences in play, as identified
by mothers during focus group discussions (FGD)(X = activities identified by FGD; O = not mentioned by FGD)
Interesting for girls
Cooking
Playing with dolls
Using utensils
Dancing
Wearing women’s dresses
Interesting for boys
Playing ball
Playing flute
Cycling
Cricket
Running
Carom (indoor board game)
X
X
X
O
O
X
X
X
X
O
O
Mothers withprimary
educationand above(FGD-B)
X
X
X
X
X
X
O
O
X
X
X
Mothers withless thanprimary
education(FGD-A)
Regarding whether girls and boys should play together, the mothers in FGD-A said that boys like to play outside the home, in a playground or open space, and that girls like to play at home, in the courtyard or under the trees. Some mothers remarked that their girls were forbidden to go outside alone. They did not have any problem with boys and girls playing together when they were under age 5 but felt that it was inappropriate for older children. Mothers in FGD-B were more likely to understand the benefits of letting children choose activities, play materials, and playmates regardless of gender. And they were of the opinion that if given the opportunity boys and girls enjoy playing together and learn from each other.
4.2.4. Emphasis on play or academicsThe basic opinion mothers expressed during the focus group discussions is that preschool–age children do learn through play and that it is the dominant activity compared to more formal academic learning. Their preference, however, would be an emphasis on more formal learning, indicated through such statements as, “Academic activities for children are
Bangladesh Education Journal 45
very good. If they engage in play less and more in academic activities, that would be best for children.” With one exception, they felt that there is no need to have play materials in the classroom and that play should be an outdoor break from academics rather than incorporated into classroom activities. Only one respondent said that play opportunities should be part of school curricula for 3- to 5-year-old children, because academic learning can happen through play.
4.2.5 Play opportunities at home and beyondMothers in both focus groups had similar concerns about safety for children in this age group and expressed a preference for play at home/indoors. Slight differences were found between the groups, with mothers who had less than primary education preferring a specific space, such as a small cottage where four or five children could gather, arranged for calm, quiet, and safe play. Mothers with primary education and above felt that children could play at any place in the home, such as the balcony, open space in front of the house, or underneath a tree.
Both focus groups thought that outdoor playing areas should be safe and formally structured, providing natural light, fresh air, and a chance for their children to enjoy open space and refresh their mental state. FGD-B mothers, however, said that due to the social system in their village, mothers cannot go outside and that is why children do not get their mothers’ participation in or support for outdoor play. FGD-A emphasized that there is a real need for spaces that are close to home and specifically modified for children’s play. Existing outdoor play spaces, they said, are too small, informally developed, and not well organized.
4.2.6 Parents’ Role in Children’s PlayWhen mothers were asked, “What do you think about parents’ role in children’s play?” FGD-A and B mothers answered similarly that there is a need of parents’ playing with their children. They should allocate a good amount of their time for playing with children. According to them, these little kids can not spend time alone. Again, if parents play with their children they would be protected from risks and safety concerns. Children also are happy if parents play with them. Consequently they become attentive to and develop a bonding with the mother. That’s also the time when children listen and obey, and follow the parents’ instructions. Mothers said that sometimes they had to join in play when their children insisted that they do, , generally due to lack of play partners. Some mothers felt happy and proud to find time for play with their children. . Their positive opinion was--- “Through involvement in play with children parents-child relation becomes stronger”
Mothers engage and support in their child’s play at home (in indoor play). Generally, fathers engaged less in children’s play. Mothers mentioned as the cause the fact that fathers stayed outside of the home most of the time and returned at night when young children went to bed. In some cases, even if fathers had the time they did not value play as important. Some mothers agreed that fathers were supposed to be busy with family matters other than childcare affairs.
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physical strength. Some mothers, especially those in FGD-B, mentioned that children who are physically active become agile in all other activities, including academics. Regarding the negative aspects of play, the mothers’ opinion in both groups was very clear: they felt that there is no disadvantage to play unless children participate in hazardous games.
4.2.3. Gender differences in children’s playParticipants in both focus groups felt that boys and girls play differently. But there were some variations in the activities they identified as interesting to girls or boys, as shown in table 2.
Table 2. Gender differences in play, as identified
by mothers during focus group discussions (FGD)(X = activities identified by FGD; O = not mentioned by FGD)
Interesting for girls
Cooking
Playing with dolls
Using utensils
Dancing
Wearing women’s dresses
Interesting for boys
Playing ball
Playing flute
Cycling
Cricket
Running
Carom (indoor board game)
X
X
X
O
O
X
X
X
X
O
O
Mothers withprimary
educationand above(FGD-B)
X
X
X
X
X
X
O
O
X
X
X
Mothers withless thanprimary
education(FGD-A)
Regarding whether girls and boys should play together, the mothers in FGD-A said that boys like to play outside the home, in a playground or open space, and that girls like to play at home, in the courtyard or under the trees. Some mothers remarked that their girls were forbidden to go outside alone. They did not have any problem with boys and girls playing together when they were under age 5 but felt that it was inappropriate for older children. Mothers in FGD-B were more likely to understand the benefits of letting children choose activities, play materials, and playmates regardless of gender. And they were of the opinion that if given the opportunity boys and girls enjoy playing together and learn from each other.
4.2.4. Emphasis on play or academicsThe basic opinion mothers expressed during the focus group discussions is that preschool–age children do learn through play and that it is the dominant activity compared to more formal academic learning. Their preference, however, would be an emphasis on more formal learning, indicated through such statements as, “Academic activities for children are
Bangladesh Education Journal 45
very good. If they engage in play less and more in academic activities, that would be best for children.” With one exception, they felt that there is no need to have play materials in the classroom and that play should be an outdoor break from academics rather than incorporated into classroom activities. Only one respondent said that play opportunities should be part of school curricula for 3- to 5-year-old children, because academic learning can happen through play.
4.2.5 Play opportunities at home and beyondMothers in both focus groups had similar concerns about safety for children in this age group and expressed a preference for play at home/indoors. Slight differences were found between the groups, with mothers who had less than primary education preferring a specific space, such as a small cottage where four or five children could gather, arranged for calm, quiet, and safe play. Mothers with primary education and above felt that children could play at any place in the home, such as the balcony, open space in front of the house, or underneath a tree.
Both focus groups thought that outdoor playing areas should be safe and formally structured, providing natural light, fresh air, and a chance for their children to enjoy open space and refresh their mental state. FGD-B mothers, however, said that due to the social system in their village, mothers cannot go outside and that is why children do not get their mothers’ participation in or support for outdoor play. FGD-A emphasized that there is a real need for spaces that are close to home and specifically modified for children’s play. Existing outdoor play spaces, they said, are too small, informally developed, and not well organized.
4.2.6 Parents’ Role in Children’s PlayWhen mothers were asked, “What do you think about parents’ role in children’s play?” FGD-A and B mothers answered similarly that there is a need of parents’ playing with their children. They should allocate a good amount of their time for playing with children. According to them, these little kids can not spend time alone. Again, if parents play with their children they would be protected from risks and safety concerns. Children also are happy if parents play with them. Consequently they become attentive to and develop a bonding with the mother. That’s also the time when children listen and obey, and follow the parents’ instructions. Mothers said that sometimes they had to join in play when their children insisted that they do, , generally due to lack of play partners. Some mothers felt happy and proud to find time for play with their children. . Their positive opinion was--- “Through involvement in play with children parents-child relation becomes stronger”
Mothers engage and support in their child’s play at home (in indoor play). Generally, fathers engaged less in children’s play. Mothers mentioned as the cause the fact that fathers stayed outside of the home most of the time and returned at night when young children went to bed. In some cases, even if fathers had the time they did not value play as important. Some mothers agreed that fathers were supposed to be busy with family matters other than childcare affairs.
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5. DiscussionThe findings of the study were obtained using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The focus group discussions (FGDs) complemented information obtained from the quantitative survey and provided deeper insight into the participants’ rationalization and disagreement regarding play in early childhood.
