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INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CAR

An electric caris anautomobile that ispropelledby oneelectric motor or more, using

electricalenergy stored inbatteries or another energy storage device.Electric motors give electric

cars instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration. Electric cars were popular in the late

19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology

andmass production of cheaper gasoline vehicles led to a decline in the use ofelectric drive

vehicles.Theenergy crises of the 1970s and '80s brought a short-lived interest in electric cars,

though those cars did not reach mass marketing as today's electric cars experience it. Since the

mid-2000s, the production of electric cars is experiencing a renaissance due to advances in

battery and power management technologies As of September 2012,series production highway-

capable models available in some countries include the Tesla Roadster, REVAi, Buddy,Mitsubishi i MiEV,Nissan Leaf,Smart ED,Wheego Whip LiFe,Mia electric,BYD e6,Bollor

Bluecar, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus Electric,BMW ActiveE,Coda, Tesla Model S,

andHonda Fit EV.As of September 2012, the world's top-selling highway-capable all-electric

cars are the Nissan Leaf, with more than 37,000 units sold worldwide, and the Mitsubishi i-

MiEV, with global sales of more than 15,000 vehicles, including more than 6,500 units rebadged

as Peugeot iOn and Citron C-Zero and sold in the European market.

Electric cars have several benefits compared to conventionalinternal combustion

engine automobiles, including a significant reduction of localair pollution, as they have no

tailpipe, and therefore do not emit harmfultailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power

at the point of operation; reducedgreenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power,

depending on the fuel and technology used forelectricity generation to charge the batteries; and

less dependence on foreign oil, which for theUnited States and otherdeveloped oremerging

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countries is cause for concern about vulnerability to oil price volatility

andsupplydisruption.Also for manydeveloping countries, and particularly for the poorest

inAfrica,high oil prices have an adverse impact on theirbalance of payments,hindering their

economic growth.

Despite their potential benefits, widespread adoption of electric cars faces several hurdles and

limitations. As of 2010, electric cars are significantly more expensive than conventional internal

combustion engine vehicles andhybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of

theirlithium-ion batterypack. However, battery prices are coming down with mass production

and expected to drop further. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack

of public and privaterecharging infrastructure and the driver's fear of the batteries running out of

energy before reaching their destination (range anxiety) due to the limited range of existing

electric cars. Several governments have established policies and economic incentives toovercome existing barriers, to promote the sales of electric cars, and to fund further development

of electric vehicles, more cost-effective battery technology and their components. The U.S. has

pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants for electric cars and batteries. China has announced it

will provide US$15 billion to initiate an electric car industry within its borders. Several national

and local governments have establishedtax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to reduce the

net purchase price of electric cars and otherplug-ins.

ETYMOLOGY

Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle (EV); the term "electric vehicle" refers to any

vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while "electric car" generally refers to road-

goingautomobilespowered by electricity. While an electric car's power source is not explicitly an

on-board battery, electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are generally

referred to by a different name: an electric car powered by sunlight is a solar car,and an electric

car powered by a gasoline generator is a form ofhybrid car.Thus, an electric car that derives itspower from an on-board battery pack is a form ofbattery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the

term "electric car" is used to refer to battery electric vehicles.

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COMPARISON WITH INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

VEHICLES

An important goal for electric vehicles is overcoming the disparity between their costs of

development, production, and operation, with respect to those of equivalentinternal combustionengine vehicles (ICEVs).

Price

Sales of theMitsubishi i MiEV to the public began inJapan in April 2010, inHong Kongin May

2010 and inAustralia in July 2010.

The purchase price of electric cars is significantly more expensive than conventional internal

combustion engine cars, even after consideringgovernment incentives for plug-in electric

vehicles available in several countries. The primary reason is the high cost of carbatteries.Thehigh purchase price is hindering the mass transition fromgasoline cars to electric cars.

According to a survey taken byNielsen for theFinancial Times in 2010, around three quarters of

American and British car buyers have or would consider buying an electric car, but they are

unwilling to pay more for an electric car. The survey showed that 65% of Americans and 76% of

Britons are not willing to pay more for an electric car above the price of a conventional car. Also

a 2010 report by J.D. Power and Associates states that it is not entirely clear to consumers

thetotal cost of ownership of battery electric vehicles over the life of the vehicle, and "there is

still much confusion about how long one would have to own such a vehicle to realize cost

savings on fuel, compared with a vehicle powered by a conventional internal combustion engine

(ICE). The resale value of HEVs and BEVs, as well as the cost of replacing depleted battery

packs, are other financial considerations that weigh heavily on consumers minds."

