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    Imperial College London

    EPSRC Career

    Acceleration

    FellowImperial College London, UK

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    • Departments – Mechanical Engineering

    • Research activities – Fuel cells

    – Engineering

    – Earth Science and

    – – Electric motors – Power electronics

    – Chemical Engineering

    – Materials

    – Interna com ust on eng nes – Vehicle architecture – Motorsport –

    – Centre for Transport Studies – Imperial Centre for Energy

    – Testing – Policy

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    • Diversity of energy supply• Local air pollution

    “, , ‐ , , transport technology and climate change mitigation” ‐Briefing Paper No. 2 ‐ Grantham Institute for Climate

    ,

    3http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/climatechange/publications

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    UK long term research priorities forElectric & Hybrid Vehicles

    • Low cost compact high efficiency motors• ow cost, ura e, energy ense atter es• Low cost power electronics• Intelligent thermal management• Control of overall ener mana ement• Tools for design and optimisation

    Refs:•“An Independent Report on the Future of the Automotive Industry in the UK”, New Automotive Innovation and Growth Team (NAIGT)

    4

    •“Low Carbon Vehicles Innovation Platform”, Technology Strategy Board (TSB)

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    Improving conventional technology

    5

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    • or ea ng researc

    into turbochargers – To achieve si nificant

    improvements in the performance and energy efficiency of internal

    combustion engines

    by

    use

    of turbomachinery

    – In the past 10 years have developed a high speed dynamometer for

    turbocharger research, ena ng a very w e range of test conditions to be achieved

    http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/turbochargers

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    Thermal aspects of electrical machines

    7

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    Stator convection:h = q/(T s‐T ref )

    rotor

    case

    (Geiras, 2008)air flow

    rotation axis

    Howey, D.A., Childs, P.R.N., Holmes, A.S., “Air‐gap convection in rotating electrical machines”, invited review paper to the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics – accepted 8

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    heat transfer into

    FR4

    copper

    u

    550 μ m200 μ m

    PCB1

    solderresist

    t res ≈ 25μ m

    t FR4 = 1.65

    t track ≈ 25μ m

    PCB2

    Howey, D.A., Holmes, A.S. and Pullen, K.R., “Radially resolved measurement of stator heat transfer in a rotor ‐stator disc system”, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 53(1 ‐3) (2010) pp. 493 ‐501, DOI 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.09.006

    9

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    TurbulentLaminar

    Rotational Reynolds number Heat transfer

    Howey, D.A., Holmes, A.S. and Pullen, K.R., “Prediction and

    10

    measuremen o ea rans er n a r‐coo e sc‐ ype e ec r ca

    machines”, IET PEMD 2010, 19‐21 April 2010, Thistle Hotel, Brighton UK, DOI 10.1049/cp.2010.0138

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    Parameterisation of models

    Hey, J., Howey, D.A., Martinez ‐Botas, R., Lamperth, M, Transient thermal modelling of an axial flux permanent magnet (AFPM)

    11

    method, VTMS 10 ‐ Vehicle Thermal Management Systems, 15‐19 May 2011, IMechE, London

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    Thermal & electrical management of

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    Battery Pack Development

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    Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

    From “Investigation of lithium ‐ion polymer batter cell failure usin X‐ra com uted tomography” by Yufit et al., Electrochemistry Communications, 2011

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    www.racinggreenendurance.com

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    • Drove 26,000 kms

    • 4 months• Alaska to Argentina

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    Thundersky cells

    20

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    Fuel cell system design & testing

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    .

    • Combine a hi h tem erature ZEBRA battery and an intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell (IT‐

    – Surpass the efficiency of a purely fuel cell driven vehicle IT-SOFCSystem DC/DC ZEBRABatteryFuel Motor-LoadMotor-Load

    – Extend the range of a a purely battery driven vehicle

    – VMU

    FCMI BMIDC/DCControl

    Driver

    CAN

    fuel

    • Modelled the system• Tested at 1/10 th scale

    Aguiar, P. Brett D.J.L. Brandon,N P, Feasibility study and techno ‐

    economic analysis of an SOFC/battery hybrid system for vehicle applications, J Power Sources, 2007, Vol:171, Pages 186 ‐197.