5.1. Benefits of play Quantitative findings show that a relatively important percentage of respondents were not aware about the benefit of play in development of children. Qualitative study findings in this theme also reveal that they perceived physical play as physical exercise for the children. Besides this, they did not show a deeper knowledge on how children’s development as a whole benefited from play. One mother, however, observed that children engaging in physical activity became agile in other areas including academic skills.
The quantitative study findings show that mothers have knowledge about some of the benefits of play; however, qualitative information revealed that a larger number of mothers had a positive attitude towards play but they lacked clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play for children’s physical development. They were not ware, for example, of the link between healthy bodies and healthy brain development or of as the curative strategy against the obesity epidemic (Ginsburg and the Committee on Communications and the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2007).
Some of the mothers have a wrong perception about play and children’s cognitive development. Survey showed that about 20% of respondents’ have lack of awareness on the benefits of play for children’s cognitive development. Qualitative study findings also revealed a lack in this respect. Although some of the respondents mentioned that play helped learning and gain in knowledge, discussion showed lack of clear understanding about the matter such as children’s mastery of their surrounding, development of confidence, and achieving competencies for facing future challenges, as supported by research literature (Tsao, 2002).
5.2. Emphasis on Play and AcademicsLiterature shows that the conflict in perception between children’s academic learning and play opportunity at preschool classroom and beyond exist around the world and emphasis is wrongly given to academics rather than play. (Sluss, 2004). In the quantitative study two items were used to find the mothers perception on this issue. The e first item was the statement, “play is detrimental to children’s learning,” to which 16% of the mothers agreed.
In qualitative study, however, mothers perceived that ‘play/game is not detrimental to the learning/academics’. Mothers’ opinion was that children have the right to play along with academic activities. They need to have time for play the same way as for academic activities, in the mothers’ view... But when a choice of emphasis was required, mothers preferred academic activities over play..
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The second statement on this issue in the survey was “Play should be in regular class routine as a subject in preprimary education.” Ninety percent of the mothers strongly agreed. But, discussion in the qualitative study seemed to negate this view. . Mothers did not think that there was a need to play with dolls, balls, toys, and other play-materials in classroom like other academic or leaning activities. They seem to prefer keeping play out of classroom. . Among 18 FGD participants , only one responded boldly that there was need to have play as routine activity for 3 to 5+ children in their school’s regular curriculum.The majority view was reflected in the remark: “If our children engage in academic activities that makes us happy. Engaging in play makes us less happy. Academic activities for children are very good. If they engage less in play and more in academic activities it would be the best for children.”
5.3. Gender Differences in Children’s Play Frost (2005) noted that “One source of gender segregation is culture. ...family and parenting are a factor in gender difference in play” (p-110).
To find the answer to the research question 2, both quantitative and qualitative enquiry was conducted. Both revealed that gender issue in children’s play is a debatable and confusing subject to the mothers. For instance, to the the statement, For boys and girls play should be different,” about 58% of the respondents strongly disagreed and 26% of respondents strongly agreed. To another statement, “For boys and girls play-materials should be different,” about 60% of the respondents agreed. In FGD-A some mothers said they kept their girl’s at home, within their sight, and gave them kitchen utensils and dolls to play with, out of sfety concerns., Children’s play has been dictated and influenced, it appears, by mothers’ own gender stereotypical attitude., When sufficient numbers of children gathered from neighboring families, mothers instructed their children to form boys’ group and girls’ group for playing together in gender oriented groups.
FGD-B mothers appear less stereotypical about dictating play behavior according to gender identity. They were more open to the opportunity for children to play together regardless of being boys or girls. Some mothers described their thinking in this way that “girl may wish to play with ball; boys may wish to play with doll. If we differentiate play material for girls and boys, that could be a form of deprivation for them.” FGD-B mothers agreed that there should be the scope to choose the play partners and play materials. As a mother put it, “If boys and girls get opportunity to play together, children have fun and pleasure and enjoy a lot, and they learn from each other.”
Research literature on this issue indicates parents’ role. It has been pointed out that “Parents can foster play that is gender-neutral. Parents can treat their children’s play in an equitable manner. Equal time should be spent with children of either gender or equal emphasis placed on toys and activities. Fathers and mothers should include girls in traditional male games and engage their sons in cooking and other activities in the home once thought to be females territory” (Frost, Sue & Raifel, 2005, p-152).
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5. DiscussionThe findings of the study were obtained using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The focus group discussions (FGDs) complemented information obtained from the quantitative survey and provided deeper insight into the participants’ rationalization and disagreement regarding play in early childhood.
5.1. Benefits of play Quantitative findings show that a relatively important percentage of respondents were not aware about the benefit of play in development of children. Qualitative study findings in this theme also reveal that they perceived physical play as physical exercise for the children. Besides this, they did not show a deeper knowledge on how children’s development as a whole benefited from play. One mother, however, observed that children engaging in physical activity became agile in other areas including academic skills.
The quantitative study findings show that mothers have knowledge about some of the benefits of play; however, qualitative information revealed that a larger number of mothers had a positive attitude towards play but they lacked clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play for children’s physical development. They were not ware, for example, of the link between healthy bodies and healthy brain development or of as the curative strategy against the obesity epidemic (Ginsburg and the Committee on Communications and the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2007).
Some of the mothers have a wrong perception about play and children’s cognitive development. Survey showed that about 20% of respondents’ have lack of awareness on the benefits of play for children’s cognitive development. Qualitative study findings also revealed a lack in this respect. Although some of the respondents mentioned that play helped learning and gain in knowledge, discussion showed lack of clear understanding about the matter such as children’s mastery of their surrounding, development of confidence, and achieving competencies for facing future challenges, as supported by research literature (Tsao, 2002).
5.2. Emphasis on Play and AcademicsLiterature shows that the conflict in perception between children’s academic learning and play opportunity at preschool classroom and beyond exist around the world and emphasis is wrongly given to academics rather than play. (Sluss, 2004). In the quantitative study two items were used to find the mothers perception on this issue. The e first item was the statement, “play is detrimental to children’s learning,” to which 16% of the mothers agreed.
In qualitative study, however, mothers perceived that ‘play/game is not detrimental to the learning/academics’. Mothers’ opinion was that children have the right to play along with academic activities. They need to have time for play the same way as for academic activities, in the mothers’ view... But when a choice of emphasis was required, mothers preferred academic activities over play..
Bangladesh Education Journal 47
The second statement on this issue in the survey was “Play should be in regular class routine as a subject in preprimary education.” Ninety percent of the mothers strongly agreed. But, discussion in the qualitative study seemed to negate this view. . Mothers did not think that there was a need to play with dolls, balls, toys, and other play-materials in classroom like other academic or leaning activities. They seem to prefer keeping play out of classroom. . Among 18 FGD participants , only one responded boldly that there was need to have play as routine activity for 3 to 5+ children in their school’s regular curriculum.The majority view was reflected in the remark: “If our children engage in academic activities that makes us happy. Engaging in play makes us less happy. Academic activities for children are very good. If they engage less in play and more in academic activities it would be the best for children.”
5.3. Gender Differences in Children’s Play Frost (2005) noted that “One source of gender segregation is culture. ...family and parenting are a factor in gender difference in play” (p-110).
To find the answer to the research question 2, both quantitative and qualitative enquiry was conducted. Both revealed that gender issue in children’s play is a debatable and confusing subject to the mothers. For instance, to the the statement, For boys and girls play should be different,” about 58% of the respondents strongly disagreed and 26% of respondents strongly agreed. To another statement, “For boys and girls play-materials should be different,” about 60% of the respondents agreed. In FGD-A some mothers said they kept their girl’s at home, within their sight, and gave them kitchen utensils and dolls to play with, out of sfety concerns., Children’s play has been dictated and influenced, it appears, by mothers’ own gender stereotypical attitude., When sufficient numbers of children gathered from neighboring families, mothers instructed their children to form boys’ group and girls’ group for playing together in gender oriented groups.
