Draft GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING AND DESIGN FOR ROADS ...

GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING AND DESIGN FOR ROADS & HIGHWAY PROJECTS FUNDED BY KIIFB

Version 2.0

20-November-2018

KIIFB Guidelines for Planning and Design for Roads & Highway Projects Version 2.0 Page 1 of 122

CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1 4

KERALA PROFILE 4 1.1 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF KERALA 5 1.2 LAND USE PATTERN OF KERALA 5 1.3 ROAD NETWORKS IN KERALA 6 1.4 VEHICLE GROWTH RATES IN KERALA 7 1.5 ROAD ACCIDENT RATE IN KERALA 8 1.6 POLLUTION 8 1.7 KERALA ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE 8 1.8 KIIFB FUNDED ROADS 9

CHAPTER – 2 10

COMPONENTS OF ROADWAY 10 2.1 RIGHT OF WAY (ROW) 10 2.2 CARRIAGEWAY 10 2.3 SHOULDERS 11 2.4 KERB 11 2. 5 FOOTPATH 11 2.6 DRAINAGE 11 2. 7 UTILITY DUCT 11 2.8 MEDIAN 12 2.9 CAMBER 12 2.10 ROAD FURNITURE 12 2.11 PROTECTION WORKS 12 2.12 CYCLE TRACK 12 2.13 STREET LIGHTING 13

CHAPTER – 3 14

STAGES IN PROJECT PREPARATION 14 3.1 PROJECT PREPARATION STAGES 14 3.2 SPECIFICATIONS 15

CHAPTER – 4 17

INVESTIGATION, SURVEY AND DEMAND ANALYSIS STUDY 17 4.1 INVESTIGATION PLANNING 17 4.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY 18 4.3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY 18 4.4 DETAILED SURVEY 21


CHAPTER – 5 24

RIGHT OF WAY GUIDELINES 24 5.1 STATE HIGHWAYS: GUIDELINES 24 5.2 COASTAL HIGHWAY: GUIDELINES 26 5.3 HILL HIGHWAY: GUIDELINES 28 5.4 CITY ROADS: GUIDELINES 30 5.5 OTHER KIIFB ROADS: GEOMETRIC GUIDELINES 31

CHAPTER – 6 57

ROADWAY DESIGN 57 6.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT PLANNING 57 6.2 DESIGN SPEED GUIDELINE 58 6.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 59 6.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 62 6.5 HILLY ROADS 66

CHAPTER – 7 69

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING DESIGN 69 7.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES 69 7.2 PAVEMENT DESIGN 71 7.3 ALTERNATIVE PAVEMENT DESIGN 73

CHAPTER – 8 74

DRAINAGE SYSTEM 74 8.1 SIDE DRAIN SYSTEM 74 8.2 CROSS DRAIN SYSTEMS 76

CHAPTER – 9 78

UTILITY CORRIDOR AND CROSS DUCT 78

CHAPTER – 10 79

ROADSIDE AMENITY 79 10.1 FOOTPATH AND PEDESTRIAN CROSSING 79 10.2 BUS BAYS AND BUS SHELTERS 81 10.3 SMART STREET LIGHT 83 10.4 CYCLE TRACK 84 10.5 PARKING 85 10.6 AMENITY CENTRE 87 10.7 AVENUE PLANTATION AND LANDSCAPING 88


CHAPTER – 11 88

TRAFFIC FURNITURE 89 11.1 ROAD SIGNS 89 11.2 ROAD MARKING 101 11.3 ROAD STUDS 106

CHAPTER – 12 108

JUNCTION IMPROVEMENT 108

CHAPTER – 13 110

ROAD SAFETY BARRIERS 110 13.1 RAILINGS 110 13.2 RUMBLE STRIPS 111 13.3 SAFETY BARRIERS 111 13.4 GUARD POST 113 13.6 DELINEATORS 114

CHAPTER – 14 115

ROAD SAFETY AUDITING 115 14.1 ROAD SAFETY AUDITING 115 14.2 SOCIAL AUDITING 116 14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING 117

CHAPTER – 15 118

SUSTAINABLE ROADS 118 15.1 IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 118 15.2 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF BEING MORE SUSTAINABLE? 119

REFERENCES: 121


CHAPTER - 1 KERALA PROFILE

Kerala is a state in south India, and that spreads over 38,863 km2 (15005 sq. mi) and is located at

North latitude between 80 18’ and 120 48’ and East longitude between 740 52’ and 770 22’. It is

bordered by Karnataka to the North and North-East, Tamil Nadu to the East and South and

Lakshadweep sea to the West.

Kerala state is a unique state in India has

many advantages such as with 94% literacy

rate, life expectancy of 74 years, highest

human development index (HDI), high per

capita income, availability of skilled

manpower and highest sex ratio, four

international Airports, 18 Sea ports

including one International Container

Transhipment Terminal and also It is State

with second highest tele-density in India.

