Earth Science - Jefferson Forest High...
Transcript of Earth Science - Jefferson Forest High...
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EARTH SCIENCE
A Review of our Earth
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HISTORY OF THE EARTH
The Geologic Time Scale
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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH?
Geologists use fossil records to separate the
history of the Earth
The divisions are from largest to smallest
length of time
eon era period epoch
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4.6 BILLION YEARS OLD
Eon: measured in billions of years
Era: measured in hundreds of millions of years
and marked by differences in life-forms that are
preserved in rocks.
Period: measured in tens of millions of years and
marked by life-forms that were abundant and then
extinct
Epoch: measured in millions of years and marked
by different groups of organisms
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THE FOUR EONS
Hadean (4.6-3.9 bya)
Archeozoic (3.9-2.5 bya)
Proterozoic (2.5-0.54 bya)
Phanerozoic (540 mya - present)
Precambrian
Time
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WHAT ERA DO WE COME IN?
Precambrian times: bacteria
Paleozoic Era (540-248 mya): fish, reptiles, marine invertebrates, land plants and amphibians
Mesozoic Era (248-65 mya): age of dinosaurs (triassic, jurassic & cretaceous)
Cenozoic Era (65 mya - present): age of mammels
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WHAT PERIOD DO I HAVE HUMAN?
Cenozoic Era
Tertiary Period
Paleocene Eopch
Eocene Epoch
Oligocene Epoch
Miocene Epoch
Pliocene Epoch
Quaternary Period
Pleistocene Epoch
Holocene Epoch
You are
here
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RELATIVE AGE OF ROCKS
The relative age of rocks can be determined by
examining the different horizontal layers
rocks
fossils
unconformities
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ABSOLUTE AGE DATING
Radiometric Dating
Half-life
Thorium-232 (14.0 billion yrs) to Lead-208
Uranium-238 (4.5 billion yrs) to Lead-206
Uranium-235 (0.7 billion yrs) to Lead-207
Carbon-14 (only 5,730 yrs) to Nitrogen-14
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GEOLOGIC TIMELINE ASSIGNMENT
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?
pid=321
Complete the “Geologic Timeline” found on the
“APES Assignment” page. This assignment will
be due on Friday, September 17.
You may use the National Geographic
Interactive online applet to complete your
timeline.
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/pr
ehistoric-world/prehistoric-time-line.html
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THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
The Layers Beneath
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
The Earth is comprised of four distinctive
systems
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
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LITHOSPHERE (THE CRUST)
The Lithosphere is the rigid outer shell of the
planet and includes the crust and the
uppermost, hard portion of the mantle.
The Asthenosphere is the partially molten layer
of the Earth’s crust which includes the upper
and lower mantle as well as the transition zone.
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THE CRUST
The crust is the top layer of the Earth.
Continental crust (0-50 km) is less dense than
oceanic crust and includes volcanic, sedimentary
and granitic rocks, with older areas dominated by
metamorphic rocks.
Oceanic crust (0-12 km) contains basalt which is
extrusive igneous rock, sometimes porphyritic, and
is often both fine-grained and dense.
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THE MANTLE
The mantle is separated into the upper (outer)
mantle, the transition zone and the lower (inner)
mantle.
The outer mantle includes an upper layer made of
silicates of iron and magnesium but is stiffer because
of its lower temperature; and, a bottom (transition)
layer of tough liquid rock made of the same material.
The inner mantle is solid due to pressure and consists
of sulphides and oxides of silicon and magnesium.
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THE CORE
Below the crust and the mantle lies the outer
and inner core.
The outer core is a molten liquid made up primarily
of Iron and Sulfur. The outer core account for 30%
of the total mass of the Earth.
The inner core is a solid Iron-nickel alloy and only
accounts for 2% of the total mass of the Earth.
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MAKING OF THE MODERN DAY EARTH
Plate Tectonics
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CONTINENTAL BOUNDARIES
Early mapmakers observed that the borders of
the continents seemed to match, much like a
puzzle.
In 1912, a German scientist named Wegener
proposed a hypothesis of continental drift
Pangea (supercontinent)
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PANGEA
Coastlines
matched up
Evidence came
from:
rock formations
fossils
ancient climate
(glacial deposits)
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SEAFLOOR SPREADING
The seafloor is a rough terrain with ridges,
mountains and valleys.