FGD-B mothers appear less stereotypical about dictating play behavior according to gender identity. They were more open to the opportunity for children to play together regardless of being boys or girls. Some mothers described their thinking in this way that “girl may wish to play with ball; boys may wish to play with doll. If we differentiate play material for girls and boys, that could be a form of deprivation for them.” FGD-B mothers agreed that there should be the scope to choose the play partners and play materials. As a mother put it, “If boys and girls get opportunity to play together, children have fun and pleasure and enjoy a lot, and they learn from each other.”
Research literature on this issue indicates parents’ role. It has been pointed out that “Parents can foster play that is gender-neutral. Parents can treat their children’s play in an equitable manner. Equal time should be spent with children of either gender or equal emphasis placed on toys and activities. Fathers and mothers should include girls in traditional male games and engage their sons in cooking and other activities in the home once thought to be females territory” (Frost, Sue & Raifel, 2005, p-152).
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5.4. Parents’ Role in Children’s Play
. In both quantitative survey and FGDs mothers recognized the role of parents and supported parents’ joining in children’s play. But as a mother said, , in most of the case, their participation is the result of fulfilling their children’s need and demand rather than mothers’ awareness and realization of importance of play for their children’s development and learning.
Frost, Sue & Raifel (2005) added from different research study results that “adult involvement is most effective when the adult becomes a co-player or provides suggestions and materials to enrich play. Adults are least effective when they are uninvolved or merely observe play. At the other extreme, they are equally ineffective when they become instructors or directors of play” (p. 152).
Our study revealed that generally fathers engaged less in children’s play. The literature shows that fathers’ involvement in children’s play is very important. Frost, Sue & Raifel (2005) noted that “mothers and fathers play differently with infants and toddlers. ...When parents play with toddlers, differences in play activities persist (p-115).” Mothers help their toddlers play one way, and fathers in other ways. Some research show that toddlers are relatively more responsive to fathers than to their mothers (Frost, Sue & Raifel, 2005). Though mothers expressed positive attitudes towards facilitating and supervising children’s play, they often were limited by availability of time; fathers were generally even less involved in children’s play..
6. ConclusionThe results of the survey show that mothers in rural Bangladesh know about some of the benefits of play for children. But the more in-depth analysis of focus group data revealed that although mothers generally have a positive attitude toward play, they lack clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play—including for motor development, psychological well-being, and development of life skills.
Regarding relative emphasis on play or academics, mothers preferred academic activities. However, they also recognized that 3 to 5 year-old children are not fully ready for academic activities, and for this reason, both play and academic activities are needed.
On the issue of gender differences in play, the focus group discussions generated some ambivalent results. Perceptions among mothers who were illiterate or had less than primary education (FGD-A) were that children’s play should be determined and influenced by mothers, and preferably, girls should play with other girls, boys with other boys. But those who had primary education or above (FGD-B) stated that mothers should not restrict girls and boys to playing in separate groups. Rather, mothers should give them the opportunity to play together.
Regarding their role in children’s play, results of both the survey and focus groups found that mothers have positive perceptions. Focus group discussions, however, revealed that
Bangladesh Education Journal 49
mothers’ participation in play is limited because they are busy with chores. They seldom engage in play with their child and do so only for a very short time and in response to their child’s request. The participants in this study perceive their role as supervising and protecting their children while they are playing. That’s why mothers keep their children nearby when they are working. Although they sometimes support activities by giving children play material, buying toys, etc., mothers did not mention that they were involved in their children’s play on their own initiative.
AcknowledgementThe writer would like to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Saidur Rahman Mashreky, Director – Public Health and Injury Prevention department at the Centre for Injury Prevention, Health Development and Research, Bangladesh (CIPRB) and Dr. Steffen Saifer, President at Saifer Educational Consulting for their kind support and constructive comments as they mentored and supervised the study rigorously. The author would like to expresses gratitude to Ms. Catherine Rutgers of Catherine Rutgers Inc. for editing the summary report and Ms. Rashida Akter, Senior Research Officer, ICDDR-B for her assistance in collecting relevant information for the study.
ReferencesBangladesh Bureau of Statistics / BBS, (2001). “Census Report,” Dhaka, 2001, www.bbs.gov.bd/census.php, accessed 10 September 2010.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Elkind, D, (2003). “Thanks for the Memory: The Lasting Value of True Play,” Young Children, vol. 58, no. 3, May 2003.
Frost, J.L., Sue, C.W., Raifel, S. ( 2005) Play and Child Development (2nd ed.) Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA, p. 110, 115, 152
Ginsburg, K.R., and the committee on Communications and the committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds, Pediatrics, 119; 182-191. http:/www.Pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/119/1/182
Oksal, A, (2005). Perception of play In Turkish culture, Paidéia, 15(30), 69-77.
Piaget, J, (1980). “Foreword,” in Group Games in Early Education: Implications of Piaget’s Theory, ed. Constance Kamii and Rheta DeVries, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC.
Sluss, D. J. (2004). Supporting play: birth through age eight, Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning.
Sluss, D. J, (2005). Supporting Play: Birth through Age Eight, Thomson, Delmar Learning, Clifton Park, NY.
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5.4. Parents’ Role in Children’s Play
. In both quantitative survey and FGDs mothers recognized the role of parents and supported parents’ joining in children’s play. But as a mother said, , in most of the case, their participation is the result of fulfilling their children’s need and demand rather than mothers’ awareness and realization of importance of play for their children’s development and learning.
Frost, Sue & Raifel (2005) added from different research study results that “adult involvement is most effective when the adult becomes a co-player or provides suggestions and materials to enrich play. Adults are least effective when they are uninvolved or merely observe play. At the other extreme, they are equally ineffective when they become instructors or directors of play” (p. 152).
Our study revealed that generally fathers engaged less in children’s play. The literature shows that fathers’ involvement in children’s play is very important. Frost, Sue & Raifel (2005) noted that “mothers and fathers play differently with infants and toddlers. ...When parents play with toddlers, differences in play activities persist (p-115).” Mothers help their toddlers play one way, and fathers in other ways. Some research show that toddlers are relatively more responsive to fathers than to their mothers (Frost, Sue & Raifel, 2005). Though mothers expressed positive attitudes towards facilitating and supervising children’s play, they often were limited by availability of time; fathers were generally even less involved in children’s play..
6. ConclusionThe results of the survey show that mothers in rural Bangladesh know about some of the benefits of play for children. But the more in-depth analysis of focus group data revealed that although mothers generally have a positive attitude toward play, they lack clear and specific knowledge about the benefits of play—including for motor development, psychological well-being, and development of life skills.
Regarding relative emphasis on play or academics, mothers preferred academic activities. However, they also recognized that 3 to 5 year-old children are not fully ready for academic activities, and for this reason, both play and academic activities are needed.
On the issue of gender differences in play, the focus group discussions generated some ambivalent results. Perceptions among mothers who were illiterate or had less than primary education (FGD-A) were that children’s play should be determined and influenced by mothers, and preferably, girls should play with other girls, boys with other boys. But those who had primary education or above (FGD-B) stated that mothers should not restrict girls and boys to playing in separate groups. Rather, mothers should give them the opportunity to play together.
Regarding their role in children’s play, results of both the survey and focus groups found that mothers have positive perceptions. Focus group discussions, however, revealed that
Bangladesh Education Journal 49
mothers’ participation in play is limited because they are busy with chores. They seldom engage in play with their child and do so only for a very short time and in response to their child’s request. The participants in this study perceive their role as supervising and protecting their children while they are playing. That’s why mothers keep their children nearby when they are working. Although they sometimes support activities by giving children play material, buying toys, etc., mothers did not mention that they were involved in their children’s play on their own initiative.
AcknowledgementThe writer would like to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Saidur Rahman Mashreky, Director – Public Health and Injury Prevention department at the Centre for Injury Prevention, Health Development and Research, Bangladesh (CIPRB) and Dr. Steffen Saifer, President at Saifer Educational Consulting for their kind support and constructive comments as they mentored and supervised the study rigorously. The author would like to expresses gratitude to Ms. Catherine Rutgers of Catherine Rutgers Inc. for editing the summary report and Ms. Rashida Akter, Senior Research Officer, ICDDR-B for her assistance in collecting relevant information for the study.