Kerala is one of the prominent tourist

destinations of India, with backwaters, hill

stations, beaches and tropical greenery as

its major attractions.

Kerala state is wedged between the

Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats.

Kerala can be divided into three climatically

distinct regions; the eastern highlands with

mountainous terrain, the central midlands

with rolling hills and the western low lands

or coastal plains. The high lands slope

down from the Western Ghats and the high

lands, rise to an average height of 900m,

with several peaks over 1,800 m in height. The high land areas of major plantations like tea, coffee,

rubber, cardamom and other species. The midland lies between the mountains and the low lands.

It is made up of undulating hills and valleys. This is an area of intensive cultivation - cashew,

coconut, areca nut, cassava, banana, rice, ginger, pepper, sugarcane and vegetables of different

varieties are grown in this area. The 'Western Ghats' with their rich primaeval forests have a high

degree of rainfall.

Figure 1.1: Kerala map


1.1 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF KERALA Kerala is the eighth largest economy in India. The important sectors of growth and investment in

Kerala are IT & Electronics, Health Care Services, Tourism, Retailing, Plantations, Logistics,

Education & Knowledge Sector, and Infrastructure. Service sector dominates in Kerala economy.

Kerala is an established tourist destination for both Indians and non-Indians alike.

Figure 1.2: Kerala Tourism attractions

Kerala is well known for its beaches, backwaters, mountain ranges and wildlife sanctuaries.

Foreign remittance augments the state’s economic output by nearly 25 percent.

1.2 LAND USE PATTERN OF KERALA Kerala state is unique in its Agro-climatic variations and cropping pattern as compared to other

states in India. In the earlier days agricultural land utilization was according to the agronomic

conditions of land and, food crops

occupied a major part of the cultivated

land. The cultivated area of the state is

to around 67.6 per cent of the total

geographical area. Within this, the Net

Sown Area accounts for 52 per cent

and, 16.83 per cent of the cultivated

area is sown more than once. More than

one-fourth of the area is under forest

cover and 11.18per cent of the area is

put to non-agricultural use. On the

other hand, there was a 4 per cent

increase in the area put to non-agricultural uses and a 7 per cent increase in the land under fallow.

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Kerala

Figure 1.3 : Kerala land use pattern


1.3 ROAD NETWORKS IN KERALA Transportation by road system is the only mode which could give maximum flexibility of service

from origin to destination, to one and all. Road transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel

with reference to choosing of the route, direction, time and speed of travel. Road transportation is

the only mode which caters for the movement of passengers and goods independently right from

the place of origin up to the destination of any trip along the land. In other words, it is possible to

provide door to door service only by road transport.

Table 1.1 Department wise road length in Kerala

Sl. NO Name of Department Length (km) Percentage

1 Panchayats (LSGDs) 139380.410 67.81

2 PWD (R&B) 31812.096 15.48

3 Municipalities 18411.870 8.96

4 Corporations 6644.000 3.23

5 Forests 4575.770 2.23

6 Irrigation 2611.900 1.27

7 PWD (NH) 1781.570 0.87

8 Others (Railways, KSEB,

harbour and irrigation) 328.000 0.16

Total 205545.616 100

Source: Source: Economic review 2016, Kerala

Road density in the State is 853 km/100 sq.km and it is far ahead of the national average of 387

km/100 sq.km. The road density in Kerala is more than two times the national average and it

reflects Kerala's unique settlement patterns.


1.4 VEHICLE GROWTH RATES IN KERALA The motor transport

sector is an important and

integral part of the State

economy. Kerala has 110.3

lakh registered motor vehicles

as of March 2017. For the last

two decades, it has

experienced a compounded

annual growth rate of above 10

per cent.

The growth of Motor Vehicles during the last ten years is shown in Figure 1.4 The number

of vehicles per 1,000 population for Kerala in March 2017 was 330. According to World

Development Indicators (2015), number of vehicles per 1,000 population in India was 18, for China

it is 47, and for the United States, it is 507.

The growth of vehicle population in Kerala is eight per cent over the previous year. The number of

motor vehicles having valid registrations as on March 31, 2017, is 11,030,037 as against

10,171,813 in the previous year.

About 2,574 vehicles are newly added to the vehicle population every day. Of this 1,802 are two-

wheelers. The percentage of category-wise motor vehicles registered in 2016-17 is shown in

Figure1.5

Figure 1.4 Kerala Vehicle growth rate, Source: Economic review 2017, Kerala

Figure 1.5 : Vehicle composition in Kerala, Source: Economic review 2017, Kerala


1.5 ROAD ACCIDENT RATE IN KERALA

Figure 1.6 Accident rate in Kerala, Source: State Crime Records Bureau

Kerala recorded a total of 38,777 accidents in 2017; which is 351 accidents per lakh vehicles

registered in the State.

