CHAPTER II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. Strong conceptual frameworks capture something real and do this in a way that is easy to remember and apply.What is training?Trainingis the acquisition ofknowledge,skills, andcompetenciesas a result of the teaching ofvocationalor practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving one'sproductivityandperformance. It forms the core ofapprenticeshipsand provides the backbone of content atinstitutes of technology(also known as technical colleges or polytechnics). In addition to the basic training required for atrade,occupationorprofession, observers of the labor-market recognize as of 2008the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills throughoutworking life. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training asprofessional development.

Types of TrainingInduction TrainingIt involves introducing a new employee to its work environment. Usually, it includes introduction to colleagues, explaining the firms activities, procedures followed in the organization, explaining the organizational structure, Place of working etc.On the Job trainingA worker gets training by watching a more experienced worker doing the job. It is common for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs. Thus the worker gets trained while he is performing his regular duties.Off the job trainingThis is when a worker goes away from the place of work to attend a special course. The training can be in the form of a seminar, workshop or a college course. Off the job training is usually conducted for managerial level employees.Physical TrainingPhysical training concentrates on mechanistic goals: training-programs in this area develop specific skills or muscles, often with a view of peaking at a particular time. Some physical training programs focus on raising overallphysical fitness.Inmilitaryuse, training means gaining the physical ability to perform and survive incombat, and learning the many skills needed in a time ofwar. These include how to use a variety ofweapons, outdoorsurvivalskills, and how to survive being captured by the enemy, among many others. Seemilitary education and training.For psychological or physiological reasons, people who believe it may be beneficial to them can choose to practicerelaxationtraining, orautogenic training, in an attempt to increase their ability to relax or deal with stress.While some studies have indicated relaxation training is useful for some medical conditions, autogenic training has limited results or has been the result of few studies.

Job training and developmentSome commentators use a similar term for workplace learning toimprove performance: "training and development". There are also additional services available online for those who wish to receive training above and beyond that which is offered by their employers. Some examples of these services include career counseling, skill assessment, and supportive services.One can generally categorize such training ason-the-joboroff-the-job.Theon-the-job trainingmethod takes place in a normal working situation, using the actualtools, equipment, documents or materials that trainees will use when fully trained. On-the-job training has a general reputation as most effective for vocational work. It involves Employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer (or sometimes an experienced employee) serves as the course instructor using hands-on training often supported by formal classroom training.Off-the-job training method takes place away from normal work situations implying that the employee does not count as a directly productive worker while such training takes place. Off-the-job training method also involves employee training at a site away from the actual work environment. It often utilizes lectures, case studies, role playing and simulation, having the advantage of allowing people to get away from work and concentrate more thoroughly on the training itself. This type of training has proven more effective in inculcating concepts and ideas. A more recent development in job training is the On the Job Training Plan, or OJT Plan. According to the United States Department of the Interior, a proper OJT plan should include: An overview of the subjects to be covered, the number of hours the training is expected to take, an estimated completion date, and a method by which the training will be evaluated.

Religion and spiritualityInreligiousandspiritualuse, training may refer to the purification of the mind, heart, understanding and actions to obtain a variety of spiritual goals such as (for example) closeness toGodor freedom fromsuffering. Note for example the institutionalized spiritual training ofThreefold Trainingin Buddhism, Meditation inHinduismordiscipleshipinChristianity. These aspects of training can be short term or last a lifetime; depending on the context of the training and which religious group it is a part of. Compare religiousritual.Feature of trainingOpen trainingThe open training program is unfolded in following issues: general management (including Executive Management Program, MBA Core Courses Training Program, Multinational Management Program), corporate development strategy, organizational efficiency, human resources, marketing strategy and management, financial management, operational management, information management and E-commerce, innovation and transformation, hot topics of China economy.Customized trainingTo deal with various demands firm by firm, the school has developed customized training programs, which put into account the industrial background, external environment, market status, organizational reality, as well as other specific demands by companies. In-depth survey, determination of goal and development plans, evaluation steps and feedback process are necessary before any customized training program is reached.Chaired by reputable professors and scholars of the school, the customized training programs are featured with rich pools of training methods and ample training content, enabling the in-training corporate managers to put what they learn into practice. We are open to advices and suggestions related to the program advancements.Compared with MBA education and other degree-conferring programs, the executive manager training program resorts to advanced training methods more than anything else, so as to realize effective training purposes. We are trying to:Arrange the curricula in an evenly condensed wayWe understand that each student who has come to attend the training programs is in a vital position of a company, and risks extremely high opportunity costs in learning what should meet their demands during the training, which seeks to allow our students to acquire necessary skills from as condensed and reasonably sound a structure of curricula arrangement as possible.Highlight the faculty-and-students interactionsIt wonderfully complements each other as that our students of the training programs have richly accumulated management experiences, and that our faculty members are equipped with internationally standardized, systematic guidelines of professional management knowledge. Eyeing that, it is undoubtedly a necessity that our students interact extensively with the faculty members, so much so that they both benefit from their interactions.Advocate the student-to-student communication on an extensive scaleThe more our students communicate with each other, the better the purposes of training will be fulfilled. The collision of views and ideas among them runs to reach an often surprising outcome of learning for students, which hopefully goes nowhere short of what theyve learned in class in terms of training efficiency.ImportanceAdequately planned and well executed training program can lead to following advantages: Training can develop high morale in employee.Training builds high morale in an employee by developing positive attitude, job satisfaction, enhanced earnings, and job security. Training also reduces employee grievances by providing opportunities for internal promotion. Training leads to higher productivity.Training helps employees to build skills which leads to perform their job efficiently. Employees learn new skills and use better methods to perform their tasks. Better quality of workFormal training improves quality of work as standard methods are taught to employees. Uniform work methods and procedures improve the quality of product or services. Reduction in costTraining leads to optimum use of resources and zero waste which increases productivity and helps to minimize cost of operations per unit. Training leads to economic use of materials and machinery. Reduced learning periodAn efficient training program does not wastes time and efforts in learning through trial and error, it also reduces time and cost involved in learning. Reduced supervision and low accident ratesTraining develops self reliant and well motivated employees, they need less guidance and control therefore burden on supervisors is reduced. By adopting right work methods and making use of prescribed safety devices employees reduce accident rate.