ReferencesBangladesh Bureau of Statistics / BBS, (2001). “Census Report,” Dhaka, 2001, www.bbs.gov.bd/census.php, accessed 10 September 2010.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Elkind, D, (2003). “Thanks for the Memory: The Lasting Value of True Play,” Young Children, vol. 58, no. 3, May 2003.
Frost, J.L., Sue, C.W., Raifel, S. ( 2005) Play and Child Development (2nd ed.) Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA, p. 110, 115, 152
Ginsburg, K.R., and the committee on Communications and the committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds, Pediatrics, 119; 182-191. http:/www.Pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/119/1/182
Oksal, A, (2005). Perception of play In Turkish culture, Paidéia, 15(30), 69-77.
Piaget, J, (1980). “Foreword,” in Group Games in Early Education: Implications of Piaget’s Theory, ed. Constance Kamii and Rheta DeVries, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC.
Sluss, D. J. (2004). Supporting play: birth through age eight, Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning.
Sluss, D. J, (2005). Supporting Play: Birth through Age Eight, Thomson, Delmar Learning, Clifton Park, NY.
50 Bangladesh Education Journal
Tsao L. (2002). How much do we know about the importance of play in child development? Child Educ. 2002;78:230–233
U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). UN General Assembly Document A/RES/44/25.
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), (1979). UN General Assembly Document.
Vygotsky, L.S., (1966/first published in 1933). “Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child,” Voprosy psikhologii [Soviet Psychology], no. 6, 1966; (in 1933 p. 552)
Vygotsky, L.S., (1978). “The Role of Play in Development,” Chapter 7, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 92–104;
Vygotsky, L.S., (1990 /first published in 1930). “Imagination and Creativity in Childhood,” Soviet Psychology, vol. 28, 1990, pp. 84–96.
[For over two decades, in his work as a public administration specialist for the International Development Research Center (IDRC), Canada and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Abu Tayeb Rafiqur Rahman,has been involved in organizing training seminars and undertaking consultancy missions to numerous countries around the world. He undertook missions to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Guyana and Trinidad.
Dr. Rahman was born in Bangladesh and currently lives in New York state, USA. After a successful and outstanding career in international arena, he still pursues intellectual activities in his professional field. He has been an Adjunct Professor of Public Administration at Baruch College, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, and a Guest Lecturer at other institutions including the Harvard Institute of International Development, Harvard University.
Dr. Rahman is the founder and the chairman of Volunteers Association for Bangladesh (VAB), a non- profit organization, established in 1998 by Non-resident Bangladeshis (NRB) to expand opportunities for rural children of Bangladesh in quality education and skill training. Over the last fifteen years, working with over a hundred rural secondary schools, VAB has helped more than 50,000 young men and women and their families in the villages and underprivileged areas of Bangladesh to overcome poverty and elevate their lives.
Press report about a meeting hosted by the Ministry of Education on education quality on 26 May, 2016 prompted Dr.Rahman to offer the following insightful comments. – Editor, BEJ]
A recent meeting of experts, organized by the Government of Bangladesh, on the quality of secondary education in the country has reviewed a detailed presentation made by the Additional Secretary of the Ministry of Education on all its relevant aspects and made several key recommendations. Some key aspects include details on schools, student enrolment, number of teachers and their ratio vis-a-vis students, results of SSC exams over the years, issues of quantity vs. quality and the relevance and impact on them played by heavy curriculum, complex text books, low-quality questions including MCQs, abuses in exam halls, and a few critical management and governance issues.
Experts agreed on the sharp fall in quality and recommended the following steps, as reported in the Daily Star: “Simplify curriculum and textbooks; Abolish MCQ system in all exams; Set up a question bank; Reform creative question system; Increase budgetary allocation; Provide more training to teachers; Rethink primary terminal and JSC exams” (“Overhaul is the Answer,” Daily Star, 27 May, 2016).
Challenges of Quality Education atSecondary Level- A Commentary
Dr. A. T. R. Rahman
50 Bangladesh Education Journal
Tsao L. (2002). How much do we know about the importance of play in child development? Child Educ. 2002;78:230–233
U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). UN General Assembly Document A/RES/44/25.
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), (1979). UN General Assembly Document.
Vygotsky, L.S., (1966/first published in 1933). “Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child,” Voprosy psikhologii [Soviet Psychology], no. 6, 1966; (in 1933 p. 552)
Vygotsky, L.S., (1978). “The Role of Play in Development,” Chapter 7, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 92–104;
Vygotsky, L.S., (1990 /first published in 1930). “Imagination and Creativity in Childhood,” Soviet Psychology, vol. 28, 1990, pp. 84–96.
[For over two decades, in his work as a public administration specialist for the International Development Research Center (IDRC), Canada and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Abu Tayeb Rafiqur Rahman,has been involved in organizing training seminars and undertaking consultancy missions to numerous countries around the world. He undertook missions to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Guyana and Trinidad.
Dr. Rahman was born in Bangladesh and currently lives in New York state, USA. After a successful and outstanding career in international arena, he still pursues intellectual activities in his professional field. He has been an Adjunct Professor of Public Administration at Baruch College, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, and a Guest Lecturer at other institutions including the Harvard Institute of International Development, Harvard University.
Dr. Rahman is the founder and the chairman of Volunteers Association for Bangladesh (VAB), a non- profit organization, established in 1998 by Non-resident Bangladeshis (NRB) to expand opportunities for rural children of Bangladesh in quality education and skill training. Over the last fifteen years, working with over a hundred rural secondary schools, VAB has helped more than 50,000 young men and women and their families in the villages and underprivileged areas of Bangladesh to overcome poverty and elevate their lives.
Press report about a meeting hosted by the Ministry of Education on education quality on 26 May, 2016 prompted Dr.Rahman to offer the following insightful comments. – Editor, BEJ]
A recent meeting of experts, organized by the Government of Bangladesh, on the quality of secondary education in the country has reviewed a detailed presentation made by the Additional Secretary of the Ministry of Education on all its relevant aspects and made several key recommendations. Some key aspects include details on schools, student enrolment, number of teachers and their ratio vis-a-vis students, results of SSC exams over the years, issues of quantity vs. quality and the relevance and impact on them played by heavy curriculum, complex text books, low-quality questions including MCQs, abuses in exam halls, and a few critical management and governance issues.
Experts agreed on the sharp fall in quality and recommended the following steps, as reported in the Daily Star: “Simplify curriculum and textbooks; Abolish MCQ system in all exams; Set up a question bank; Reform creative question system; Increase budgetary allocation; Provide more training to teachers; Rethink primary terminal and JSC exams” (“Overhaul is the Answer,” Daily Star, 27 May, 2016).
Challenges of Quality Education atSecondary Level- A Commentary
Dr. A. T. R. Rahman
52 Bangladesh Education Journal
There was general acknowledgement among participants that the Education Ministry officials are fully aware of the quality issue and an appreciation that they have been forthcoming in sharing the issue without reservation. Quality deterioration has become a systemic issue, both in the school education as a whole and within the secondary level. The Education Minister reportedly noted, "Education in the country has gone far in terms of number over the last five years. Now, we have to ensure quality education."
If one takes a longer-term view, one observes that the emphasis on quantity was building up over decades without making necessary arrangements for preserving quality, as reflected mainly in the enrolment rate, policy of “social promotion”, pressure from parents and SMC members to allow students to move to upper classes without any attention to their performance in the lower classes and to allow SSC candidates to take the SSC exam irrespective of their lack of success in pre-test or test exams, and recently in the ever-rising SSC pass rate.