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The electric car companyTesla Motors is usinglaptop battery technology for the battery packs

of their electric cars that are 3 to 4 times cheaper than dedicated electric car battery packs that

other auto makers are using. While dedicated battery packs cost $700$800 per kilowatt hour,

battery packs using small laptop cells cost about $200. That could potentially drive down the cost

of electric cars that are using Tesla's battery technology such as theToyota RAV4 EV and

theSmart ED as well as their own upcoming 2014 models such as theModel X.As of June

2012, and based on the three battery size options offered for theTesla Model S,theNew York

Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-

hour. A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the

gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars over the vehicles lifetimes do not offset their

higher purchase prices. This finding was estimated comparing their lifetimenet present value at

2010 purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market, and assuming nogovernmentsubidies.According to the study estimates, aPHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a

conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicle is US$4,819 more

expensive. The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years,

assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase. Under the future

scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than

conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than

BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a

scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. Savings differ because BEVs are

simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and

still have gasoline-powered engines.

Running costs and maintenance

TheTesla Roadster,launched in 2008, has arange of 244 mi (393 km) and ended production in

2011. Most of the running cost of an electric vehicle can be attributed to the maintenance of the

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battery pack, and its eventual replacement, because an electric vehicle has only around 5 moving

parts in its motor, compared to a gasoline car that has hundreds of parts in itsinternal combustion

engine.Electric cars have expensive batteries that must be replaced but otherwise incur very low

maintenance costs, particularly in the case of current lithium-based designs.

To calculate the cost per kilometer of an electric vehicle it is therefore necessary to assign a

monetary value to the wear incurred on the battery. This can be difficult because the battery will

have a slightly lower capacity each time it is charged; it is at the end of its life when the owner

decides its performance is no longer acceptable. Even then an 'end of life' battery is not

completely worthless as it can be re-purposed, recycled or used as a spare.

Since a battery is made of many individual cells that do not necessarily wear evenly, periodically

replacing the worst of them can retain the vehicle's range.

The Tesla Roadster's very large battery pack is expected to last seven years with typical drivingand costs US$12,000 when pre-purchased today. Driving 40 miles (64 km) per day for seven

years or 102,200 miles (164,500 km) leads to a battery consumption cost of US$0.1174 per 1

mile (1.6 km) or US$4.70 per 40 miles (64 km). The companyBetter Placeprovides another cost

comparison as they anticipate meeting contractual obligations to deliver batteries as well as clean

electricity to recharge the batteries at a total cost of US$0.08 per 1 mile (1.6 km) in

2010, US$0.04 per mile by 2015 and US$0.02 per mile by 2020. 40 miles (64 km) of driving

would initially cost US$3.20 and fall over time to US$0.80.

In 2010 the U.S. government estimated that a battery with a 100 miles (160 km) range would

cost about US$33,000. Concerns remain about durability and longevity of the battery.

The documentary filmWho Killed the Electric Car?[51]shows a comparison between the parts

that require replacement in a gasoline powered cars and EV1s, with the garages stating that they

bring the electric cars in every 5,000 mi (8,000 km), rotate the tires, fill the windshield washer

fluid and send them back out again.

Electricity Vs. Hydrocarbon Fuel

The EV1 energy use was about 11 kWh/100 km (0.40 MJ/km; 0.18 kWh/mi). TheNissan

Leaf uses 21.25 kWh/100 km (0.765 MJ/km; 0.3420 kWh/mi) according to theUS

Environmental Protection Agency.[53]These differences reflect the different design and utility

targets for the vehicles, and the varying testing standards. The actual energy use is greatly

dependent on the actual driving conditions and driving style. Nissan estimates that the Leaf's 5

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year operating cost will be US$1,800 versus US$6,000 for a gasoline car in the

U.S.[54]According to Nissan, the operating cost of the Leaf in the U.K is 1.75penceper mile

(1.09p per km) when charging at an off-peak electricity rate, while a conventional petrol-

powered car costs more than 10 pence per mile (6.25p per km). These estimates are based on a

national average of British Petrol Economy 7 rates as of January 2012, and assumed 7 hours of

charging overnight at the night rate and one hour in the daytime charged at the Tier-2 daytime

rate.

The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency according to its official ratings forfuel economy (miles per gallon gasoline

equivalentin the case of plug-in electric vehicles) for six series production all-electric cars

available in the United States by September, and EPA rated most fuel efficientplug-in hybrid,

(Chevrolet Volt),gasoline-electric hybrid car (Toyota Prius third generation) and gasoline-onlycar (Scion iQ)formodel year 2012.