Objectivei) To impart to new entrants basic knowledge and skills,ii) To assist the employees to function more effectively in their present position by exposing them to the latest concepts, information and techniques and developing in them the skills required in their fields,iii) To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them as a part of their career progression to occupy more responsible positions.iv) To broaden the minds of the senior managers by providing them opportunities for interchange of experiences within and outside with a view to correct the narrow outlook that may arise from over specialization.(v) To impart customer education.Concept of Training EffectivenessTraining is the process of assisting a person for enchanting his efficiency and effectiveness at work by improving and updating his professional knowledge by developing skills relevant to his work and cultivating appropriate behavior and attitude towards work and people. Training could be designed either for improving present at work or for preparing a person for assuming higher responsibilities in further which would call for additional knowledge and superior skills. Training is different education particularly formal education. While education is concerned mainly with enhancement of knowledge, training aims essentially at increasing knowledge, stimulating attitude and imparting skills related to a specific job. It is a continuous and life long process. Training provides an atmosphere of sharing and synthesizing, with the help of the trainers, the information already available on the subject. Training is a time bound activity program. Thus there is a separate specialized discipline of trainers socializing in the field of human activity.The effectiveness of training is a measurement of learning. It is determined by comparing post-test scores with pre-test scores and then measuring the net change. There are several methods to measure this On a per-student basis, On a per-skill point base or On a per-dollar basis.