However, the emphasis on quantity, at the expense of quality, did accomplish certain purposes: satisfaction to the community and the parents in seeing their supported schools get a respectable pass rate and their children pass high school; increased supply of successful graduates instead of failed SSC students for a low income economy, and above all some political support for the government. The sum of these positive aspects has been corroborated in a recent UNDP survey of 15000 households in Bangladesh where 52.7 % noted their happiness about their children’s education.
Once we identify the “beneficial” aspects of quantity, as above, the issue of quality takes on a thoroughly different dimension. A number of crucial questions arise: What is meant by “quality”; what purpose is served by quality; what are the true costs and benefits of improving quality; and so on. Granted, one of the central objectives of high quality high school education is to ensure admission into college education and higher level education. In an ironic way, then, quality secondary education becomes an “ingredient” of increasing quantity of higher-educated graduates.
A critical question arises at this point: What purpose will be served by an increased number of higher-educated graduates? The issue transcends the level of rhetoric and enters the very pragmatic area of manpower development for the emerging economy and its absorptive capacity at each stage of development. For example, is the national economy at a stage now that it can employ the increased number of higher-educated better-skilled manpower, or is this manpower going to be under- or un-employed, just as we see in the neighboring economy?
These questions address the crux of the matter: what is the relationship between quality secondary education with national manpower development including the significance of curricula, syllabus and their related aspects and what and how much is the need for manpower in the dynamic process of national economic development endeavor? These questions need to be answered pragmatically, accurately and scrupulously in the current debate on quality secondary education.
Nonetheless, there is a general agreement on the gradual fall in quality education and a complex quantity- centered and shared participation in low quality education system has taken root with its supportive culture among the key power groups in the school education. Attempts made earlier to break the system and culture has had very limited results, sometimes due to emphasis on the symptoms rather the real causes. There is no guarantee that recommendations highlighted now will be implemented and have desired results.It may be noted that the first ever Learning Assessment Survey-2013 carried out in schools over 10 years under a World Bank supported Secondary Education Quality and Access Enhancement Project (SEQAEP) found around 92 percent of sixth graders don't have the required competence in English, 89 percent of them lack proficiency in Bangla, and more than 82 percent of them cannot gain expected competence in mathematics.
Considering this uncertainty and anticipating continued public resource constraints, certain marginal interventions focusing on curricula, teacherand management may have significant positive impact on quality. Curricula, text books and their related aspects provide the main framework and substance of academic learning. Recommendations to reduce number of subjects at primary and secondary levels, to simplify text books so that an average student can understand the basic content, and establish question banks for each subject will have positive impact on quality. The idea of having more than one text book for each subject reflecting variation in presentation, clarity, readability, as prevalent in advanced countries deserves serious consideration. This will provide competition among authors, encourage team writing and offer choice to teachers and students.
Teachers are universally recognized as the heart of a good education system. While more training in the conventional sense is recommended, it needs to be organized in a comprehensive manner covering pedagogic concerns to meet the current needs. However, there is an urgent need to focus beyond remedying the current situation and prepare for the future to attract more qualified and self-motivated entrants by offering both monetary and non-monetary incentives. To facilitate such action, government may devise guidelines and set standards leaving actual implementation to the local schools and the communities. In addition, the government may also consider a program like Teach Bangladesh to attract young and motivated college graduates to spend two years teaching in rural schools that need additional teaching support most. This kind of program, either fully educational or a part of the National Service, has been in practice in many countries.
Finally, the issues of governance, management and funding remain critical to quality improvement. Maximum autonomy may be sought for local school officials to mobilize resources and manage school affairs to attain the best results for the students and their schools. It seems only fair that the same leaders and the communities that established almost all schools since 1972 and may have mobilized resources for running them before government subsidy was made available should continue to be responsible for their welfare without government interference. The recent High Court decision barring a Member of Parliament to automatically head the local elected bodies may have positive impact on local
Bangladesh Education Journal 53
52 Bangladesh Education Journal
There was general acknowledgement among participants that the Education Ministry officials are fully aware of the quality issue and an appreciation that they have been forthcoming in sharing the issue without reservation. Quality deterioration has become a systemic issue, both in the school education as a whole and within the secondary level. The Education Minister reportedly noted, "Education in the country has gone far in terms of number over the last five years. Now, we have to ensure quality education."
If one takes a longer-term view, one observes that the emphasis on quantity was building up over decades without making necessary arrangements for preserving quality, as reflected mainly in the enrolment rate, policy of “social promotion”, pressure from parents and SMC members to allow students to move to upper classes without any attention to their performance in the lower classes and to allow SSC candidates to take the SSC exam irrespective of their lack of success in pre-test or test exams, and recently in the ever-rising SSC pass rate.
However, the emphasis on quantity, at the expense of quality, did accomplish certain purposes: satisfaction to the community and the parents in seeing their supported schools get a respectable pass rate and their children pass high school; increased supply of successful graduates instead of failed SSC students for a low income economy, and above all some political support for the government. The sum of these positive aspects has been corroborated in a recent UNDP survey of 15000 households in Bangladesh where 52.7 % noted their happiness about their children’s education.
Once we identify the “beneficial” aspects of quantity, as above, the issue of quality takes on a thoroughly different dimension. A number of crucial questions arise: What is meant by “quality”; what purpose is served by quality; what are the true costs and benefits of improving quality; and so on. Granted, one of the central objectives of high quality high school education is to ensure admission into college education and higher level education. In an ironic way, then, quality secondary education becomes an “ingredient” of increasing quantity of higher-educated graduates.
A critical question arises at this point: What purpose will be served by an increased number of higher-educated graduates? The issue transcends the level of rhetoric and enters the very pragmatic area of manpower development for the emerging economy and its absorptive capacity at each stage of development. For example, is the national economy at a stage now that it can employ the increased number of higher-educated better-skilled manpower, or is this manpower going to be under- or un-employed, just as we see in the neighboring economy?
These questions address the crux of the matter: what is the relationship between quality secondary education with national manpower development including the significance of curricula, syllabus and their related aspects and what and how much is the need for manpower in the dynamic process of national economic development endeavor? These questions need to be answered pragmatically, accurately and scrupulously in the current debate on quality secondary education.
Nonetheless, there is a general agreement on the gradual fall in quality education and a complex quantity- centered and shared participation in low quality education system has taken root with its supportive culture among the key power groups in the school education. Attempts made earlier to break the system and culture has had very limited results, sometimes due to emphasis on the symptoms rather the real causes. There is no guarantee that recommendations highlighted now will be implemented and have desired results.It may be noted that the first ever Learning Assessment Survey-2013 carried out in schools over 10 years under a World Bank supported Secondary Education Quality and Access Enhancement Project (SEQAEP) found around 92 percent of sixth graders don't have the required competence in English, 89 percent of them lack proficiency in Bangla, and more than 82 percent of them cannot gain expected competence in mathematics.
Considering this uncertainty and anticipating continued public resource constraints, certain marginal interventions focusing on curricula, teacherand management may have significant positive impact on quality. Curricula, text books and their related aspects provide the main framework and substance of academic learning. Recommendations to reduce number of subjects at primary and secondary levels, to simplify text books so that an average student can understand the basic content, and establish question banks for each subject will have positive impact on quality. The idea of having more than one text book for each subject reflecting variation in presentation, clarity, readability, as prevalent in advanced countries deserves serious consideration. This will provide competition among authors, encourage team writing and offer choice to teachers and students.
Teachers are universally recognized as the heart of a good education system. While more training in the conventional sense is recommended, it needs to be organized in a comprehensive manner covering pedagogic concerns to meet the current needs. However, there is an urgent need to focus beyond remedying the current situation and prepare for the future to attract more qualified and self-motivated entrants by offering both monetary and non-monetary incentives. To facilitate such action, government may devise guidelines and set standards leaving actual implementation to the local schools and the communities. In addition, the government may also consider a program like Teach Bangladesh to attract young and motivated college graduates to spend two years teaching in rural schools that need additional teaching support most. This kind of program, either fully educational or a part of the National Service, has been in practice in many countries.