Range and refueling time

Most cars with internal combustion engines can be considered to have indefinite range, as they

can be refueled very quickly almost anywhere. Electric cars often have less maximum range on

one charge than cars powered by fossil fuels, and they can take considerable time to recharge.

This is a reason that many automakers marketed EVs as "daily drivers" suitable for city trips and

other short hauls.[citation needed]

The average American drives less than 40 miles (64 km) per day; sotheGM EV1 would have been adequate for the daily driving needs of about 90% of U.S.

consumers. Nevertheless, people can be concerned that they would run out of energy from their

battery before reaching their destination, a worry known asrange anxiety.

TheTesla Roadster can travel 245 miles (394 km) per charge; more than double that of

prototypes andevaluationfleet cars currently on the roads. The Roadster can be fully recharged

in about 3.5 hours from a 220-volt, 70-amp outlet which can be installed in a home.

One wayautomakers can extend the short range of electric vehicles is by building them

withbattery switch technology.An EV with battery switch technology and a 100 miles (160 km)

driving range will be able to go to abattery switch station and switch a depleted battery with a

fully charged one in 59.1 seconds giving the EV an additional 100 miles (160 km) driving range.

The process is cleaner and faster than filling a tank with gasoline and the driver remains in the

car the entire time, but because of the high investment cost, its economics are unclear. As of late

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2010 there were only 2 companies with plans to integrate battery switching technology to their

electric vehicles:Better Place andTesla Motors.Better Place operated a battery-switch station in

Japan until November 2010and announced a commitment to open four battery switch stations

inCalifornia, USA.

Another way is the installation ofDC Fast Charging stations with high-speed charging capability

fromthree-phase industrial outlets so that consumers could recharge the 100 mile battery of their

electric vehicle to 80 percent in about 30 minutes. A nationwide fast charging infrastructure is

currently being deployed in the US that by 2013 will cover the entire nation. DC Fast Chargers

are going to be installed at 45BP andARCO locations and will be made available to the public

as early as March 2011. The EV Project will deploy charge infrastructure in 16 cities and major

metropolitan areas in six states. Nissan has announced that 200 of its dealers in Japan will install

fast chargers for the December 2010 launch of itsLeaf EV, with the goal of having fast chargerseverywhere in Japan within a 25 mile radius.

Air pollution and carbon emissions

See also:Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles andGreenhouse gas emissions in

plug-in hybrids

Electric cars contribute to cleaner air in cities because they produce no harmfulpollution at the

tailpipe from the onboard source of power, such asparticulates (soot),volatile organic

compounds,hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,ozone,lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Theclean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to

recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of thegeneration

plants. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on theemission intensity of the power

source used to charge the vehicle, the efficiency of the said vehicle and the energy wasted in the

charging process.

Formains electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a

particular country it will vary depending on demand, the availability of renewable sources and

the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time. Charging a vehicle using

off-grid renewable energy yields very low carbon intensity (only that to produce and install the

off-grid generation system e.g. domestic wind turbine).

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Emissions during production

A 2011 report prepared byRicardo found thathybrid electric vehicles,plug-in hybrids and all-

electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional

vehicles, but still have a lower overallcarbon footprint over thefull life cycle.The initial highercarbon footprint is due mainly to battery production. As an example, the study estimated that 43

percent of

Acceleration and drivetrain design

Electric motors can provide highpower-to-weight ratios,and batteries can be designed to supply

the large currents to support these motors.

Although some electric vehicles have very small motors, 15 kW (20 hp) or less and therefore

have modest acceleration, many electric cars have large motors and brisk acceleration. Inaddition, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor, even at very low speeds tends to

increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle relative to that of the same

ratedmotor powerinternal combustion engine. Another early solution wasAmerican Motors

experimentalAmitronpiggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained speeds

while a different set boosted acceleration when needed.

Electric vehicles can also use a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount

of availablepower.Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of

the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction.In

some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in theWhispering

Wheeldesign, which lowers the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving

parts.[105][106][107]When not fitted with anaxle,differential,ortransmission,electric vehicles have

less drivetrain rotational inertia. Housing the motor within the wheel can increase theunsprung

weight of the wheel, which can have an adverse effect on the handling of the vehicle.

Transmission

A gearless or single gear design in some EVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such

vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric

motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a

larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As

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there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction

with acceleration.