1.6 POLLUTION Rapid urbanization and growth of motor vehicles impose a serious effect on human life and its

environment in recent years. The number of vehicles on the roads in Kerala has increased more

than 20 times since 1975. Road transport is a major source of air pollution that harms human health

and the environment. Vehicles emit a range of pollutants including nitrogen oxides (NOx) and

particulate matter (PM). Traffic congestion increases vehicle emissions and degrades ambient air

quality. Roads having less capacity and high volume of traffic leads to congestion which causes

air pollution due to unwanted acceleration and deceleration.

The pollution due to traffic can’t be reduced to zero because emission from fuel compression

process can’t control up to a limit. Pollution due to traffic can be reduced by providing high quality

designed roads and sufficient capacity to roads.

1.7 KERALA ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE Roads are maintained by various agencies in Kerala. These include National Highways, Public

Works Department (Roads), Corporations, Municipalities, Panchayath, Irrigation, Forests,

Railways, harbour and fisheries department, etc.

Road maintenance and construction are mainly funded by budget provisions, which are not enough

to maintain a good infrastructure. Kerala government organised Kerala Infrastructure Investment

Fund Board(KIIFB) to accelerate infrastructure development in the professional approach for

ensuring sustainable growth in the economy. KIIFB will guide the Government for planning and

sustained development of both physical and social infrastructure. The Fund established with the


main objective of providing investment for projects in the State of Kerala in sectors like Transport,

Water, sanitation, Energy, Social & Commercial Infrastructure, IT and Telecommunication etc.

Large and sustainable transport sector is an economic driver and core to the development of the

state

1.8 KIIFB FUNDED ROADS Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) formed by the Kerala Government to

provide high-quality infrastructure for developing Kerala. KIIFB shall undertake the funding of two

main types of road/highway projects viz., new formation and up-gradation of existing road/highway

projects which includes improvement/strengthening and/or widening works.

Among the above mentioned types of road/highway projects, the funding shall be restricted to

the following categories of road/highway projects

State Highways

Coastal Highway

Hill Highway

City Roads (Arterial Roads)

Other KIIFB Roads

Bypass (to NH / SH / MDRs) / Ring road Projects


Chapter – 2 COMPONENTS OF ROADWAY

The main components of roadway are Right of way (RoW), Carriageway, Shoulders, Kerbs,

Footpath, Drainage, Utility duct, Median, Road furniture, Protection works, Safety barriers and

Cycle track. Components demand point by point arranging and are required to be adjusted to the

nearby setting.

Figure 2.7 : Components of roadway for Divided Carriageways

2.1 RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)

The road land width or the Right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved in public

interest for road development purposes. The right-of-way should be adequate to accommodate all

the elements that make up the cross-section of the highway and may reasonably provide for future

development

2.2 CARRIAGEWAY

A carriageway consists of a width of road on which a vehicle is not restricted by any physical

barriers or separation to move laterally. Carriageway or the width of the pavement depends on the

width of the traffic lane and number of lanes.

Minimum lane widths of 3.75m carriageway is provided in single lane road and a minimum of 3.5m

lane width for each additional lane. Carriageway should be adedicated space separated from slow-

moving modes such as cycling, walkway etc. Carriageway should not be used for parking and

laying utilities.


2.3 SHOULDERS

A shoulder is a portion of the roadway, contiguous with the travelled way and is intended for the

accommodation of stopped vehicle, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface course.

The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving workspace around a stopped vehicle.

2.4 KERB

A kerb (also termed as a kerb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of pavement or

shoulder, forming part of the gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the

edge to vehicle operators.

Its functions are:

To facilitate and control drainage

To strengthen and protect the pavement edge

To delineate the pavement edge

To present a more finished appearance

To assist in the orderly development of the roadside

2. 5 FOOTPATH

To provide safe facility to pedestrians to walk along the roadway, footpaths or side-walks are

provided in areas where the pedestrian traffic is noteworthy, and the vehicular traffic is also heavy.

By providing a good footpath facility, the pedestrians can keep off from the carriageway and they

are segregated from the moving vehicular traffic.

2.6 DRAINAGE

Road drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-soil water within

the roadway or right of way. Adequate drainage is essential for the protection of the investment

made in the road structures. It is important to provide an effective drainage system for all categories

of roads in rural and urban areas to prevent early deterioration and failure of various components

of a road including the road pavements.

2. 7 UTILITY DUCT

A utility duct, utility tunnel, utility corridor, or utilidor is a passage built underground or above

ground to carry utility lines such as electricity, water supply pipes, and sewer pipes,

communications utilities like fibre optics, cable television, and telephone cables. It shall also be

referred to as a services tunnel, services trench, services vault, or cable vault. Utility ducts avoid

the periodic digging of pavement for utility laying or repairing.


2.8 MEDIAN

A central reserve or a median is the longitudinal space separating dual carriage-ways.