The theory of seafloor spreading uses sonar
and magnetic mapping to determine the
topography.
New ocean crust is formed at ocean ridges and
destroyed at deep-sea trenches.
This theory was the missing link in Wegener’s
continental drift theory.
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SEAFLOOR SPREADING LEADS TO
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
New oceanic crust
is formed when
magma intrudes
along a ridge.
• When this magma cools to form new crust, it
spreads the oceanic ridge.
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PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics is a theory that the Earth’s crust
and upper mantle are divided into large
portions called plates.
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BOUNDARIES
There are three types of boundaries between
these plates
Divergent Boundary
Convergent Boundary
Transform Boundary
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DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
A divergent boundary is the boundary where
two tectonic plates are moving apart from each
other.
Most are found on the seafloor and form oceanic
ridges.
Site of the formation of new oceanic crust.
Underwater earthquakes and volcanos can be
found at divergent boundaries.
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EXAMPLES
The mid-atlantic ridge is an
example of a divergent boundary:
• East Pacific Rise
•Red Sea Rift
•Galapagos Rise
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CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
A convergent boundary is where two tectonic
plates move toward each other:
oceanic-oceanic
oceanic-continental
continental-continental
When one plate moves under another, it is
called the subduction zone
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OCEANIC-OCEANIC
Deep ocean trenches are formed at the
subduction zone
Island Arcs are formed over the dominant plate
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OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL
Mountain ranges with many volcanos are
formed over the continental crust
Trenches are formed at the subduction zone
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CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL
Large mountain ranges are formed over the
subduction zone
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TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
A transform boundary is a place where two
plates slide horizontally past each other
crust is deformed or fractured
high frequency of earthquakes
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MOVEMENT
Convection is the transfer of energy through the
movement of heated matter
Currents move from areas of high heat to areas of
low heat.
Mantle currents are a result of a transfer of energy
from the hot interior and cool exterior.
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PUSH AND PULL
Ridge push is where the weight of the uplifted
plate is pushed toward the trench formed at the
subduction zone.
Slab pull is where the weight of the subducted
plate pulls it further into the subduction zone.
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EARTH’S NATURAL DISASTERS
Earthquakes
Volcanos
Tsunamis or Tidal Waves
Heavy Rains or Sever Weather
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EARTHQUAKES
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MAPPING ACTIVITY
Use a copy of the world map to mark the latest
earthquakes and volcanoes
Past 7 days
Past Month
Past Year
Latest Earthquakes in the World - Past 7 days
Volcano Hazards Program
Volcano Status Map
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Lisa WaldUSGS Pasadena
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
USGS Earthquake Hazards Program
EARTHQUAKES 101 (EQ101)
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GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF
EARTHQUAKES
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Lisa WaldUSGS Pasadena
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
USGS Earthquake Hazards Program
PLATE TECTONICS
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PLATE BOUNDARIES
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THREE TYPES OF FAULTS
Strike-SlipThrust
Normal
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STRIKE-SLIP FAULT EXAMPLE
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STRIKE-SLIP FAULT EXAMPLE
1906 San Francisco Earthquake
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NORMAL FAULT EXAMPLE
Dixie Valley-Fairview Peaks, Nevada earthquake
December 16, 1954
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THRUST FAULT EXAMPLE
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THRUST FAULT EXAMPLE
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BIGGER FAULTS MAKE BIGGER
EARTHQUAKES
1
10
100
1000
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5Magnitude
Kilo
me
ters
8
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BIGGER EARTHQUAKES LAST A LONGER TIME
1
10
100
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Magnitude
Seconds
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WHAT CONTROLS THE LEVEL OF SHAKING?