Meaning of training effectivenessA business most important asset is often its people. Training and developing them can be one of the most important investments a business can make. The right training can ensure that your business has the right skills to tackle the future. It can also help attract and retain good quality staff, as well as increasing the job satisfaction of those presently with you - increasing the chances that they will satisfy your customers. Thus Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of employee. It is a universal truth that the human resources available in an organization have to be managed more efficiently than the material resources comprising of machines and money. Eloquently putting Training is a systematic development of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job.Definition of training effectivenessTraining is the continuous, systematic development among all levels of employees of that knowledge and those skills and attitudes which contribute to their welfare and that of the company.- M.C Lord and EffersonTraining may be defined as a process of developing an understanding of some organized body of facts, rules and methods. This information concerns largely the operative phases of an applied knowledge.- R.C Davis.Theories of trainingKirkpatrick evaluation modelThe Kirkpatrick evaluation model or theory was developed in 1959 by University of Wisconsin professor emeritus Donald Kirkpatrick. It consists of four level sof evaluation: reaction of participants; learning, or the knowledge and skills gained; behavior, or the ability to apply the new skills; and results, or the organizational impact. Each level of evaluation builds upon and adds precision to the previous level.The reaction: The reaction level measures how training participants react, including their level of participation; ease and comfort of experience; and the level of effort required to make the most of the learning. A reaction evaluation is inexpensive and simple to administer using interaction with the participants, post-training surveys and online questionnaires. The evaluation can be done immediately after the training ends. It is important that participants have a positive reaction to the training sessions because a negative reaction leads to poor learning. The learning: Learning evaluations are usually conducted before and after a training program to assess the impact the program has had on the learning process. Evaluations assess whether participants have advanced in knowledge, skills and intellectual capacity as a result of the training. Learning evaluation tools include self-assessment using online questionnaires and tests, and formal assessment through interviews and observations. Learning evaluation is especially relevant for technical training because technical skill level changes are usually more quantifiable. Behavior: Behavior evaluation assesses the extent to which training participants apply the learning in their jobs. The evaluation is usually done over a period of time to determine if the participants use the new skills and knowledge on the job, improve their performance and transfer the knowledge to their peers. Tools include observations, questionnaires, tests and interviews. Behavior evaluations take more time and effort than reaction and learning evaluations. It is important to involve the line managers and immediate supervisors in the process because they are in the best position to observe and assess participant behavior changes. Results: Results evaluation determines the success of a training program in operational and strategic terms, such as increased sales, reduced expenses, improved quality and reduced cases of workplace injuries. However, it may not always be possible to correlate improved operational performance with training. For example, improvements in product quality may be due to better design tools and more qualified staff, not just a new quality training program. External factors, such as changes in the economy and the competitive environment, may also influence operational results.Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and organizational development. They describe two contrasting models of workforce motivation.Theory X In this theory, which has been proven counter-effective in most modern practice, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met, theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employees compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employees interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the managers job to structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause diseconomies of scale in large businesses. Theory Y In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to Papa, to them work is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed.A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to develop the climate of trust with employees that are required for human resource development. Its human resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that subordinates have say in decisions that influence them. Theory X and Theory Y combined For McGregor, Theory X and Y are not different ends of the same continuum. Rather they are two different continua in themselves.Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs motivational modelAbraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development.The Maslows Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and terminology - not the precise pyramid diagram itself) is clearly and directly attribute able to Maslow; later versions of the theory with added motivational stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow.These extended models have instead been inferred by others from Maslows work. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs.Where Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is shown with more than five levels these models have been extended through interpretation of Maslows work by other people. These augmented models and diagrams are shown as the adapted seven and eight-stage Hierarchy of Needs pyramid diagrams and models below. There have been very many interpretations of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs in the form of pyramid diagrams. The diagrams on this page are my own interpretations and are not offered as Maslows original work. Interestingly in Maslows book Motivation and Personality, which first introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, there is not a pyramid to be seen.

Figure 5: Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc.5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.Tools to Measure Training EffectivenessBusinesses implement training programs for their employees in response to problems with employee performance, motivation or poor work quality. They develop goals for the training and then have to measure how well the training met the requirements. Tools for evaluating the training ideally give information and feedback about the adequacy of the training program as well as parts that are ineffective. Management can address these shortcomings with additional training designed specifically for the gaps that the measurement tools identify.Course EvaluationAsking the trainees what they thought of the training is an important part of the evaluation of the program. A training evaluation questionnaire that the trainees fill out upon completing the program is an effective tool. A trainee survey focusing on the application of the new skills once the employees have started using them measures the usefulness of the training program. Companies must combine such information with objective measurements to get a complete picture of training results.

PerformanceAn objective measurement is an evaluation of employee and company performance and a comparison with levels achieved prior to the training. If the problem is a high error rate in an assembly, for example, the company establishes a target for improvement and develops corresponding training. After the training, the company measures the error rate again and compares it with the target. The training is effective if the measurements meet or exceed the target.BehaviorCompanies sometimes have problems with employee behavior that affects performance. In addition to measuring performance, the company must define the behavioral characteristics that are unacceptable, develop training that specifically addresses the questionable behavior and set measurable targets for success. Corresponding tools, such as records of co-worker complaints and supervisor reports and evaluations, measure instances of such behavior before and after the training. They show that the training has been effective if the targets have been met.KnowledgeEven employees with positive attitudes may not have the knowledge to adequately carry out their assigned tasks. Effective training ensures that each employee has the skills and knowledge to meet performance targets. Typical tools to evaluate knowledge are tests in the subject matter. Training programs must define what knowledge is required for a specific task, test employees for it and establish pass/fail levels. The tests measure the effectiveness of the training. Excellent training programs result in all employees acquiring the essential knowledge and passing the tests. How to measure training effectivenessEach year globally many millions of dollars are spent on training. It would seem reasonable to establish just how effective this training has been if only to help justify the budget. Evaluation techniques are not new; indeed the most influential early work on evaluation was performed in the USA during the 1940s by Tyler. Probably the most important aspect of Ralph W Tylers work was the realization of the importance of objectives in designing an effective school curriculum. This early methodology can be defined as the scientific/experimental approach. The model emphasized the importance of knowing the educational standards of the individuals in the control group before the new education initiative took place and then determining the change that had taken place by measuring the difference in attainment after the educational intervention was completed. In other words the aim was to determine the effectiveness of the training by scientific means on the level of performance of the individual. Although there have been some critics of this methodology it has proved to be valuable in that organizations have been able to quantify the relationship between their corporate objectives (often expressed as key performance indicators (KPIs) today) and the training aims and objectives. The main criticism of the scientific/experimental approach is that the methodology is unable to take into account the unexpected or unintentional learning that can take place within a dynamic and changing learning environment. Those readers who can remember reading about the original, and now famous Hawthorne experiments to determine the effects of illumination levels on production held at the Western Electric plant in Cicero, Illinois in the 1920s and the later experiments also conducted by the National Research Council showed that human behavior is indeed difficult to quantify exactly. Nevertheless the greater attention that was given to training methodology and in particular the effectiveness of management development during the 1960s and 1970s has led to much better understanding and the emergence of systems evaluation methodology. As we will see this approach can be divided into two main schools; the narrow focused approach being attributed to Donald L Kirkpatrick in the early 1960s and the somewhat broader model advocated by P. Warr et al (The Evaluation of Management Training) known as the CIRO model. The CIRO model looked at context evaluation, input evaluation, reaction evaluation and outcome evaluation. Donald L Kirkpatricks "Four steps to measuring training effectiveness This model uses four separate stages for the evaluation of the effectiveness of a training program. The four stages are:- Reaction Learning Behavior Results