The functions of the median are:

To separate the opposing streams of traffic

To minimise headlight glare in case of wide medians

To include space for safe operation of crossing and turning a vehicle at intersections at

grade when turn pockets are provided.

2.9 CAMBER

Camber is also known as cross-slope and it, facilities drainage of the pavement laterally. The

pavement can have a crown or a high point in the middle with slopes downward towards the edge

in case of single carriageway and uni-camber in case of dual carriageway.

The amount of camber to be provided depends upon the type of the material used in the surface

and intensity of rainfall. Cross-slope for the shoulders should be generally steeper by 1% more

than that of the carriageway.

2.10 ROAD FURNITURE

Road furniture represents a collection of elements intended to improve the road user’s safety and

driver’s perception and comprehension of the continually changing appearance of the road. Road

elements addressed include pedestrian and cycle facilities, traffic signs, road markings, marker

posts, traffic signals, and lighting.

2.11 PROTECTION WORKS

Protection works are needed in areas susceptible to erosion such as, very steep slopes with easily

erodible soils and rock strata. Erosion and soil disturbance can be avoided by using vegetation or

appropriate engineering measures. Erosion often occurs on the cuts and embankments, as well as

on the outlets of cross drains and at locations where, water flows on the surface of the road. Road

protection works helps to avoid erosion and soil disturbance and protect the road structures.

2.12 CYCLE TRACK

Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas where the volume of cycle traffic on the road is very high.

A minimum width of 2m is provided for the cycle track and the width may be increased by 1m for

an additional cycle lane. The layout of the cycle tracks should be carefully decided in large highway

intersections and traffic rotaries.


2.13 STREET LIGHTING

Street lighting is primarily intended to enable the road users (motorists, cyclists and pedestrians)

to visualise the carriageway and the immediate surroundings in darkness. A large proportion of

road accidents are caused in the night and one of the main reasons is, inadequate street lighting.


Chapter – 3 STAGES IN PROJECT PREPARATION

Road project preparation involves a chain of activities, such as, field survey and investigation,

selection of alignment, carrying out various designs, preparation of drawings and estimates, etc.

To be compatible with technical requirements and consistent with economy, it is essential that

every project report is prepared after thorough investigations, collecting all relevant information and

evaluating all possible alternatives.

3.1 PROJECT PREPARATION STAGES The stages involved in the preparation and sanction of road projects are:

a) Pre-feasibility study

The pre-feasibility study is necessary to enable the funding agency to appreciate

the features of the project. This is to be done based on the reconnaissance survey by

collecting information based on the present status of the road and the anticipated traffic

after development/improvement

b) Feasibility study /Preliminary project report preparation

The feasibility study is intended to establish whether the proposal is acceptable in

terms of soundness of engineering design and expected economic benefits from the project

for the investment involved.

c) Detailed engineering and plan of construction

Detailed engineering covers detailed alignment surveys, soil and materials surveys,

pavement design studies, drainage studies, environmental management plan based on

environmental impact assessment studies (if required), detailed drawings, estimates and

implementation schedules and documents.

In some cases, especially for external funded and BOT projects, it may be necessary to prepare a

pre-feasibility report to enable a funding agency or private financier to appreciate the broad features

of the project, the levels of financial involvement and probable returns. On the basis of such work,

Technical Approval and Financial Sanction (TA and FS) are accorded to the project.


Figure 3.1 Project preparation stages, (Source IRC: SP:19-2001)

3.2 SPECIFICATIONS The codes, standards and technical specifications applicable to the design of project

components are:

Indian Roads Congress (IRC) standards and specifications (Latest).

Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

hereinafter referred to as MoRTH Specifications Fifth Revision, 2013.

Any other standards referred to in the manual and any supplement issued with the bid

document.

The latest version of the codes, standards, specifications, etc. notified/published at least 60

days before the last date of bid submission shall be considered applicable.

In the absence of any specific provision on any issue in the aforesaid codes or

specifications read in conjunction with the specifications and standards contained in this

Guidelines, the following standards shall apply in the order of priority:

(i) Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).


(ii) British Standards, Australian Standard, American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standards and American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) Standards, European Standards.

(iii) Any other specifications/standards proposed by the concessionaire/contractor and

concurred by the Technical Sanctioning Authority and KIIFB.

(iv) The DPR should be prepared strictly as per IRC: SP:19-2001


Chapter – 4 INVESTIGATION, SURVEY AND DEMAND ANALYSIS

STUDY

4.1 INVESTIGATION PLANNING

The road project may consist of either construction of a new road or improvements to an existing

one. In either case, the working drawings must be prepared after detailed surveys, design and

investigations. The manner in which surveys are conducted, has a vital influence on designs, on

the production of quantities and cost estimates and finally on the execution of work. Thus, high

responsibility rests upon those who organize the surveys and investigation.

