Eastern Europe, the Newly Independent States of Eurasia, and Russia.

Eastern Europe, the Newly Independent

States of Eurasia, and Russia

Eastern Europe, the Newly Independent

States of Eurasia, and Russia

BackgroundBackground

Evolution of mass media during the post-communist transition period has been uneven and, at times, turbulent and chaotic

Communist-style governance continues to haunt those working for media reforms

Threats and intimidation often pose threat to journalists’ lives and independence

Often work without adequate economic support: leaves them vulnerable to bribes, extortion, other forms of payoffs

Evolution of mass media during the post-communist transition period has been uneven and, at times, turbulent and chaotic

Communist-style governance continues to haunt those working for media reforms

Threats and intimidation often pose threat to journalists’ lives and independence

Often work without adequate economic support: leaves them vulnerable to bribes, extortion, other forms of payoffs


Governments increasingly have sought to impose serious legal limitations on the exercise of freedom of the press

Most media in Russia exist in shadow of public and political favor

Venture capital from abroad accompanied by sensationalized tabloid treatment of news

Press has sharp decrease in circulation since the early 1990s, because of economic distress and because of lack of consumer confidence

Governments increasingly have sought to impose serious legal limitations on the exercise of freedom of the press

Most media in Russia exist in shadow of public and political favor

Venture capital from abroad accompanied by sensationalized tabloid treatment of news

Press has sharp decrease in circulation since the early 1990s, because of economic distress and because of lack of consumer confidence


Infrastructure of print media (equipment, facilities, distribution systems) remains generally inadequate

Although many nations have enacted civil codes consistent with Western standards, the ambiguity of codes addressing “libel,” “defamation,” “ridicule,” “derision,” and “insults” allows courts the wide latitude

Infrastructure of print media (equipment, facilities, distribution systems) remains generally inadequate

Although many nations have enacted civil codes consistent with Western standards, the ambiguity of codes addressing “libel,” “defamation,” “ridicule,” “derision,” and “insults” allows courts the wide latitude

Media Developments in Eastern Europe


Development of the press, TV, and radio remains key to a civil society in E. Europe

All share histories of aristocratic rule, colonial struggle, authoritarianism, uncertain path toward democratic reform

Prior to political reform, censorship and self-censorship dominated the media

Suspicion of democratic ideas and institutions made it difficult to embrace change

Development of the press, TV, and radio remains key to a civil society in E. Europe

All share histories of aristocratic rule, colonial struggle, authoritarianism, uncertain path toward democratic reform

Prior to political reform, censorship and self-censorship dominated the media

Suspicion of democratic ideas and institutions made it difficult to embrace change



Considerable progress in most countries where parliaments expanded independence of both public and private media through laws on free access to information

Partisanship, politicization, advocacy, and literary bent were shared tradition of most journalists where profession was practiced mostly by intellectual/ political classes

Considerable progress in most countries where parliaments expanded independence of both public and private media through laws on free access to information

Partisanship, politicization, advocacy, and literary bent were shared tradition of most journalists where profession was practiced mostly by intellectual/ political classes



Media growth in the 1990s defied commercial rationale, was divorced from a rich civil society that it could claim it directly represented, and was primarily politically motivated

Media growth in the 1990s defied commercial rationale, was divorced from a rich civil society that it could claim it directly represented, and was primarily politically motivated

Eastern European countriesEastern European countries

Former Yugoslavia and the Balkan States Czech and Slovak Republics Poland Hungary Romania Bulgaria Albania

Former Yugoslavia and the Balkan States Czech and Slovak Republics Poland Hungary Romania Bulgaria Albania

Unresolved tension between government and mass mediaUnresolved tension between government and mass media

Many government officials award incentives to compliant journalists

Governments offer “most deserving” journalists money, gifts, or holidays

Problem lies in inclusion of defamation laws in penal codes. Those found guilty of any infractions under a penal code could serve time in prison

Free press advocates concerned about influence of organized crime in operation of mass media

Physical attacks/ threats on journalists

Many government officials award incentives to compliant journalists

Governments offer “most deserving” journalists money, gifts, or holidays

Problem lies in inclusion of defamation laws in penal codes. Those found guilty of any infractions under a penal code could serve time in prison

Free press advocates concerned about influence of organized crime in operation of mass media