The gearless design is the least complex, but high acceleration requires high torque from the

motor, which requires high current and results inJoule heating. This is because the internal

wiring of the motor has electrical resistance, which dissipates power as heat when a current is put

through it, in accordance toOhm's Law.While the torque of the electric motor is not dependent

on its rotational speed, the outputpower of the motor is the product of both the torque and the

rotational speed, which means that more power is lost in proportion to the output power when the

motor is turning slowly. In effect, the drivetrain becomes less efficient the slower the vehicle

moves.

In the single gear design, this problem is mitigated by using a gear ratio that allows the motor to

turn faster than the wheel, which translates low torque and high rotational speed of the motorinto high torque and low rotational speed of the wheels, giving equal or better acceleration

without compromising efficiency as much. However, since the motor does have a top speed at

which it can operate, the tradeoff is lower top speed for the vehicle. If a higher top speed is

desired, the tradeoff is lower acceleration and lower efficiency at slow speeds.

The use of a multiple-speed transmission allows the vehicle to operate efficiently at both high

and low speeds, but comes with more complexity and cost.

For example, theVenturi Fetish deliverssupercar acceleration despite a relatively modest

220 kW (295 hp), and top speed of around 160 km/h (100 mph). SomeDC motor-equipped drag

racer EVs, have simple two-speedmanual transmissions to improve top speed.[108]The at

215 kW (288 hp).[109]

Also theWrightspeed X1prototype created byWrightspeed Inc is the worlds fasteststreet

legal electric car. With an acceleration of 0-60 mph in 2.9 seconds[111]the X1 has bested some of

the worlds fastestsports cars.

Energy efficiency

Tesla Roadster 2.5 Sport can accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.7 seconds with a motor

ratedInternal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to

propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat. On the other hand, electric motors are

moreefficientin converting stored energy into driving a vehicle, andelectric drive vehicles do

not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and some of the energy lost when braking is

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captured and reused throughregenerative braking, which captures as much as one fifth of the

energy normally lost during braking. Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use

only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel

engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles have on-board

efficiency of around 80%.

Production andconversion electric cars typically use 10 to 23 kWh/100 km (0.17 to

0.37 kWh/mi). Approximately 20% of this power consumption is due toinefficiencies in

charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the vehicle efficiency (including charging

inefficiencies) of theirlithium-ion batterypowered vehicle is 12.7 kWh/100 km (0.21 kWh/mi)

and the well-to-wheels efficiency (assuming the electricity is generated from natural gas) is

24.4 kWh/100 km (0.39 kWh/mi).

Safety

The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standardISO 6469. This

document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:

On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery

Functional safety means and protection against failures

Protection of persons against electrical hazards.

Risk of fire

Frontal crash test of aVolvo C30 DRIVe Electric to assess the safety of the battery pack.In the United States, General Motors ran in several cities a training program

forfirefighters andfirst responders to demonstrate the sequence of tasks required to safely

disable theChevrolet Volts powertrain and its 12 volt electrical system, which controls its high-

voltage components, and then proceed to extricate injured occupants. The Volt's high-voltage

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system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment, and to

detect a loss of communication from an airbag control module. GM also made available an

Emergency Response Guide for the 2011 Volt for use by emergency responders. The guide also

describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut zone information.

Nissan also published a guide for first responders that details procedures for handling a damaged

2011 Leaf at the scene of an accident, including a manual high-voltage system shutdown, rather

than the automatic process built-in the car's safety systems. As of August 2012, no fires after a

crash have been reported in the U.S. associated with the Volt, the Leaf or the Tesla Roadster.

Chevrolet Volt after being subjected to the NCAP pole test on May 12, 2011 at the MGA test

facility

Pole tested Chevrolet Volt after the fire at MGA reported on June 6, 2011

Arcing event during manual rollover of post crashed Volt's battery, November 24,

2011.

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Chevrolet Volt

As a result of a crashed tested Chevolet Volt that caught fire in June 2011 three weeks after the

testing, theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA) issued a statement saying

that the agency does not believe the Volt or other electric vehicles are at a greater risk of firethan gasoline-powered vehicles. "In fact, all vehicles both electric and gasoline-powered

have some risk of fire in the event of a serious crash." The NHTSA announced in November

2011 that it was working with all automakers to develop postcrash procedures to keep occupants

of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe. General Motors

said the fire would have been avoided if GM's protocols for deactivating the battery after the

crash had been followed, and also stated that they "are working with other vehicle

manufacturers, first responders, tow truck operators, and salvage associations with the goal of

implementing industrywide protocols."