Table 4.1 List of study reports that are required to be submitted along with DPRs

Type of reports New formation Improvement works

Classified traffic volume Count - Yes

Turning movement - Yes

Traffic survey for RoBs/Subways - Yes

Origin Destination Survey Yes Desirable

Speed and Delay studies - Yes

Axle load survey Desirable Desirable

Accident Records - Desirable

Hydrological studies Yes Yes

Pavement condition survey - Yes

Pavement evaluation - Yes

Soil Investigation Yes Yes

Pavement design Yes Yes

Strengthening/Rehabilitation Design - Yes

Topographic survey Yes Yes

The road surveys are classified according to their purpose into three general groups, namely

Reconnaissance Survey, Preliminary Survey and Detail Survey.


4.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

Reconnaissance survey is done, to examine the general characteristics of the area for determining

the most feasible route or routes for further detailed investigations. During the reconnaissance, the

engineer visits the site and examines the general characteristics of the area before deciding the

most feasible route for detailed studies. Only very simple instruments are used by the

reconnaissance team to collect additional details rapidly. Some of the details to be collected during

reconnaissance are given below;

I. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, bridge, hills, permanent structure and other

obstructions along the route

II. Approximate values of the gradient, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternate

alignments

III. Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural

groundwater level along the probable routes.

IV. Soil type along the route from field identification tests and observation of geological

features.

V. Source of construction material, water and location of stone quarries.

4.3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY The preliminary survey is conducted for collecting all the physical information which affects the

proposed route profile/or improvements of a road.

4.3.1 ROAD INVENTORY

Road inventory is conducted for collecting data by directly measuring the conditions of road.

Details required after road inventory are:

(i) Existing Carriageway (ECW) and Right of way (RoW) of project corridors

(ii) Photographs of the road shall be taken for showing existing road conditions as well as

specific landmarks

(iii) Terrain classification as per IRC:73 shall be followed:

Table 4.2 Terrain Classification

Terrain classification Cross slope (%) Plain 0-10

Rolling 10-25 Mountainous 25-60

Steep Greater than 60


(iv) Major/minor junctions passing through and Bridge inventory carried out with the

recommendation of IRC: SP-52

(v) Byroads with all physical details.

(vi) Existing retaining structure details

(vii) Existing Cross drain inventory shall be conducted as per IRC SP 19, to collect present

conditions of the structure with reference of Tables 4.3 and 4.4

Table 4.3 Culvert Inventory Details

CULVERT

Sl.

No Chainage Type Dimension

Direction of flow

Discharge conditions

Remarks

(viii) Existing drainage details inventory shall be conducted to collect present conditions

of the structure with reference of Tables

Table 4.4 Drainage inventory details

DRAINAGE

Rt/Lt Chainage Type Dimension Condition Discharge

point Remarks

(ix) Suggestions, location identification for bus bay improvements/shifting.

(x) Off-street parking spaces for trucks, taxis and auto rickshaws.

(xi) Identification of locations for overtaking zone.

(xii) Land availability at curves for extra widening.

4.3.2 TRAFFIC SURVEY

The traffic engineering studies carried out for collecting traffic data are also called traffic

survey. Traffic engineering studies are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics

and their movement along the identified roads. The results of these studies are used for

the design of geometric features and traffic control measures for safe and efficient traffic

movement. The analysis of results of these studies are also useful for assessing the need

of the proposed road project with justifications.


The different traffic engineering studies generally carried out are:

(i) Traffic volume studies Traffic volume or traffic flow is expressed as the number of classified vehicles that

pass across a given transverse line of the road during a unit time. Traffic volume is

generally expressed as number of vehicles per hour or per day, per lane. It is also

expressed in passenger car units(PCU) per hour using the appropriate PCU factors

as per relevant IRC. The following aspects should be considered in traffic volumes

studies in road projects.

1) Traffic volume count to be conducted for a minimum of three consecutive

days that may include working day and market day.

2) The count stations should be such that the results represent the traffic flow

of a homogenous section of the road.

3) Classified traffic volume count is carried out as per IRC: SP:19-2001 and the

design traffic estimated as per Clause 4.6 of IRC:37-2012 or as per IRC:

SP:72-2015, depending on the volume of traffic.

4) Traffic survey for the design of road junction/at-grade intersections shall

conform to IRC: SP-41.

5) Traffic growth rate for the traffic projection shall be followed as per IRC: 108.

6) In case of low volume roads, the relevant IRC viz., IRC: SP:72-2015 may be

referred for the design of the pavement thickness.

(ii) Spot speed studies Speed is an important transportation consideration because it relates to safety,

time, comfort, convenience, and economics. Spot speed studies are used to

determine the speed distribution of a traffic stream at a specific location. The data

gathered in spot speed studies are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles,

which are useful in making many speed-related decisions. Spot speed data have

several safety applications.