Finally, the issues of governance, management and funding remain critical to quality improvement. Maximum autonomy may be sought for local school officials to mobilize resources and manage school affairs to attain the best results for the students and their schools. It seems only fair that the same leaders and the communities that established almost all schools since 1972 and may have mobilized resources for running them before government subsidy was made available should continue to be responsible for their welfare without government interference. The recent High Court decision barring a Member of Parliament to automatically head the local elected bodies may have positive impact on local
Bangladesh Education Journal 53
54 Bangladesh Education Journal
autonomy. While assuring its hands off position, government may consider to further strength the link between performance and all its grants and manage this process not directly by the Ministry but by an autonomous body to assure professional and objective management for best results.
As the Government continues to slowly raise its yearly allocation for education, two key pro-quality recommendations may be taken in the interim to enhance benefit to deserving schools and encourage fund mobilization from non-public sources. They include active consolidation and elimination policy of existing schools and public-private collaboration for promoting and sustaining quality education. There is a need for consolidation by combining schools where there are too many schools chasing too few students.
There is also an urgent need to eliminate schools, at least drop them from public support that have been performing poorly. Using a benchmark of one secondary school for every 10,000 people there are at least 3,000 extra schools currently in Bangladesh and a policy of consolidation will help better distribution of public and private support to the remaining schools which can serve better the students and the communities. With an encouraging societal concern for quality education, there exists ample scope for attracting initiative and support of concerned Bangladeshis, enlightened private corporations and relevant NGOs locally, nationally and internationally. An active public policy, guidelines and interaction may possibly help in mobilizing and sustaining such concern and support to help improve quality.
It may be concluded with caution that the public secular education system and culture in Bangladesh has remained ensconced in the system perpetrated by the colonists. It is now high time to align national development efforts with national manpower needs and to utilize education, especially secondary education, as the tool for such alignment. The quantity and the quality issues will then necessarily be in sync.
AbstractAssessing the skill level of workers acquiring skills informally and recognising it formally through certification within the National Technical Vocational Qualification Framework (NTVQF) are a high priority in the National Skill Development Policy adopted in 2011. With over 80% of the workforce employed in the informal sector, an a large majority acquiring their skills informally through work experience, assessing and certifying the skill level of these workers are obviously a huge task. This article describes the concept and rationale of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and the mechanism and process to be applied in this effort. The challenges and lessons are also noted briefly. The Annex includes a fact sheet on RPL as a ready reference for readers.
Key words: RPL, NTVQF, Informal employment, non-formal skill development.
IntroductionRecognition of Prior Learning or RPL is a system of formal recongnition of skills acquired informally or in a nonformal way through certifications by the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) regualtory authority, incase of Bangladesh it is Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB). In Bangladesh more than 80% of skilled work force providing services to formal and informal industry and service sectors acqure skills informally. The forms of informalities are infomal apprentices under Master Crafts Person (MCP), helper, assistant or even ordnary worker. Recognition of their skills will create oppurtunites for them to have access to formal TVET qualificantions, lead them to career building, make them more productive as a result of their increasing acceptablity by the employers and empower them both socially and economically. Another benefit of RPL is the export of high-value certified skilled manpower to foreign contries which bring foreign currency for the country.
The newly developed “National Skills Development Policy – 2011” (NSDP) of Bangladesh createda provision for recognition i.e. a provision to grant formal accreditation to those skills informally gained without any formal schooling through its National Technical Vocational Qualification Framework (NTVQF). It is intended specifically to do so through its two steps of Pre-vocational level of qualification applying the process adopted in the Quality Assurance System.
Certifying Informally Developed Skills throughRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
*Hari Pada Das
* Programme Officer, Bangladesh Skills for Employment and Productivity Project, ILO-Dhaka, Bangladesh [email protected], [email protected]
54 Bangladesh Education Journal
autonomy. While assuring its hands off position, government may consider to further strength the link between performance and all its grants and manage this process not directly by the Ministry but by an autonomous body to assure professional and objective management for best results.
As the Government continues to slowly raise its yearly allocation for education, two key pro-quality recommendations may be taken in the interim to enhance benefit to deserving schools and encourage fund mobilization from non-public sources. They include active consolidation and elimination policy of existing schools and public-private collaboration for promoting and sustaining quality education. There is a need for consolidation by combining schools where there are too many schools chasing too few students.
There is also an urgent need to eliminate schools, at least drop them from public support that have been performing poorly. Using a benchmark of one secondary school for every 10,000 people there are at least 3,000 extra schools currently in Bangladesh and a policy of consolidation will help better distribution of public and private support to the remaining schools which can serve better the students and the communities. With an encouraging societal concern for quality education, there exists ample scope for attracting initiative and support of concerned Bangladeshis, enlightened private corporations and relevant NGOs locally, nationally and internationally. An active public policy, guidelines and interaction may possibly help in mobilizing and sustaining such concern and support to help improve quality.
It may be concluded with caution that the public secular education system and culture in Bangladesh has remained ensconced in the system perpetrated by the colonists. It is now high time to align national development efforts with national manpower needs and to utilize education, especially secondary education, as the tool for such alignment. The quantity and the quality issues will then necessarily be in sync.
AbstractAssessing the skill level of workers acquiring skills informally and recognising it formally through certification within the National Technical Vocational Qualification Framework (NTVQF) are a high priority in the National Skill Development Policy adopted in 2011. With over 80% of the workforce employed in the informal sector, an a large majority acquiring their skills informally through work experience, assessing and certifying the skill level of these workers are obviously a huge task. This article describes the concept and rationale of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and the mechanism and process to be applied in this effort. The challenges and lessons are also noted briefly. The Annex includes a fact sheet on RPL as a ready reference for readers.
Key words: RPL, NTVQF, Informal employment, non-formal skill development.
IntroductionRecognition of Prior Learning or RPL is a system of formal recongnition of skills acquired informally or in a nonformal way through certifications by the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) regualtory authority, incase of Bangladesh it is Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB). In Bangladesh more than 80% of skilled work force providing services to formal and informal industry and service sectors acqure skills informally. The forms of informalities are infomal apprentices under Master Crafts Person (MCP), helper, assistant or even ordnary worker. Recognition of their skills will create oppurtunites for them to have access to formal TVET qualificantions, lead them to career building, make them more productive as a result of their increasing acceptablity by the employers and empower them both socially and economically. Another benefit of RPL is the export of high-value certified skilled manpower to foreign contries which bring foreign currency for the country.
The newly developed “National Skills Development Policy – 2011” (NSDP) of Bangladesh createda provision for recognition i.e. a provision to grant formal accreditation to those skills informally gained without any formal schooling through its National Technical Vocational Qualification Framework (NTVQF). It is intended specifically to do so through its two steps of Pre-vocational level of qualification applying the process adopted in the Quality Assurance System.
Certifying Informally Developed Skills throughRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
*Hari Pada Das
* Programme Officer, Bangladesh Skills for Employment and Productivity Project, ILO-Dhaka, Bangladesh [email protected], [email protected]
56 Bangladesh Education Journal
Bangladesh National Skills Development Policy attaches great importance to RPL
• Many citizens acquire skills and knowledge through work and other life experience without access to formal education or training. In order to recognise the skills and knowledge acquired and provide enhanced pathways into further education and training, a system for the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) will be introduced. (Sub-section 13.1. of NSDP)
• Wherever possible, the recognition should be conducted against the competencies and qualifications embedded within the National Technical and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF). (Sub-section 13.2.c. of NSDP)
• The Government and its partners will also explore the potential for introducing assessment centres for RPL to be regulated by the same quality standards applicable to accredited training institutions.(Sub-section 13.4. of NSDP) (MOE, 2011)
RPL also contributes to promotion of equity and access to skill development as large number of Bangladesh workforce have acquired no formal skills. On the other hand, the proportion of girls’ enrolment in formal TVET in Bangladesh is insufficient(around 20% of total).RPL process will help minimize the gap of gender inequality in TVET, if RPL assessment can be taken to their door step (ILO, 2012a)
ILO implemented the TVET Reform Project (EU-funded),worked with BTEB and developed Competency Standards for fifteen informal sector occupations at Pre-vocationalLevel2 and National Competency (NC)Level1qualifications for the following occuaptions: Electrical Installation and Maintenance (construction), Plumbing, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (RAC), TV Servicing, Mobile Phone Servicing, Motorcycle Servicing, Solar Electrical System Installation and Maintenance, RMG Sewing Machine Operation, Tailoring and Dress Making, Block Batique and Screen Printing, Beauty Care, Embroidery, Karchupi Works, Tiles Works and Jute Bag and Box Making.