In further testing of the Volt's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011, two of the

three tests resulted in thermal events, including fire. Therefore the NHTSA opened a formal

safety defect investigation on November 25, 2011, to examine the potential risks involved from

intrusion damage to the battery in the Chevrolet Volt. As opposed to the Volts battery, the

Nissan Leaf's pack is shielded from damage by a layer of steel reinforcement. Also, Nissan

clarified that the Nissan Leaf, unlike the Volt, has an air cooled battery pack that does not need

to be disabled after a crash. The Leaf was designed with a battery safety systems that is activatedin a crash that involves the airbags. The airbag control unit sends a signal mechanically to the

battery and disconnects the high voltage from the vehicle. Both theTesla Roadster and theFord

Focus Electric have liquid-cooling systems, and the Focus battery is enclosed in a steel case.

After the initial Volt fire, the NHTSA examined the Leaf and other electric vehicles and said its

testing has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt .

On January 5, 2012, General Motors announced that it would offer a customer satisfaction

program to provide modifications to the Chevrolet Volt to reduce the chance that the battery

pack could catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident. General Motors explained the

modifications will enhance the vehicle structure that surround the battery and the battery coolant

system to improve battery protection after a severe crash. The safety enhancements consist of

strengthen an existing portion of the Volts vehicle safety structure to further protect the battery

pack in a severe side collision; add a sensor in the reservoir of the battery coolant system to

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monitor coolant levels; and add a tamper-resistant bracket to the top of the battery coolant

reservoir to help prevent potential coolant overfill. On January 20, 2012, the NHTSA closed the

Volt's safety defect investigation related to post-crash fire risk. The agency concluded that "no

discernible defect trend exists" and also found that the modifications recently developed by

General Motors are sufficient to reduce the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side

impacts. The NHTSA also said that "based on the available data, NHTSA does not believe that

Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles pose a greater risk of fire than gasoline-powered vehicles."

The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to increase awareness and identify

appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community,

law enforcement officers, tow truck operators, storage facilities and consumers.

All 12,400 Chevrolet Volts produced until December 2011, including all Amperas in stock at

European dealerships, will receive the safety enhacements. Since production was halted duringthe holidays, the enhacements will be in place when production resumes in early 2012. Sales will

continue and dealers will modified the Volts they have in stock, either before or after they are

sold. General Motors sent a letter to Volt owners indicating that Chevrolet will contact them with

more details about the service effort scheduled to begin in February 2012.

Fisker Karmaplug-in hybrid.

Fisker Karma

In December 2011,Fisker Automotive recalled the first 239 Karmas delivered to the U.S. due toa risk of battery fire caused by coolant leak. Of the 239 cars, less than fifty have been delivered

to customers, the rest were in dealerships. In the report filed by Fisker Automotive with the

NHTSA, the carmaker said some hose clamps were not properly positioned, which could allow a

coolant leak and an electrical short could possibly occur if coolant enters the battery

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compartment, causing a thermal event within the battery, including a possible fireIn May 2012

aFisker Karma was involved in a home fire that also burnt two other cars inFort Bend County,

Texas.The chief fire investigator said the Karma was the origin of the fire that spread to the

house, but the exact cause is still unknown. The plug-in hybrid electric car was not plugged in at

the time the fire started and it was reported that the Karma's battery was intact. The carmaker

release a public statement saying that "...there are conflicting reports and uncertainty surrounding

this particular incident. The cause of the fire is not yet known and is being investigated." Fisker

Automotive also stated that the battery pack "does not appear to have been a contributing factor

in this incident." The NHTSA is conducting a field inquiry of the incident, and is working with

insurance adjusters and Fisker to determine the firescause.

A second fire incident took place in August 2012 when a Karma caught fire while stopped at a

parking lot inWoodside, California.According to Fisker engineers, the area of origin for the firewas determined to be outside the engine compartment, as the fire was located at the drivers side

front corner of the car. The evidence suggested that the ignition source was not the lithium-ion

battery pack, new technology components or unique exhaust routing.[141]The investigation

conducted by Fisker engineers and an independent fire expert concluded that the cause of the fire

was a low temperature cooling fan located at the left front of the Karma, forward of the wheel.

An internal fault caused the fan to fail, overheat and started a slow-burning fire. Fisker

announced a voluntary recall on all Karmas sold to replace the faulty fan and install an additional

fuse.

BYD e6 all-electric taxi inShenzhen, China.