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    Designing, building, integrating & testing a FCHEV power train

    • Ran e extender mode Blower Humidifier Fuel Cell Stack – Minimise dynamic

    operation

    Back pressureControl valve

    PurgeValve

    Recirculation pump

    HydrogenHumidifier Hydrogen System

    Air System

    Cooling System

    – Optimise components for fixed operating point

    – ‐ ‐Radiator

    Fan

    CoolantPump

    Hydrogen supply ManualValve

    SolenoidValve

    DeionisingFilter

    Nitrogen supply ManualValveSolenoid

    Valve

    Nitrogen system

    down events• Result

    Objective of this project was to design balance of plant appropriate for hybrid electric vehicle applications under urban duty cycles. Small electric delivery van with user

    – Simplify system design – Opportunity to remove

    – Reduce cost – Im roved durabilit

    © Imperial College London Page 23

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    12

    • ow pressure e s acP9.5 ‐75 PEMFC stack. – 75 cells with nominal 6

    8

    10

    maximum power of 9.5 kWe

    •2

    4

    P o w e r

    ( k W )

    estimated average gross power requirement of 4 -4

    -2

    0

    0 50 100 150 200

    • Opportunity to operate s stem at hi h efficienc

    -8

    -6

    Time (s)

    if balance of plant optimised Power requirements and losses from electric

    powertrain from one repeated cycle of the

    Motor power Ro lling lo sses Aerodynamic lo sses

    © Imperial College London Page 24

    ECE‐15 drive cycle

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    • o e ng, es gn ng, building and testing of

    , including: – Balance of plant,

    – Start ‐up/shut ‐down strategies, – – Degradation & failure

    modes• Real System testing &

    validation!

    Progress reported in: Cordner M, Matian M, Offer GJ, et al, Designing, building, testing and racing a low‐cost fuel cell range extender for a motorsport application, Journal of Power Sources, Vol 195, Iss 23, 2010, pages 7838 ‐7848

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    • r mary mo es – Start ‐up and shut ‐down

    – Power cycling (28%) – Idling at low current (28%)

    • Modelling includes simplified steady state va ues

    • Comparison of steady

    operation ,

    was maintained at a steady 61°C with thermal oscillations of ±0.5°C and period 40 s caused by the 10 s phase lag between the inlet and outlet

    © Imperial College LondonDegradation models based upon:* Miller, M. and Bazylak, A. Journal of power sources , 196(2):601–613, 2011.Ryoichi Shimoi, R., et al. SAE International Journal of Engines , 2(1):960-970, 2009.

    temperatures

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    • converters

    – A number

    of

    DC/DC

    used by the team over the years

    – These have always proven to be the hardest

    – Bespoke design normally

    necessar

    Reported in Proceedings of EVS24, Stavanger, Norway, 2009, Fuel Cell Racing: Imperial College London Presents the Racing Green Team, Clague, R.,

    – Electrical and control integration a challenge

    , ., , ., .Raced in Formula Zero 2008 and 2009 Seasons, powered by Hydrogenics PEMFC, Maxwell Supercapacitors, LEMCO motors,

    © Imperial College London Page 27

    , controllers, controlled by CompactRIO

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    Real world testing

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    • Imperial wrote rules

    and judged premier low carbon vehicle event in the world

    – Results written

    up

    as

    journal paper

    – And, as report

    • 5th

    Nov 2011

    Howey DA, Martinez ‐Botas RF, Lytton L, et al, Comparative measurements of the energy consumption of 51 electric,

    hybrid and internal combustion engine vehicles, Transportation Research D, 2011, Pages:1 ‐6

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    – Over 100 students a year, highlights include

    • IRG04 vehicle – Full batter electric Formula Student vehicle, racin at Silverstone in Jul 2011 – Over 50 students involved in vehicle race team

    • RnD division, energy storage team – Battery and supercapacitor designing, making & testing – ,

    – Battery management systems and control – Involving 23 students• RnD division, hybrid ONE team

    – Hybrid powertrain design, designing and testing battery/supercap hybrid systems, inc BMS and energy mgmt

    – Engine management and energy management in combustion engine hybrid powertrain

    – Involving 21 students• Rnd division, fuel cell team

    – Designing, building and testing 3rd generation of fuel cell system for installation into electric delivery van

    Students are having to work on similar challenges to major automotive companies, at the forefront of technology development

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    Page 32

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    Techno ‐economics

    35

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    • Electrochemical Automotive ng neer ng

    – Fundamental electrochemistry of components and systems

    – Performance optimisation, control and energy managemen – Degradation & failure mode modelling – Systems integration modelling and

    optimisation Example figure from: Offer GJ, Contestabile M, Howey DA, et al, Techno ‐• Examp e Aim

    – To predict optimum fuel cell and battery configurations for a plug ‐in‐hybrid based upon the interactions between

    economic and behavioural analysis of battery electric, hydrogen fuel cell and hybrid vehicles in a future sustainable road transport system in the UK, Energy Policy, 2011, Vol:39, pages:1939 ‐1950

    and system complexity, cost and weight

    – To design, build and test such a fuel cell range extended electric vehicle, ambitious aim ‐ in time for the London Olympics.