Government is very eager to implement RPL and BTEB is expanding its provision all around the country. Currently, as of June 2016, BTEB has accredited 85 assessment centresaround the country of which 35 centres are conducting RPL assessment and the figure of certified workers has increased to around nine thousand covering Prevocational Level2, NC Level1 and NC Level2. World Bank-funded STEP Project has been promoting large scale implementation of RP (ILO, 2012b).
RPL implementation processRPL implementation process includes the following steps:
• Development and approval of Competency Standards and Course Accreditation Documents for occupations
• Development of Assessment Tools
• Accreditation of Assessment Centres
• Certification of Industry Assessors
• Identification of potential assesses
• Organisation of assessment events
Challenges• The main challenge in the RPL effort is to bring candidates to assessment centres. For
example, one needs to communicate with those potential assesses; get them ready for assessment; get them released from their workplace to go to the assessment centre; pay their transport allowances and assessment fees; and organize the assessment events at different locations. Approximately BDT 4,000 (US$50) is required for the assessment of one qualification for each participant.
• The second challenge is to get the certified assessors for each of the occupations around the assessment centres.
• The third challenge is to develop and approve competency standards for hundreds of informal sector occupations. Currently Pre-vocational level Competency Standards are available at BTEB for only 24 occupations.
• As per Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics’ Labour Force Survey – 2010 (BBS LFS) the total employed labour force was 54 million with an annual growth rate of employment of 3.2% and, as such, with the same rate of growth, the employed workforce was estimated at 59 million in 2013. More than 80 % of this workforce are employed in the informal sector, obviously with some level of skills. So the challenge is to reach out to this huge population of workers and undertake assessment and certification of their skills.
Lessons learnt1. Organisation of one to two-day orientation sessions for the potential assessment
candidates is essential for ice-breaking. It has been learnt from experience that for a better success rate orientation is required for the candidates to understand what to do and how to do along with demonstration of skills competency. For each Unit of Competency in each qualification, appropriate reading, writing, OSH skills need to be demonstrated along with the technical skills.
2. Selection of the right type of candidates as prospective assessors is important. To perform as an assessor, only technical skill sare not enough; writing, reading and interviewing skills are also required to conduct the assessment. It has been observed that some people have high level of technical skills but not the required level of reading and writing skills, which causes difficulty in performing with the required level of professionalism with respect to all elements of the assessment.
ReferencesMOE (2011).National Skill Development Policy. Dhaka: Ministry of Education
ILO (2012a).Technical and Vocational Education and Training Bangladesh, Skills vision 2016. Dhaka: International Labour Organisation.
ILO (2012b).Fact Sheet 14: Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), Dhaka: International Labour Organisation
Bangladesh Education Journal 57
56 Bangladesh Education Journal
Bangladesh National Skills Development Policy attaches great importance to RPL
• Many citizens acquire skills and knowledge through work and other life experience without access to formal education or training. In order to recognise the skills and knowledge acquired and provide enhanced pathways into further education and training, a system for the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) will be introduced. (Sub-section 13.1. of NSDP)
• Wherever possible, the recognition should be conducted against the competencies and qualifications embedded within the National Technical and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF). (Sub-section 13.2.c. of NSDP)
• The Government and its partners will also explore the potential for introducing assessment centres for RPL to be regulated by the same quality standards applicable to accredited training institutions.(Sub-section 13.4. of NSDP) (MOE, 2011)
RPL also contributes to promotion of equity and access to skill development as large number of Bangladesh workforce have acquired no formal skills. On the other hand, the proportion of girls’ enrolment in formal TVET in Bangladesh is insufficient(around 20% of total).RPL process will help minimize the gap of gender inequality in TVET, if RPL assessment can be taken to their door step (ILO, 2012a)
ILO implemented the TVET Reform Project (EU-funded),worked with BTEB and developed Competency Standards for fifteen informal sector occupations at Pre-vocationalLevel2 and National Competency (NC)Level1qualifications for the following occuaptions: Electrical Installation and Maintenance (construction), Plumbing, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (RAC), TV Servicing, Mobile Phone Servicing, Motorcycle Servicing, Solar Electrical System Installation and Maintenance, RMG Sewing Machine Operation, Tailoring and Dress Making, Block Batique and Screen Printing, Beauty Care, Embroidery, Karchupi Works, Tiles Works and Jute Bag and Box Making.
Government is very eager to implement RPL and BTEB is expanding its provision all around the country. Currently, as of June 2016, BTEB has accredited 85 assessment centresaround the country of which 35 centres are conducting RPL assessment and the figure of certified workers has increased to around nine thousand covering Prevocational Level2, NC Level1 and NC Level2. World Bank-funded STEP Project has been promoting large scale implementation of RP (ILO, 2012b).
RPL implementation processRPL implementation process includes the following steps:
• Development and approval of Competency Standards and Course Accreditation Documents for occupations
• Development of Assessment Tools
• Accreditation of Assessment Centres
• Certification of Industry Assessors
• Identification of potential assesses
• Organisation of assessment events
Challenges• The main challenge in the RPL effort is to bring candidates to assessment centres. For
example, one needs to communicate with those potential assesses; get them ready for assessment; get them released from their workplace to go to the assessment centre; pay their transport allowances and assessment fees; and organize the assessment events at different locations. Approximately BDT 4,000 (US$50) is required for the assessment of one qualification for each participant.
• The second challenge is to get the certified assessors for each of the occupations around the assessment centres.
• The third challenge is to develop and approve competency standards for hundreds of informal sector occupations. Currently Pre-vocational level Competency Standards are available at BTEB for only 24 occupations.
• As per Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics’ Labour Force Survey – 2010 (BBS LFS) the total employed labour force was 54 million with an annual growth rate of employment of 3.2% and, as such, with the same rate of growth, the employed workforce was estimated at 59 million in 2013. More than 80 % of this workforce are employed in the informal sector, obviously with some level of skills. So the challenge is to reach out to this huge population of workers and undertake assessment and certification of their skills.
Lessons learnt1. Organisation of one to two-day orientation sessions for the potential assessment
candidates is essential for ice-breaking. It has been learnt from experience that for a better success rate orientation is required for the candidates to understand what to do and how to do along with demonstration of skills competency. For each Unit of Competency in each qualification, appropriate reading, writing, OSH skills need to be demonstrated along with the technical skills.
2. Selection of the right type of candidates as prospective assessors is important. To perform as an assessor, only technical skill sare not enough; writing, reading and interviewing skills are also required to conduct the assessment. It has been observed that some people have high level of technical skills but not the required level of reading and writing skills, which causes difficulty in performing with the required level of professionalism with respect to all elements of the assessment.
ReferencesMOE (2011).National Skill Development Policy. Dhaka: Ministry of Education
ILO (2012a).Technical and Vocational Education and Training Bangladesh, Skills vision 2016. Dhaka: International Labour Organisation.