Magnitude
More energy released
Distance
Shaking decays with distance
Local soils
amplify the shaking
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - GROUND
SHAKING
Northridge, CA 1994
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS -
GROUND SHAKING
Northridge, CA 1994
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SEISMIC WAVES
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - GROUND SHAKING
KGO-TV News ABC-7
Loma Prieta, CA 1989
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - GROUND SHAKING
Kobe, Japan 1995
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - GROUND SHAKING
Kobe, Japan 1995
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - SURFACE FAULTING
Landers, CA 1992
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - LIQUEFACTION
Source: National Geophysical Data Center
Niigata, Japan 1964
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - LANDSLIDES
Turnagain Heights, Alaska,1964 (upper left inset);
Santa Cruz Mtns, California , 1989
Source: National Geophysical Data Center
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - FIRES
KGO-TV News ABC-7
Loma Prieta, CA 1989
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EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS - TSUNAMIS
Photograph Credit: Henry Helbush. Source: National Geophysical Data Center
1957 Aleutian Tsunami
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EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
M5
M6
M7
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EARTHQUAKE LOCATION
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THE SAN ANDREAS
FAULT
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PACIFIC-NORTH AMERICAN PLATE
BOUNDARY
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FAULTS
OF SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
Source: SCEC Data Center
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SHAKING HAZARD IN SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
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FAULTS IN ARCADIA
55 KM long
Last ruptured in last 10,000 YEARS
SLIP RATE: between 0.36 and 4 mm/yr
PROBABLE MAGNITUDES: MW6.0 - 7.0 (?)
Dips to the north
THRUST fault
Sierra Madre Fault Zone
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FAULTS IN ARCADIA
Source: SCEC Data Center
26 KM long
Last ruptured in last 10,000 YEARS
SLIP RATE: between 0.10 and 0.22 mm/yr
PROBABLE MAGNITUDES: MW6.0 - 7.0
Dips to the north
STRIKE-SLIP fault
Raymond Fault
At least eight surface-rupturing events have occurred
along this fault in the last 36,000 years
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FAULTS IN ARCADIA
18 KM long
Last ruptured in last 1.6 million YEARS
SLIP RATE: ???
PROBABLE MAGNITUDES: ???
Dips to the north
THRUST fault
Clamshell-Sawpit Canyon fault
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REAL-TIME EARTHQUAKE INFORMATION
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SHAKEMAPS
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DID YOU FEEL IT?
Community
Internet
Intensity
Maps
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VOLCANOES
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VOLCANIC GASES
The most abundant gas typically released into
the atmosphere from volcanic systems is water
vapor (H20), followed by carbon dioxide (C02)
and sulfur dioxide (S02). Volcanoes also release
smaller amounts of others gases, including
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen (H2), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCl),
hydrogen fluoride (HF), and helium (He).
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SULFUR DIOXIDE
SO2 causes air pollution Volcanic smog
SO2 effects Earth's surface temperature Global
cooling and ozone depletion
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HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless, flammable gas with a
strong offensive odor. It is sometimes referred to as sewer gas.
At low concentrations it can irritate the eyes and acts as a
depressant; at high concentrations it can cause irritation of the
upper respiratory tract and, during long exposure, pulmonary
edema. A 30-minute exposure to 500 ppm results in headache,
dizziness, excitement, staggering gait, and diarrhea, followed
sometimes by bronchitis or bronchopneumonia.
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SECONDARY GAS EMISSIONS
Another type of gas release occurs when lava
flows reach the ocean. Extreme heat from
molten lava boils and vaporizes seawater,
leading to a series of chemical reactions.
The boiling and reactions produce a large white
plume, locally known as lava haze or laze,
containing a mixture of hydrochloric acid and
concentrated seawater.
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LAHAR
Lahar is an Indonesian term that describes a
hot or cold mixture of water and rock fragments
flowing down the slopes of a volcano and (or)
river valleys.
Lahars can destroy by
direct impact
increased deposition of sediment
block tributary streams
bury valleys and communities with debris
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PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
Pyroclastic flows are high-density mixtures of hot, dry rock
fragments and hot gases that move away from the vent that
erupted them at high speeds.
They may result from the explosive eruption of molten or solid rock
fragments, or both.
They may also result from the nonexplosive eruption of lava when parts of
dome or a thick lava flow collapses down a steep slope.
basal flow: coarse fragments that moves along the ground
Ash: a turbulent cloud of ash that rises above the basal flow which may fall
from over a wide area downwind from the pyroclastic flow.
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PYROCLASTIC FLOWS ARE HARMFUL
BECAUSE … They dam or block tributary streams, which may cause water to
form a lake behind the blockage, overtop and erode the blockage, and mix with the rock fragments as it rushes downstream (for example, see this case study at Pinatubo Volcano, Philippines)
The increase the rate of stream runoff and erosion during subsequent rainstorms. Hot pyroclastic flows and surges can also directly generate lahars by eroding and mixing with snow and ice on a volcano's flanks, thereby sending a sudden torrent of water surging down adjacent valleys (see case study from Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Colombia).