Figure 6: Donald L Kirkpatricks Model

Level 1 The first stage is about the reaction of the trainee to the training. This sort of measurement is concerned with how the trainees "feel about the course. The usual course feedback sheets are an example of the Kirkpatrick level 1 evaluation. Most organizations do not do any more than this type of measurement and analysis. The drawback is that we do not really know if the trainee has actually learnt anything. What really seems to be being asked of the trainee was how "happy were you with the course; hence the somewhat derogatory description that is often applied to the "happy sheets! We will now look at the next level of evaluation concerned with Learning. Level 2 Things can be improved by using a pre-test and post-test and comparing the results. The questions need to be objective and closely related to the course objectives (more about that later). In this way we can determine if the training actually delivered knowledge and this was understood by the trainees at the time. An organization that does this can be confident that the trainee has actually learnt something at that time. Why do I make the point that we have to make the measurement and consider the learning at a certain time? Well because we do not know if the learning has had time to be internalized and become "concrete. All too often trainees (and delegates at conferences for example) will have difficulty remembering what was in the course or seminar they attended a few days later let alone months later. There are various techniques that we can employ to improve the level of recall but basically "if we dont use it we will lose it!

Level 3This is concerned with "behavior. By that we mean the measurable change in an individual as a result of their attendance on the training course. This is, in my opinion, the least we should be expecting from any training program. After all what is the point of spending money and using resources if the training does not affect some measurable change in the behavior of the trainee? Level 4Kirkpatrick is now concerned with the training to determine if it has actually been translated into tangible benefits to the organization. Quite simply has productivity and or quality been improved? Have the number of accidents or incidents been reduced? Has plant availability and or plant utilization been improved? Has the morale of the workforce changed for the better? These are metrics which really have an impact on the "bottom line and for that reason feature in the companies balance sheets and KPIs. We have to ask ourselves is this not the real reason for training? Training has to make a real difference in performance and effectiveness; this is tied closely to competence. Training has be proven to deliver results and be cost effective. It might sound simple but it is not for most organizations. The reason is that most do not have in place any system for measuring the improvement in competence of the individual; let alone a systematic approach to identifying the most effective means of assisting the individual to becoming competent.

Why Measure Training Effectiveness?Measuring the effectiveness of training programs consumes valuable time and resources. As we know all too well, these things are in short supply in organizations today. Many training programs fail to deliver the expected organizational benefits. Having a well-structured measuring system in place can help you determine where the problem lies. On a positive note, being able to demonstrate a real and significant benefit to your organization from the training you provide can help you gain more resources from important decision-makers.Consider also that the business environment is not standing still. Your competitors, technology, legislation and regulations are constantly changing. What was a successful training program yesterday may not be a cost-effective program tomorrow. Being able to measure results will help you adapt to such changing circumstances.When considering what sources of data you will use for your evaluation, think about the cost and time involved in collecting the data. Balance this against the accuracy of the source and the accuracy you actually need. Will existing sources suffice or will you need to collect new information?Think broadly about where you can get information. Sources include: hardcopy and online quantitative reports production and job records interviews with participants, managers, peers, customers, suppliers and regulators checklists and tests direct observation questionnaires, self-rating and multi-rating Focus Group sessionsOnce you have completed your evaluation, distribute it to the people who need to read it. In deciding on your distribution list, refer to your previously stated reasons for conducting the evaluation. And of course, if there were lessons learned from the evaluation on how to make your training more effective, act on them!