(iii) Speed and delay studies The speed and delay studies are useful in identifying the locations of congestion,

the causes and in arriving at suitable improvement measures to reduce the delays

or increase the travel speed.

(iv) Origin and destination (O-D) studies O-D studies are essential for either comprehensive planning of new road network

or for improvements in the existing road network. The O-D data are also useful for

planning and design of expressways, bypasses around congested towns and

cities, location for truck lay-byes/rest areas, etc.

(v) Parking studies


Parking studies are conducted for the planning and design of suitable parking

facilities that are suitable to meet the demand keeping in view the available space

for the parking facility.

(vi) Accident studies Systematic accident studies shall be carried out by investigating the causes of

accidents and hence take preventive measures in terms of design and control.

(vii) Pedestrian studies For planning and design of pedestrian facilities, safety features like pedestrian

behaviour and numbers shall be studied.

4.3.3 PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY

Pavement Condition Surveys refer to activities performed to give an indication of the

serviceability and physical conditions of the pavements. Data collection is accomplished by

visually estimating distresses present within each roadway section. Should be carried out

as per the performa suggested in IRC:82

Table 4.5 Criteria for Classification of Pavement Sections

Classification of

road Pavement condition

Good No cracking, rutting less than 10mm

Fair

No cracking or cracking confined to single crack

in the wheel track with rutting between 10mm

and 20mm

Poor Extensive cracking and/or rutting greater than 20

mm. Sections with cracking exceeding

4.4 DETAILED SURVEY A detailed survey shall be conducted to collect necessary information for road design and

preparation of detailed working drawings.

4.4.1 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

Detailed topographic survey of bridge crossings, streamlines, towns, villages, road edges,

road boundaries, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings, embankments, etc.

shall be taken. The data shall be used to generate a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the

whole road.

Topographic surveys are conducted preferably using LIDAR and the data is used to plot

the Longitudinal Section and Cross Section. The finished road level and the subgrade level

shall be decided as suggested in IRC:34-2011.


4.4.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION

The properties of soil at subgrade level is required for road construction works. The

common soil test for road construction includes classification of soil, particle size

distribution, moisture content determination, specific gravity, liquid limit and plastic limit

tests.

1. The Subgrade soil is to be tested for its properties @ 1 trial pit/km and as per

IRC:37-2012, if the length of the road is more than 10km.

2. For shorter length of roads, a minimum of 2 trial pit/km shall be staggered and

taken. All basic tests viz., Atterberg's limits, Proctor density (IS:2720- Part-8),

OMC, Soaked CBR at max dry density and OMC, free Swell Index along with

Wet sieve analysis results shall be conducted and form part of the DPR.

3. Where ever required, effective CBR shall be determined as per IRC:37-2012

Clause 5.2.

4. Detailed investigation of landslides may be done compulsorily in Hill highways.

Reference may be made from IRC SP:15

5. For designing culverts and minor bridge, the soil investigation for bearing

capacity of soil and scour depth in addition to common soil tests are to be

conducted.

4.4.3 AXLE LOAD SURVEY

Axle load survey is carrieds out to determine the Equivalent Wheel Load Factor (EWLF)

values or Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) values of heavy commercial vehicles which

affects the design of flexible pavement structure as per the specified sample size as per

IRC:37-2012.

1. One-day axle load survey shall be conducted, for road improvement projects, as per

IRC:37-2012 / IRC: SP:19.

2. For all roads that are expected to carry design traffic more than 5 msa, axle load

survey shall mandatorily be conducted.

3. For low volume roads, indicative VDF values as per IRC:37-2012 may be

considered.

4.4.4 HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES

The function of the drain is to drain surface and subsurface water away from the roadway,

Before the design of drainage and cross drain structures. the amount of runoff from the

road surface shall be estimated. For better performance and long life, the drainage design

shall be followed as per the standards.


(i) Natural drains and conditions shall be considered for proper drainage, as well

as economical design.

(ii) If the newly constructed drain length is more than 75% length of road, a proper

hydrological study shall be conducted for validation of drain use.

(iii) Type of hydrological studies includes

Rainfall analysis

Runoff analysis

Contour studies

4.4.5 PAVEMENT EVALUATION STUDIES

Strengthening of existing pavements shall be designed based on the procedure outlined

in IRC: 81, using Benkelman beam deflection studies and analysis or by adopting Falling

Weight Deflectometer as per IRC:115.

The characteristic deflection of road stretches shall be found out using BBD/FWD survey

and analysis with necessary corrections for temperature, subgrade moisture content and

seasonal corrections. Along with pavement evaluation studies, core test of existing

pavement should be tested to check type and thickness of pavement layers. Based on the

extent and severity of distresses, the possibilities of recycling of the pavement layers can

be assessed.


Chapter – 5 RIGHT OF WAY GUIDELINES

5.1 STATE HIGHWAYS: GUIDELINES

State Highways are arterial roads connecting

district headquarters and important towns within the state and connecting

national highways or highways of the neighbouring state.