Physical attacks/ threats on journalists

Growing popularity and influence of electronic media

Growing popularity and influence of electronic media

Mushrooming of radio and TV stations Also access foreign radio/ TV transmissions

Mushrooming of radio and TV stations Also access foreign radio/ TV transmissions

Authoritarian roots persist in government-media relations

Authoritarian roots persist in government-media relations

Post communist governments in E. Europe retain authoritarian habits and tendencies and continue to politicize decisions on media policies, laws, and regulations, and attempt to control or at least manipulate public broadcasting

Post communist governments in E. Europe retain authoritarian habits and tendencies and continue to politicize decisions on media policies, laws, and regulations, and attempt to control or at least manipulate public broadcasting

Hammering out equitable media lawsHammering out equitable media laws

Post-communist laws addressing various aspects of media system and of journalism are sources of continuing controversy

Because East European governments often equate society with the state, thus demanding that public broadcasting represent the state, the mission of public TV and radio to serve society is not fulfilled

Post-communist laws addressing various aspects of media system and of journalism are sources of continuing controversy

Because East European governments often equate society with the state, thus demanding that public broadcasting represent the state, the mission of public TV and radio to serve society is not fulfilled

Hammering out equitable media lawsHammering out equitable media laws

Access-to-information laws and laws protecting journalistic sources have been enacted, but slowly, and there is no uniformity in their interpretation and application by the courts

Access-to-information laws and laws protecting journalistic sources have been enacted, but slowly, and there is no uniformity in their interpretation and application by the courts

Concepts of Media Freedom & Accountability


East European constitutions provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and in general the governments respect these rights, but not without some reservations

Notion that the media are far too important to be left to their own devices and that public service broadcast media, in particular, are to serve the elected governments is still strongly held

East European constitutions provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and in general the governments respect these rights, but not without some reservations

Notion that the media are far too important to be left to their own devices and that public service broadcast media, in particular, are to serve the elected governments is still strongly held



Definition and application of media freedom concepts and accountability have until recently been left to people and institutions outside the media systems. That is slowly changing, partly with help of professional organizations

Code of ethics have been formulated in all four east European countries, but the enforcement of journalistic ethics is uneven

Definition and application of media freedom concepts and accountability have until recently been left to people and institutions outside the media systems. That is slowly changing, partly with help of professional organizations

Code of ethics have been formulated in all four east European countries, but the enforcement of journalistic ethics is uneven

Journalism Education & Training

Journalism Education & Training

Demise of communist regimes brought an explosion of journalism education and training programs, partly because of increased interest in journalism once it was no longer related to the state and the Marxist-Leninist ideology, and partly because Western media aid packages contained educational and training elements

Demise of communist regimes brought an explosion of journalism education and training programs, partly because of increased interest in journalism once it was no longer related to the state and the Marxist-Leninist ideology, and partly because Western media aid packages contained educational and training elements

Newly independent statesNewly independent states

Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova Transcaucasia: Georgia, Armenia,

Azerbaijan Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Krgyzstan,

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova Transcaucasia: Georgia, Armenia,

Azerbaijan Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Krgyzstan,

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

Future of East Central Europe’s Media

Future of East Central Europe’s Media

Depends largely on economic factors, but even more on the evolution of political culture and politics

What readers, listeners, and viewers will demand of the media, and the direction in which journalism will develop, will be determined by their practical definitions of democracy and citizenship

Depends largely on economic factors, but even more on the evolution of political culture and politics

What readers, listeners, and viewers will demand of the media, and the direction in which journalism will develop, will be determined by their practical definitions of democracy and citizenship

Future of Media in the RegionFuture of Media in the Region

Internet is generally not regulated and is subject to no control by governments in the region, perhaps because some still underestimate its scope and reach.

Internet cafes have opened in spartan areas Government efforts to regulate Internet

services have been unsuccessful

Internet is generally not regulated and is subject to no control by governments in the region, perhaps because some still underestimate its scope and reach.

Internet cafes have opened in spartan areas Government efforts to regulate Internet

services have been unsuccessful

Media in the Newly Independent StatesMedia in the Newly Independent States

More than a decade after the collapse of the Soviet Union, optimism about the ease of such a transition has given way to a recognition of the complex challenges such transitions present

For all these nations, democratization has been a struggle, and the development of both independent media and the civil and cultural climates to support it has been fraught with difficulty

More than a decade after the collapse of the Soviet Union, optimism about the ease of such a transition has given way to a recognition of the complex challenges such transitions present

For all these nations, democratization has been a struggle, and the development of both independent media and the civil and cultural climates to support it has been fraught with difficulty