BYD e6

In May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into aBYD e6 taxi inShenzhen,China, the electric

car caught fire after hitting a tree and all three occupants died in the accident .[144]The Chinese

investigative team concluded that the cause of the fire were "electric arcs caused by the short-

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circuiting of high voltage lines of the high voltage distribution box ignited combustible material

in the vehicle including the interior materials and part of the power batteries." The team also

noted that the battery pack did not explode; 75% of the single cell batteries did not catch on fire;

and no flaws in the safety design of the vehicle were identified.

Vehicle safety

Great effort is taken to keep the mass of an electric vehicle as low as possible to improve its

range and endurance. However, the weight and bulk of the batteries themselves usually makes an

EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle, reducing range and leading to longer braking

distances; it also has less interior space. However, in a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle

will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle;

therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits despite having a negative effect on the

car's performance. An accident in a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle will on average cause about 50%

more injuries to its occupants than a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle .[ In a single car accident,[citation

needed] and for the other car in a two car accident, the increased mass causes an increase in

accelerations and hence an increase in the severity of the accident. Some electric cars use low

rolling resistance tires,which typically offer less grip than normal tires. Many electric cars have

a small, light and fragile body, though, and therefore offer inadequate safety protection.

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in America had condemned the use of low speed

vehicles and "mini trucks," referred to asneighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) when poweredby electric motors, on public roads

Hazard to pedestrians

At low speeds, electric cars produced less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled

by internal combustion engines. Blind people or thevisually impaired consider the noise of

combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence electric cars and hybrids could

pose an unexpected hazard. Tests have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating inelectric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users

and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds, the sound created by tire friction and the air

displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise

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TheUS Congress and theGovernment of Japanpassed legislation to regulate the minimum level

of sound for hybrids andplug-in electric vehicles when operating in electric mode, so that blind

people and other pedestrians and cyclists can hear them coming and detect from which direction

they are approaching. TheNissan Leaf is the first electric car to use Nissan'sVehicle Sound for

Pedestrians system, which includes one sound for forward motion and another for reverse.

Differences in controls

Presently most EV manufacturers do their best to emulate the driving experience as closely as

possible to that of a car with a conventionalautomatic transmission that motorists are familiar

with. Most models therefore have a PRNDL selector traditionally found in cars with automatic

transmission despite the underlying mechanical differences. Push buttons are the easiest to

implement as all modes are implemented through software on the vehicle's controller.

Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear

and noparking pawl may be present the modes "P" and "N" will still be provided on the selector.

In this case the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically actuated hand brakeprovides the "P"

mode.

In some cars the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in "D", similar to a

traditional automatic

When the foot is lifted from the accelerator of anICE,engine braking causes the car to slow. An

EV would coast under these conditions, and applying mild regenerative braking instead providesa more familiar response. Selecting the L mode will increase this effect for sustained downhill

driving, analogous to selecting a lower gear.

CABIN HEATING AND COOLING

Electric vehicles generate very little waste heat and resistance electric heat may have to be used

to heat the interior of the vehicle if heat generated from battery charging/discharging can not be

used to heat the interior.

While heating can be simply provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency andintegral cooling can be obtained with a reversibleheat pump (this is currently implemented in the

hybridToyota Prius).Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) junction coolingis also attractive

for its simplicitythis kind of system is used for example in theTesla Roadster.

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Some electric cars, for example theCitron Berlingo Electrique,use an auxiliary heating system

(for examplegasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspcher) but sacrifice

"green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented withsolar power,

most simply and effectively by inducting outside air to avoid extreme heat buildup when the

vehicle is closed and parked in the sunlight (such cooling mechanisms are available

asaftermarket kits for conventional vehicles). Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this

feature as an option.

BATTERIES

Prototypes of 75 watt-hour/kilogramlithium-ion polymer battery. Newer lithium-ion cells can

provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Main article:Electric vehicle battery

Finding the economic balance of range against performance,energy density, and accumulator

type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer.

While most current highway-speed electric vehicle designs focus onlithium-ion and other

lithium-based variants a variety of alternative batteries can also be used. Lithium based batteries

are often chosen for their high power and energy density but have a limited shelf-life and cycle

lifetime which can significantly increase the running costs of the vehicle. Variants such

asLithium iron phosphate andLithium-titanate attempt to solve the durability issues withtraditional lithium-ion batteries.

Other battery technologies include:

Lead acid batteries are still the most used form of power for most of the electric vehicles

used today. The initial construction costs are significantly lower than for other battery types,

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and while power output to weight is poorer than other designs, range and power can be easily

added by increasing the number of batteries.