Table 5.1 Right of way guideline for State highway

Terrain Plain and Rolling Terrain Hilly Terrain

Stretch PCU/ Day >30000 30000-

18000 <18000 >12000 12000-9000 < 9000

Carriageway (m) 2 x 7 2 x 5.5 7 2 x 7 2 x 5.5 7

Hard Shoulders (m) 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5

Footpath (m) 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 1.8 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5

Drain Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Utility Under footpath

Median (m) 2 0.5 - 2 0.5 -

Avenue plantation If land available

ROW (m) 23 18.5 13.6 22 17.5 13

Figure 5.19& 5.20 5.15& 5.16 5.9 & 5.10 5.17 &

5.18 5.13 & 5.14 5.7 & 5.8

a) When locations where land constraints prevail, a limiting value of 1.5 m wide walkway can

be adopted

b) Footpaths are mandatory at thickly populated locations in village and town limits and at

locations with educational institutions, hospitals, Government offices and other public

amenities.


c) Based on the importance of road and specific nature of any particular road, case by case

variations may be adopted and shall be pre-approved by KIIFB during concept design

stage.

d) Guidelines are given for minimum requirement of Right of Way and the features to be

provided. The required RoW may be adopted based on the terrain of land wherever side

slopes, retaining wall etc needs to be provided. The cross-sectional parameters shall be

retained as per the minimum specifications provided in the table above.


5.2 COASTAL HIGHWAY: GUIDELINES

The Kerala coast is 590 km long, laying in the

direction of North-Northwest to South-Southeast,

with many special features like sea cliff formed by

the action of waves on the coast. Distributed on

the coast, there are long patches of sandy

beaches. The coast acts as major resource for

coastal tourism development in the state. Nine out

of fourteen districts of Kerala have coastline.

There are nearly 200 village panchayats, 11

municipalities and four corporations located along

the coast facing the sea, or backwaters and about

30% of the population of Kerala live in the coastal

zone. The Kerala coastal area is the centre for

many economic activities like agriculture,

aquaculture, fishing, fish processing industry,

chemical industry, mining and tourism. Beaches

and backwaters are the major attraction of the tourists in this area.

Coastal highway is one of the biggest infrastructure projects by Kerala government. It will make

transportation access easier for vehicles passing through the state’s coast. Coastal highway will

begin at Poovar in Thiruvananthapuram district and end at Kunjathoor in Kasarakode district by

passing through 9 districts. The coastal highway will ensure easy connectivity to ports such as

Vallarpadam, Vizhinjam and Kollam. Easy cargo movement and fisheries development are the

stated aims of the project.


Table 5.2 Right of way guidelines for Kerala coastal highway

Road type CH 1 CH 2

Carriageway(m) 7 7

Hard Shoulders(m) 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5

Footpath(m) 2 x 1.8 2 x 1.8

Drain Under footpath Under footpath

Utility Under footpath Under footpath

Cycle track(m) 2* -

ROW (m) 15.6 13.6

Figure 5.11 & 5.12 5.9 & 5.10

*Cycle track to be provided for a minimum of atleast 3 km continuously in coastal highway

stretches.

a) Footpaths are mandatory at thickly populated locations in village and town limits and at


amenities.


5.3 HILL HIGHWAY: GUIDELINES

The mountain ranges in Kerala consisting of the highland area of the Western Ghats,

exude an exotic charm. The hill highway rise to an average height of 1520 m, The tropical forests

of the Ghats, house rich and unique flora and

fauna. Kerala has many destinations known for

their natural beauty and exquisite landscape.

Expansive plantations of tea, coffee, rubber

and fragrant cardamom and other spices for

which Kerala is famous for, are cultivated on

the slopes of these hill stations.

The Hill Highway or Malayora Highway is the

longest state highway in Kerala. The proposed

highway extends from Parassala in

Thiruvananthapuram District to Nandarapadavu

in Kasaragod district

This highway will pass through 13 out of the 14

districts of Kerala state. With the development of

the proposed hill highway, distance from many

production centres in the hilly regions to market

and commercial centres of the state gets reduced.

The proposed hill highway will not only provide a quick access to hilly regions, but also, can act as

a catalyst to overall socio-economic development.


Table 5.3 Right of Way guide line for Kerala Hill Highway

Roadway components Width

Carriageway (m) 7

Hard Shoulders (m) 2 x 1.5

Footpath (m) 2 x 1.8

Drain Under footpath


ROW (m) 13.6

Figure 5.9 & 5.10

a) Concrete / Paver block shoulders can be provided in such cases where the required camber

and drain condition are available.

b) Footpaths are mandatory at thickly populated locations in village and town limits and at


amenities.