Media in the Newly Independent StatesMedia in the Newly Independent States

Transition to life after communism in the newly independent states differs regionally

All nations face challenges along the path to self-governance, there are qualitative differences in culture and politics

Each state has provision for free speech and media independence in its constitution laws are not recognized in practice

Transition to life after communism in the newly independent states differs regionally

All nations face challenges along the path to self-governance, there are qualitative differences in culture and politics

Each state has provision for free speech and media independence in its constitution laws are not recognized in practice

OrganizationsOrganizations

International Freedom of Expression Exchange Committee to Protect Journalists Reporters San Frontiers Center for Journalism in Extreme Situations Government-sponsored: Organization for Security

and Cooperation in Europe, Radio Free Europe, U.S. State Department

NGOs: European Institute for the Media, International Federation of Journalists, Human Rights Watch, Soros Foundation

International Freedom of Expression Exchange Committee to Protect Journalists Reporters San Frontiers Center for Journalism in Extreme Situations Government-sponsored: Organization for Security

and Cooperation in Europe, Radio Free Europe, U.S. State Department

NGOs: European Institute for the Media, International Federation of Journalists, Human Rights Watch, Soros Foundation

Contemporary Russian Journalism’s Problems and

Opportunities

Contemporary Russian Journalism’s Problems and

Opportunities Development of journalism in Russia can be

divided into three major parts: the pre-Soviet period, which includes early days of journalism, 19th century journalism, and journalism in the early 20th century; the Soviet period (1917-1985), which includes the Soviet period as well as changes during perestroika and glasnost; and the Gorbachev and post-Soviet period (1985, when Soviet Union collapsed to the present)

Development of journalism in Russia can be divided into three major parts: the pre-Soviet period, which includes early days of journalism, 19th century journalism, and journalism in the early 20th century; the Soviet period (1917-1985), which includes the Soviet period as well as changes during perestroika and glasnost; and the Gorbachev and post-Soviet period (1985, when Soviet Union collapsed to the present)

Censorship in RussiaCensorship in Russia

Since the government brought the media to Russia, it had to guard the press content, so that the press could serve the government

Complex structure: Government officials of many levels had to read newspapers and journals regularly and were required to report on potentially harmful materials

Authors would be investigated/ prosecuted

Since the government brought the media to Russia, it had to guard the press content, so that the press could serve the government

Complex structure: Government officials of many levels had to read newspapers and journals regularly and were required to report on potentially harmful materials

Authors would be investigated/ prosecuted

Censorship in RussiaCensorship in Russia

Many newspapers and journals were shut down as a result of censorship activities

Most Russian writers and publicists of the pre-Soviet era were exiled from the capitals

Many newspapers and journals were shut down as a result of censorship activities

Most Russian writers and publicists of the pre-Soviet era were exiled from the capitals

Contemporary Russian journalismContemporary Russian journalism

Took a gigantic media system, divided it into parts, made independent media out of it

Human and material resources have allowed fairly easy restructuring of the media, not start from scratch, except for Internet

Took a gigantic media system, divided it into parts, made independent media out of it

Human and material resources have allowed fairly easy restructuring of the media, not start from scratch, except for Internet

Freedom of speech in Russian mass media

Freedom of speech in Russian mass media

Important to study freedom of speech in country that has a long history but a brief democratic tradition

Important to study freedom of speech in country that has a long history but a brief democratic tradition

Legal Aspects of Freedom of Information

Legal Aspects of Freedom of Information

Russia meets European standards of human rights, including freedom of information

Have never been applied in practical terms to court proceedings that involve freedom of information disputes

Mass media law often is not enforced, not supported in practice

Mass media stay uninvolved in public debates because of self-censorship phenomenon

Russia meets European standards of human rights, including freedom of information

Have never been applied in practical terms to court proceedings that involve freedom of information disputes

Mass media law often is not enforced, not supported in practice

Mass media stay uninvolved in public debates because of self-censorship phenomenon

Public aspects of Freedom of Information

Public aspects of Freedom of Information

Also struggles to find its place in debates If at beginning of perestroika, public was

active about promoting freedom of info. and defending its rights, today public is less involved in debates on freedom of speech

Some govt actions have contributed to public’s disappointment and withdrawal

Also struggles to find its place in debates If at beginning of perestroika, public was

active about promoting freedom of info. and defending its rights, today public is less involved in debates on freedom of speech

Some govt actions have contributed to public’s disappointment and withdrawal

Eastern Europe, the Newly Independent States of Eurasia, and Russia.

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