NiCd - Largely superseded by NiMH

Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)

Nickel iron battery - Known for its comparatively long lifetime and low power density

Several battery technologies are also in development such as:

Zinc-air battery

Molten salt battery

Zinc-bromine flow batteries orVanadium redox batteries can be refilled, instead of

recharged, saving time. The depleted electrolyte can be recharged at the point of exchange,

or taken away to a remote station.

Travel range before recharging

The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used. The weight and

type of vehicle, and the performance demands of the driver, also have an impact just as they do

on the range oftraditional vehicles.The range of anelectric vehicle conversion depends on the

battery type:

Replacing

The Renault Fluence Z.E. is the first electric car within theBetter Place network. Deliveries

began in Israel in January 2012.

An alternative to quick recharging is to exchange the drained or nearly drained batteries

(orbattery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries, similar to

howstagecoach horses were changed atcoaching inns. Batteries could

beleased orrented instead of bought, and then maintenance deferred to the leasing or rental

company, and ensures availability.

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Several companies are attempting to implement this business model, andBetter Place was the

first to deploy anelectric vehicle network inIsrael,and it will be followed by similar recharging

networks inDenmark andHawaii. Around 100Renault Fluence Z.E.s were delivered in Israel

and allocated among the Better Place employees in January 2012. Retail customers deliveries are

scheduled to begin in the second quarter of 2012.

Replaceable batteries were used in the electric buses at the2008 Summer Olympics.

Vehicle-to-grid: uploading and grid buffering

Main article:Vehicle-to-grid

See also:Economy 7 andload balancing (electrical power)

ASmart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid, specifically:

Duringpeak loadperiods, when the cost of electricity can be very high. These vehicles can

then be recharged duringoff-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night

time generation. Here the batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to

buffer power.

Duringblackouts,as an emergency backup supply.

Lifespan

Battery life should be considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all

batteries eventually wear out and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire depends on the

type of battery technology and how they are usedmany types of batteries are damaged bydepleting them beyond a certain level. Lithium-ion batteries degrade faster when stored at higher

temperatures.

Future

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the cost and availability

ofbatteries with high specific energy, power density, and long life, as all other aspects such as

motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost-competitive with internal

combustion engine components. Diarmuid O'Connell, VP of Business Development at TeslaMotors, estimates that by the year 2020 30% of the cars driving on the road will be battery

electric or plug-in hybrid.

Nissan CEOCarlos Ghosn has predicted that one in 10 cars globally will run on battery power

alone by 2020 Additionally a recent report claims that by 2020 electric cars and othergreen

cars will take a third of the total of global car sales.

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It is estimated that there are sufficient lithium reserves to power 4 billion electric cars.

Other methods of energy storage

Experimentalsupercapacitors andflywheel energy storage devices offer comparable storage

capacity, faster charging, and lower volatility. They have the potential to overtake batteries as thepreferred rechargeable storage for EVs.[171][172]TheFIA included their use in its sporting

regulations of energy systems forFormula One race vehicles in 2007 (for supercapacitors) and

2009 (for flywheel energy storage devices).

Solar cars

Main articles:Solar taxi andSolar vehicle

Solar cars are electric cars that derive most or all of their electricity from built in solar panels.

After the 2005 World Solar Challenge established that solar race cars could exceed highwayspeeds, the specifications were changed to provide for vehicles that with little modification could

be used for transportation.

CHARGING

Charging station atRio de Janeiro,Brazil.This station is run byPetrobras and usessolar energy.

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged (see also Replacing, above).

Unlike vehicles powered by fossil fuels, BEVs are most commonly and conveniently charged

from thepower grid overnight at home, without the inconvenience of having to go to a filling

station. Charging can also be done using a street or shop charging station.

The electricity on the grid is in turn generated from a variety of sources; such

ascoal,hydroelectricity,nuclear and others. Power sources such as roof topphotovoltaic solar

cell panels,micro hydro orwind may also be used and are promoted because of concerns

regardingglobal warming.

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US Charging Standards

Around 1998 theCalifornia Air Resources Board classified levels of charging power that have

been codified in title 13 of the California Code of Regulations, the U.S. 1999National Electrical

Code section 625 andSAE International standards.

[citation needed]

Three standards were developed,termed Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 charging.

.* or potentially 208V x 37A, out of the strict specification but within circuit breaker and

connector/cable power limits. Alternatively, this voltage would impose a lower power rating of

6.7 kW at 32A.