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VOLCANIC LANDSLIDES
Landslides are common on volcanoes because their massive
cones (1) typically rise hundreds to thousands of meters above
the surrounding terrain; and (2) are often weakened by the very
process that created them--the rise and eruption of molten
rock. Each time magma moves toward the surface, overlying
rocks are shouldered aside as the molten rock makes room for
itself, often creating internal shear zones or oversteepening
one or more sides of the cone.
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LAVA FLOWS
Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze
from an erupting vent.
Lava flows destroy everything in their path, but most
move slowly enough that people can move out of the
way.
The speed at which lava moves across the ground
depends on several factors, including
(1) type of lava erupted and its viscosity;
(2) steepness of the ground over which it travels;
(3) whether the lava flows as a broad sheet, through a confined
channel, or down a lava tube; and
(4) rate of lava production at the vent.
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TEPHRA
Tephra is a general term for fragments of volcanic rock and lava regardless of size that are blasted into the air by explosions or carried upward by hot gases in eruption columns or lava fountains.
Such fragments range in size from less than 2 mm (ash) to more than 1 m in diameter. Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the ground on or close to the volcano and progressively smaller fragments are carried away from the vent by wind.
Volcanic ash, the smallest tephra fragments, can travel hundreds to thousands of kilometers downwind from a volcano.
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EFFECTS OF TEPHRA
Volcanic ash is highly disruptive to economic activity because it covers just about everything, infiltrates most openings, and is highly abrasive.
Airborne ash can obscure sunlight to cause temporary darkness and reduce visibility to zero.
Ash is slippery, especially when wet; roads, highways, and airport runways may become impassable.
Automobile and jet engines may stall from ash-clogged air filters and moving parts can be damaged from abrasion, including bearings, brakes, and transmissions.
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MT ST HELENS ERUPTION
http://video.pbs.org/video/1485211138/?star
ttime=2061000
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TSUNAMIS
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TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves generated
by sudden displacements in the sea floor,
landslides, or volcanic activity. In the deep
ocean, the tsunami wave may only be a few
inches high. The tsunami wave may come
gently ashore or may increase in height to
become a fast moving wall of turbulent water
several meters high.
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NOAA PICTORAL DOCUMENTATION
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HOW ARE THEY MADE?
Tsunamis are most commonly generated by
earthquakes in marine and coastal regions.
Major tsunamis are produced by large (greater
than 7 on the Richer scale), shallow focus (<
30km depth in the earth) earthquakes
associated with the movement of oceanic and
continental plates.
Underwater landslides associated with smaller
earthquakes are also capable of generating
destructive tsunamis.
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WHERE CAN YOU FIND THEM?
They frequently occur in the Pacific, where
dense oceanic plates slide under the lighter
continental plates. When these plates fracture
they provide a vertical movement of the
seafloor that allows a quick and efficient
transfer of energy from the solid earth to the
ocean
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WAVE PROPAGATION
Because earth movements associated with
large earthquakes are thousand of square
kilometers in area, any vertical movement of
the seafloor immediately changes the sea-
surface.
The resulting tsunami propagates as a set of waves
whose energy is concentrated at wavelengths
corresponding to the earth movements (~100 km),
at wave heights determined by vertical
displacement (~1m), and at wave directions
determined by the adjacent coastline geometry.
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WARNING SYSTEMS
Since 1946, the tsunami warning system has
provided warnings of potential tsunami danger
in the pacific basin by monitoring earthquake
activity and the passage of tsunami waves at
tide gauges. However, neither seismometers
nor coastal tide gauges provide data that allow
accurate prediction of the impact of a tsunami
at a particular coastal location.
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FORECASTING IMPACTS
Recently developed real-time, deep ocean
tsunami detectors will provide the data
necessary to make tsunami forecasts.
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REDUCTION OF IMPACT
The recent development of real-time deep
ocean tsunami detectors and tsunami
inundation models has given coastal
communities the tools they need to reduce the
impact of future tsunamis. If these tools are
used in conjunction with a continuing
educational program at the community level, at
least 25% of the tsunami related deaths might
be averted.
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HOW IS OUR ENVIRONMENT AFFECTED?
Politics Economy
Environment
Population