    Progress reported in: Cordner M, Matian M, Offer GJ, et al, Designing, building, testing and racing a low ‐cost fuel cell range extender for a motorsport application , JPS, Vol 195, Iss 23, 2010, pages 7838 ‐7848

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    .

    • Assumption: Hybrid

    configurations

    cheaper!

    • Question: Is this true and what is optimum

    Hydrogen & Fuel Cells Electricity & BatteriesFuel lifec cle efficienc Good for conventional Good for conventional

    Poor for electrolysis

    V. Good for renewablesTechnology cost Costly for peak power Cheap for peak and

    Range Independent of device Dependent and Costly

    Cost of fuel Large variability Cheap

    © Imperial College London Page 37

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    • UK National 820

    Travel Survey Data

    6

    16

    18 Small Small/Medium

    Mediumw distribution – Aggregated

    12

    14

    n t

    arge

    e n t

    & – Different car

    t es 68 P e

    r c

    P

    e r

    • Similar distributions

    2

    2

    4

    Germany 0< 5 < 10 < 15 < 25 < 35 < 50 < 100 < 200 200 <

    0

    Day Distance Driven (banded) / miles

    © Imperial College London

    Energy Policy, 2011, Vol:39, pages:1939 ‐1950First presented at Grove Fuel Cell Conference in London, October 2009

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    • For baseline

    ve ic e – NTS = Medium

    – VED =

    Multi

    ‐80 /

    %

    • Assumptions – 100% capacity

    useable60

    e r c e n

    t a g

    – Single overnight charge

    • Similar to US and 40

    u l a t i v e

    P

    – And hence similar model

    results too 0

    20 C u

    All electric days possible / total days Electric miles possible / total miles

    0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

    © Imperial College London

    For USA see T. H. Bradley and C. W. Quinn, Journal of Power Sources , 2010, 195 , 5399 ‐5408.For Germany see Steiger W., Volkswagen AG: European Forum Alpbach 2008

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    • Baseline = all assumptions average – Results shown on left exclude carbon – = – All other assumptions fixed unless otherwise stated (yellow)

    Shaded error bars Fixed assumptionsX‐axis

    © Imperial College London Page 41

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

    i

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    Battery costs, most important

    assumption• Dominate costs of FCHEV – Highly

    sensitive for large battery size

    • Diminishing returns beyond ~

    • If range

    not

    a

    concern a BEV ma be possible

    © Imperial College London Page 42

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

    H d d i f ll

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    Hydrogen costs, dominates for small

    battery size• FCEV – Highly sensitive

    • FCHEV – Highly sensitive

    for small battery sizes – High cost

    favours larger battery size

    – For large

    battery size negligible effect

    – Fuel cell costs affect comparison with ICE but do not affect

    significantly !!!

    © Imperial College London Page 43

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

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    Decarbonising electricity generation, necessary,

    but CO2 emissions only affect cost a little• Dominates emissions

    – avours arger battery size

    – Effect on price negligible even at

    $120 / tonne• Hy rogen pro uct on

    – Assumed steam reformed methane

    – Different methods of h dro en production may balance this effect

    Note: In the UK Both electricity and hydrogen offer ~50% reduction in emissions today!

    © Imperial College London Page 44

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

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    , • FCEV vs FCHEV

    – • FCHEV

    – Small favouring larger batteries

    because of H2 method

    • ICE comparison – Highly sensitive – Effective carbon

    to favour new

    technologies – Both FCEV, FCHEV and BEV

    – Higher the better

    © Imperial College London Page 45

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

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    • Hybridisation

    – ens t ve to vehicle type

    – Large vehicles need large batteries

    • Driving behaviour – Different for

    vehicle types – Increasing vehicle

    s ze ncreases total miles per day

    • Effects – Both effects

    suggest increased costs and less benefit from the FCHEV

    – clearly different

    © Imperial College London Page 46

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    • FCHEV

    – Similar optimum battery sizes predicted for all

    types – ectr c range obviously affected

    – Large vehicle significantly

    eren

    • How does

    this

    affect emissions?

    © Imperial College London Page 47

    ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )vehicle f behaviour f E f C FC BC C C C C C f Cost GenCOSizeSize ICE FC Batt FF E H ........... 22=

    Dependent variable

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    ‐• Emissions

    – orse or larger vehicles

    – Not just effect larger energy consum tion

    • Economics – Favours similar

    battery size (hollow sym o s

    – But larger vehicle means less miles can be driven as electric

    – Increasing use of range extender

    © Imperial College London Page 48

    o e: s s or s eam re orme me ane an decarbonised electricity

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    Submitted to Energy & Environmental Science

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    . m un ng over years, n vers es, un e un er ow ar on e c e –Integrated Delivery Programme. One partner is Shanghai Automotive Industries

    Corporation (SAIC) UK Technical Centre

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    © Imperial College London Page 52