More recently the term "Level 3" has also been used by the SAE J1772 Standard Committee for

a possible future higher-power AC fast charging standard. To distinguish from Level 3 DC fast

charging, this would-be standard is written as "Level 3 AC". SAE has not yet approved standards

for either AC or DC Level 3 charging.

As of June 2012, some electric cars provide charging options that do not fit within the older

California "Level 1, 2, and 3 charging" standard, with its top charging rate of 40 Amps. For

example, the Tesla Roadster may be charged at a rate up to 70 Amps (16.8 kW) with a wall-

mounted charger.[

For comparison in Europe the IEC 61851-1 charging modes are used to classify charging

equipment. The provisions of IEC 62196 charging modes for conductive charging of electric

vehicles include Mode 1 (max. 16A / max. 250V a.c. or 480V three-phase), Mode 2 (max. 32A /max. 250V a.c. or 480V three-phase), Mode 3 (max. 63A (70A U.S.) / max. 690V a.c. or three-

phase) and Mode 4 (max. 400A / max. 600V d.c.).

Connectors

Most electric cars have usedconductive coupling to supply electricity for recharging after

the California Air Resources Board settled on theSAE J1772-2001 standard as the charging

interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001. In Europe theACEA has decided to use

the Type 2 connector from the range of IEC_62196 plug types for conductive charging ofelectric vehicles in the European Union as the Type 1 connector (SAE J1772-2009) does not

provide for three-phase charging.

Another approach isinductive charging using a non-conducting "paddle" inserted into a slot in

the car.Delco Electronics developed theMagne Charge inductive charging system around 1998

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for theGeneral Motors EV1 and it was also used for theChevrolet S-10 EV andToyota RAV4

EV vehicles.

Regenerative braking

Main article:Regenerative brakingUsingregenerative braking, a feature which is present on manyhybrid electric vehicles,

approximately 20% of the energy usually lost in the brakes is recovered to recharge the batteries. [

Charging time

Smart ED charging from a Level 2 station

More electrical power to the car reduces charging time. Power is limited by the capacity of

thegrid connection, and, for level 1 and 2 charging, by the power rating of the car's on-board

charger. A normalhouseholdoutlet is between 1.5 kW (in the US, Canada, Japan, and other

countries with 110voltsupply) to 3 kW (in countries with 230V supply). The main connection to

a house may sustain 10, 15 or even 20 kW in addition to "normal" domestic loads - though it

would be unwise to use all the apparent capability - and special wiring can be installed to use

this. As examples of on-board chargers, theNissan Leaf at launch has a 3.3 kW charger[182]and

theTesla Roadster can accept up to 16.8 kW (240V at 70A) from the High Power Wall

Connector. These power numbers are small compared to the effective power delivery rate of an

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_S-10_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_RAV4_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_RAV4_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_EDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_gridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Householdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_outlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car#cite_note-181http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car#cite_note-181http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car#cite_note-181http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Roadsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smart_ED_charging_WAS_2011_1123.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smart_ED_charging_WAS_2011_1123.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smart_ED_charging_WAS_2011_1123.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smart_ED_charging_WAS_2011_1123.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Roadsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car#cite_note-181http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Leafhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_outlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Householdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_gridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_EDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_RAV4_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_RAV4_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_S-10_EVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1

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averagepetrol pump, about 5,000 kW.[citation needed]Even if the electrical supply power can be

increased, most batteries do not accept charge at greater than theircharge rate ("1C"), because

high charge rates have an adverse effect on the discharge capacities of batteries .[183]Despite

these power limitations, plugging in to even the least-powerful conventional home outlet

provides more than 15kilowatt-hours of energy overnight, sufficient to propel most electric cars

more than 70 kilometres (43 mi) (seeEnergy efficiency above).

Faster charging

Some types of batteries such asLithium-titanate,LiFePO4 and even certainNiMH variants can

be charged almost to their full capacity in 1020 minutes.[citation needed]Fast charging requires very

high currents often derived from a three-phase power supply. Careful charge management is

required to prevent damage to the batteries through overcharging.

Most people do not usually require fast recharging because they have enough time, six to eight

hours (depending on discharge level) during the work day or overnight at home to recharge. BEV

drivers frequently prefer recharging at home, avoiding the inconvenience of visiting a public

charging station.

In Europe, the electricity supply is generally 240 Volts, and a domestic current is generally

supplied at 13A. This means that power is supplied to electric vehicles at around 3.1 kW and

takes most available elect