ILO (2012b).Fact Sheet 14: Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), Dhaka: International Labour Organisation
Bangladesh Education Journal 57
Annex
FACTSHEET ONRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in Bangladesh
CONCEPTRecognition of Prior Learning gives credit for competencies gained through previous learning, other training, work or life experience as part of skill assessment. It formally recognizes the skills and knowledge
that a person already possesses against competencies in the National Training and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF). There are three pathways to assessment in the National Competency Assessment and Certification System (CACS), as noted below; and RPL is involved in two of them:
1 Training and assessment pathway (participating in an accredited training course delivered by a Registered Training Organization)
2 Assessment only pathway (RPL)
3 Combination pathway (Training and assessment for some units of competency and RPL for other units of competency)
The result of an RPL process can be credit for all the competencies in a qualification or just some of them. Credit given can allow for entry into a qualification and/or provide credit towards achieving the qualification, thereby possibly reducing the training time required for a learner to achieve a qualification. Assessment can only be conducted by Registered Assessors who have completed training on RPL, familiarisation with common types of evidence and assessment plans.
For example, Amin is a skilled welder working in the informal sector that wants to get a job in the formal sector but needs a Level 2 National Certificate in Welding. He has no paperwork to prove his skills and has trouble reading. He comes into the BTEB, gets an application form and submits it with photos of him welding and a letter from his employer.
He is asked to do a skill test and is given credit for all units except for two specific literacy units, which he completes through a night class. He is given his Level 2 Certificate.
As many of the applicants for RPL assessment will be from non-formal pathways and may not have documented evidence, be illiterate or come from marginalized groups, it is important that there are fair alternatives to meet the needs of different groups. BTEB will consult with industry groups and other relevant ministries to agree on the most useful methods to provide evidence of skills in any given situation.
Collecting evidence
The primary means of evidence will be practice-based, that is assessed through hands-on skills testing. This can be supported by secondary means of evidence such as work simulation and/or verbal questioning.
58 Bangladesh Education Journal
Portfolios can also be submitted as secondary evidence, highlighting the applicant’s prior learning, achievements and experience. Examples of portfolio items could include work samples, photographs or videos of work, records of practical 'on the job' assessment by previous supervisors, skills log books or letters from employers.
To get involved in skills development in Bangladesh and find out how you can become qualified, contact the TVET Reform Project at ILO Dhaka via email using [email protected] or visit us on the web: ilo.org/tvet
More on Assessment Design
RPL assessment design processes must be consistent with the national assessment design process outlined in NQSAS Manual 4: Accreditation of Assessment Centres.
• Fifteen courses in high-demand occupations (ready-made garments, mobile phone servicing, jute and paper bag maker, tailoring, plumbing, beauty therapy, etc.) will be accredited by BTEB under the NTVQF.
• One instructor/teacher and one industry representative for each of the fifteen occupations in each of the six divisional headquarters (180 in total) will be trained as Registered Competency Assessors and ccredited by BTBEB under the NTVQF.
• Accredited Assessment Centres across the six divisional areas will be identified; these will operate both as stand-alone centres and as attachments to institutions. All AACs will be registered with BTEB.
• Approximately 10,000 candidates will be assessed through the RPL process as described below.
1 Applicant (or sponsor) pays necessary RPL fee.
2 Applicant completes the RPL application form/self-assessment form available from an Accredited Assessment Centre (AAC).
3 The AAC advises the applicant on the types of evidence that could be used to support their application.
4 The applicant collects copies of evidence and a declaration of their authenticity from the document provider.
5 Each piece of evidence should be clearly marked so that the Registered Competency Assessor can quickly understand which part of the self-assessment that it supports. One document can be referred to in as many occasions as it is relevant.
6 Once all the evidence is collected, the application form and evidence is delivered to the assessor.
7 Once the application form and the evidence have been reviewed by he assessor the applicant will be interviewed and/or asked to undertake skills testing by the assessor to verify the legitimacy of the applicant’s claims.
8 The assessor will then make a decision on whether the applicant is competent against the units of competency they have applied for, and inform the applicant of the outcome.
9 If the applicant is deemed as not yet competent or wishes to gain competency in additional units, he/she can do so through the normal pathways of institutional or workplace training and assessment.
Bangladesh Education Journal 59
Annex
FACTSHEET ONRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in Bangladesh
CONCEPTRecognition of Prior Learning gives credit for competencies gained through previous learning, other training, work or life experience as part of skill assessment. It formally recognizes the skills and knowledge
that a person already possesses against competencies in the National Training and Vocational Qualifications Framework (NTVQF). There are three pathways to assessment in the National Competency Assessment and Certification System (CACS), as noted below; and RPL is involved in two of them:
1 Training and assessment pathway (participating in an accredited training course delivered by a Registered Training Organization)
2 Assessment only pathway (RPL)
3 Combination pathway (Training and assessment for some units of competency and RPL for other units of competency)
The result of an RPL process can be credit for all the competencies in a qualification or just some of them. Credit given can allow for entry into a qualification and/or provide credit towards achieving the qualification, thereby possibly reducing the training time required for a learner to achieve a qualification. Assessment can only be conducted by Registered Assessors who have completed training on RPL, familiarisation with common types of evidence and assessment plans.
For example, Amin is a skilled welder working in the informal sector that wants to get a job in the formal sector but needs a Level 2 National Certificate in Welding. He has no paperwork to prove his skills and has trouble reading. He comes into the BTEB, gets an application form and submits it with photos of him welding and a letter from his employer.
He is asked to do a skill test and is given credit for all units except for two specific literacy units, which he completes through a night class. He is given his Level 2 Certificate.
As many of the applicants for RPL assessment will be from non-formal pathways and may not have documented evidence, be illiterate or come from marginalized groups, it is important that there are fair alternatives to meet the needs of different groups. BTEB will consult with industry groups and other relevant ministries to agree on the most useful methods to provide evidence of skills in any given situation.
Collecting evidence
The primary means of evidence will be practice-based, that is assessed through hands-on skills testing. This can be supported by secondary means of evidence such as work simulation and/or verbal questioning.
58 Bangladesh Education Journal
Portfolios can also be submitted as secondary evidence, highlighting the applicant’s prior learning, achievements and experience. Examples of portfolio items could include work samples, photographs or videos of work, records of practical 'on the job' assessment by previous supervisors, skills log books or letters from employers.
To get involved in skills development in Bangladesh and find out how you can become qualified, contact the TVET Reform Project at ILO Dhaka via email using [email protected] or visit us on the web: ilo.org/tvet
More on Assessment Design
RPL assessment design processes must be consistent with the national assessment design process outlined in NQSAS Manual 4: Accreditation of Assessment Centres.
• Fifteen courses in high-demand occupations (ready-made garments, mobile phone servicing, jute and paper bag maker, tailoring, plumbing, beauty therapy, etc.) will be accredited by BTEB under the NTVQF.
• One instructor/teacher and one industry representative for each of the fifteen occupations in each of the six divisional headquarters (180 in total) will be trained as Registered Competency Assessors and ccredited by BTBEB under the NTVQF.
• Accredited Assessment Centres across the six divisional areas will be identified; these will operate both as stand-alone centres and as attachments to institutions. All AACs will be registered with BTEB.
• Approximately 10,000 candidates will be assessed through the RPL process as described below.
1 Applicant (or sponsor) pays necessary RPL fee.
2 Applicant completes the RPL application form/self-assessment form available from an Accredited Assessment Centre (AAC).
3 The AAC advises the applicant on the types of evidence that could be used to support their application.
4 The applicant collects copies of evidence and a declaration of their authenticity from the document provider.
5 Each piece of evidence should be clearly marked so that the Registered Competency Assessor can quickly understand which part of the self-assessment that it supports. One document can be referred to in as many occasions as it is relevant.
6 Once all the evidence is collected, the application form and evidence is delivered to the assessor.
7 Once the application form and the evidence have been reviewed by he assessor the applicant will be interviewed and/or asked to undertake skills testing by the assessor to verify the legitimacy of the applicant’s claims.
8 The assessor will then make a decision on whether the applicant is competent against the units of competency they have applied for, and inform the applicant of the outcome.
9 If the applicant is deemed as not yet competent or wishes to gain competency in additional units, he/she can do so through the normal pathways of institutional or workplace training and assessment.
Bangladesh Education Journal 59
BAFED I n s p i r i n g E x c e l l e n c e
BRAC Institute of Educational DevelopmentBRAC University (BIED, BRACU)
