Alistair J. Howitt-MarshallEducational & Developmental Psychologist

My Background• BA (Hons) Psychology and Sociology at the University

of Reading, UK• MA Educational & Developmental Psychology at the

University of Western Sydney, Australia • 3 years as an Offender Case Manager with the

National Probation Office, UK• 1 year as a Trainee Forensic Psychologist working in

Sex Offender Rehabilitation at HM Prison Stafford, UK• 5 years in Special Needs Education, Australia• Currently working in Private Practice with Laura Kiln,

‘Laura’s Place’, Central Coast • Father of 3 children, Scarlett (3 years), Ronan (2

years) and Alicia (8 months)• I was diagnosed with Dyslexia in primary school

Learning Objectives An understanding of the problems associated

with the current diagnostic criteria for learning disorders

An understanding of the cognitive and developmental profile of dyslexia

An understanding of the behaviour problems associated with dyslexia

Definitions • Medical / Psychiatric

- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th Ed (DSM-IV),

- International Classification of Diseases, 10th Ed. (ICD-10)

• Organisations- Australia: ALDA, SPELD- UK: Lucid Research, British Dyslexia Assoc.

• Governmental / Legal– State departments of education– Federal Legislation: Disability Discrimination

Act, Disability Standards for Education

DefinitionsThe term “specific learning disability” means a

disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in

understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an

imperfect ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

U.S. Office of Education (1968)

Current Diagnostic Classifications: Specific Learning DisordersDSM-IV ClassificationsExpressive Language DisorderMixed Receptive-Expressive Language DisorderPhonological DisorderReading DisorderDisorder of Written ExpressionMathematics Disorder

Note: Dyslexia is NOT a recognised diagnostic classification in the DSM-IV, but may encompass some or all of the above.

Dyslexia: Neurological in OriginDyslexia presupposes the existence of certain

cognitive deficits that are believed to underpin the condition.

Recording of the electrical activity of the brain Brain imaging techniques Post-mortem examination

- all reveal a range of functional and structural cerebral anomalies of persons with dyslexia.

These are believed to be either inherited or neurological abnormalities which have arisen before (or during) birth.

Other useful terminologies

Dysgraphia – difficulty in writingDyspraxia – difficulties with balance and co-ordinationDyscalculia – difficulties with maths Auditory Processing Disorder – difficulties distinguishing sounds in language and comprehending what they hear

Cognitive Characteristics of Dyslexia Uneven cognitive profile: strengths and

weaknesses Phonological processing difficulties Weakness in working memory and short-term

memory functionDifficulties with automatising skills Problems connected to visual processing

Diagnostic Criteria: DSM-IVThe DSM-IV uses an IQ – Achievement

Discrepancy Analysis to determine the presence of specific learning disorder

Academic skills below expectation for age (2 years below chronological age) and general cognitive ability

Not due to intellectual disability, sensory or physical deficit, emotional disorder, inadequate environment or lack of educational experiences

A multi-disciplinary approachA number of professionals should be involved in the identification of dyslexia Parents or primary caregiversRegistered PsychologistsTeachers (esp. Special Ed. trained) & Teacher’s AidesSpeech Pathologists

Test SelectionBelow is the minimum number of tests required to formally diagnose an individual with a specific learning disorder.

Cognitive assessment - Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Ed. OR

- Stanford-Binet, 5th Ed.

Achievement assessment (incl. reading, writing, mathematics and oral language)

- Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 2nd & 3rd Ed. OR

- Woodcock Johnson, 3rd Ed.

Language assessment - Clinical Language of Fundamental, 4th Ed.

IQ – Achievement Discrepancy The normal curve shows an individual’s predicted reading

score (green) based on their cognitive ability vs. their actual reading ability (orange). The discrepancy between the scores highlights a potential learning difficulty.

KEYReading ActualReading Predicted

Problems with IQ – Achievement Discrepancy Relies on a ‘wait to fail’ model, problematic when

it comes to early identification Identification is confined to bright, middle class

childrenDifficult to establish discrepancy if child is below

average IQ, yet dyslexia can affect children of all abilities

Assessments are relatively expensive and time consuming to analyse

Assessments are not widely accessible, i.e. can only be carried out by certain professionals

IQ – Achievement Discrepancy

“… the assumption that a discrepancy between achievement and intelligence (typically assessed using intelligence tests) is a clear diagnostic marker for learning disabilities or can be considered a characteristic sign is at best premature, and at worst invalid”

Lyon (1995)

A useful definition!

Dyslexia is typically characterised by ‘an unusual balance of skills’. Dyslexia is a syndrome: a

collection of associated characteristics that vary in degree and from person to person. These

characteristics encompass not only distinctive clusters of problems but sometimes also

distinctive talents.

Lucid Research (2003)

Dyslexia and Behaviour • The incidence of behavioural problems

amongst those with learning disabilities is three times the norm by eight years of age (Mash & Wolfe, 2002).

• High co-morbidity with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Unfortunately, ADHD will often be detected first.

Dyslexia and Behaviour: common complaints?! Won’t follow a series of instructions Highly distracted/Poor concentration Non-compliant LazyClumsySocially inappropriatePoor coping mechanisms

Dyslexia and Anxiety

Behaviour = Communication

“Children will usually tell you they are not feeling successful through their actions first”

(Etess, 2004, p. 14)

Early identification is key to successIdentification delayed until late primary

results in successful progress by less than 50% of children

Identification delayed until secondary school results in successful progress by between 10-15% of children

Dyslexia Screening Tests for TeachersBangor Dyslexia Test (1983; Second edition, 1997).

T.R.Miles. Cambridge: LDA. Several brief subtests tap ‘positive signs’ of dyslexia; about 7 years to 18 years.

CoPS – Cognitive Profiling System (1996/97) C. H. Singleton, K.V. Thomas and Leedale, R.C. Beverley, East Yorks: Lucid Creative Ltd. Computer software. Comprises 9 subtests of memory, phonological awareness and auditory discrimination; 4 yrs to 8 yrs 11mths.

Dyslexia Early Screening Test (DEST-2; 4:6 –6:5 yrs) (2002) and Dyslexia Screening Test (DST; 6:6 – 16.5 yrs) (1996) A. Fawcett and R. Nicolson and. London: Psychological Corporation. 10 short subtests of phonological skills, memory, reading, spelling, postural stability, etc.

Know Your RightsDisability Standards for Education, 2005

The standards clarify the obligations of education and training providers to ensure that

students with a disability are able to access and participate in education without

experiencing discrimination.

Weblink: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrume

nt1.nsf/all/search/4B28EE956766891FCA256FCC0004EF81

Useful Websiteswww.lucid-research.com/www.bdadyslexia.org.uk www.dyslexiaassociation.org.au www.speldnsw.org.au/ www.stampout.com.au/

UK kid demonstrates speech recognition software

www.youtube.com/watch?v=lXHawlHLmtI