5.4 CITY ROADS: GUIDELINES

City roads or arterial roads are provided to

enable intra-urban travels such as travel to

central business district and outler

residential areas or between suburban

centres. Parking, loading and unloading

activities are usually restricted and regulated

in city roads. Pedestrians can cross only at

intersection / designated pedestrian

crossings.

Table 5.5 Right of way guidelines for city roads,m

Type of road City Road (CR) 1 City Road (CR) 3

Carriageway (m) 2 x 5.5 5.5

Hard Shoulders (m)

2 x 0.5 2 x 0.5

Footpath (m) 2 x 2.5 2 x 2

Shy of way (m) 2 x 0.25 -

Drain Under foot-path Under foot-path

Utility Under footpath Under footpath

Median (m) 0.5 -

Cycle track (m) 3 -

Avenue plantation (m) (2 x 1.5) * (2 x 0.75) *

ROW (m) 24 12

Figure 5.21 & 5.22 5.5 & 5.6

* Avenue plantation shall be provided based on land availability


5.5 OTHER KIIFB ROADS: GEOMETRIC GUIDELINES

The classification of roads enables the road designer to relate the geometric and structural design

standards of the roads. For planners, this provides a basis for long-term planning, where different

priorities can be assigned to different categories.

Table 5.6 Right of way guidelines for other KIIFB roads

Terrain Plain and Rolling Terrain Hilly Terrain

Stretch PCU/ Day >30000 30000-

18000 18000-8000

8000-5000 <5000 >12000 12000-

7000 7000-4000 <4000

Carriageway (m) 2 x 7 2 x 5.5 7 7 5.5 2 x 7 2 x 5.5 7 5.5

Hard Shoulders(m) 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1 2x 0.75 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x

0.75

Footpath in urban

areas(m) 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 1.8 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5 2 x 1.5

Drain Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

Under foot-path

*Under foot-path

*Under foot-path

*Under footpath


Median, min(m) 2 0.5 - - 2 0.5 - -

Avenue plantation(m) (2 x 2) * (2 x 1) * If land available (2 x 2) * (2 x 1) * If land available

ROW(m) 23 18.5 13.6 12 10 22 17.5 13 10

Figures 5.19& 5.20

5.15& 5.16

5.9& 5.10

5.3 & 5.4

5.1 & 5.2

5.17 & 5.18

5.13 & 5.14

5.7 & 5.8

5.1 & 5.2

*Avenue plantation should be provided in Bypass/Ring roads

a) Based on the importance of roads and specific nature of any particular road, case by case

variations may be adopted and shall be pre-approved by KIIFB during concept design

stage.


b) Guidelines are given for minimum requirement of Right of Way and features to be provided.

The required RoW may be adopted based on the terrain of land wherever side slopes,

retaining wall etc needs to be provided. The cross-sectional parameters shall be retained

as per the minimum specifications provided in the table above.

c) Concrete / Paver block shoulders can be provided in such cases where the required camber

and drain condition are available.

d) Footpaths are mandatory at thickly populated locations in village and town limits and at


amenities.


Figure 5.1 Typical cross section of 10m Right of way


Figure 5.2 Typical layout of 10m Right of way


Figure 5.3 Typical cross section of 12m Right of way with 7m carriageway


Figure 5.4 Typical layout of 12m Right of way with 7m carriageway


Figure 5.5 Typical cross section of 12m Right of way with 5.5m carriageway


Figure 5.6 Typical layout of 12m Right of way with 5.5m carriageway


Figure 5.9 Typical cross section of 13.6m Right of way


Figure 5.10 Typical layout of 13.6m Right of way


Chapter – 6 ROADWAY DESIGN

6.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT PLANNING

The geometric design of roads deals with the dimension

and layout of visible features of the roadway such as

horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distances and

intersections. The geometrics of roadway should be

designed to provide efficiency in traffic operations with

maximum safety at a reasonable cost.

The design engineer must consider the following points while selecting the design standards

for a roadway:

i. Adequate geometric design in planning a roadway facility will ensure that the facility

will meet the future requirements of traffic demand. Hence the volume and composition

of traffic in the design year should be the basis of design.

ii. Faulty geometrics are costly, if not impossible to rectify at

later date and so, due consideration should be given to

geometric design at the initial stage itself.

iii. The design should be consistent, and the standards

proposed for the different elements should be compatible

with one another. Abrupt changes in the design should be

avoided.

iv. The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs,

markings, proper lighting, intersections, etc.

v. The roadway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its

location and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The

roadway should be aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to

control pollution.


vi. The design should be so selected that not only based on the initial cost of construction

of the facility, but also considering the total transportation

cost, including maintenance coat and road user cost so

that the total life cycle cost is the lowest.

vii. Safety should be built into the design elements.

viii. The design should enable all road users (motors vehicles,

animal-drawn vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians) to use

the facility. The performance of the vehicle using the

facility should be given due consideration.

6.2 DESIGN SPEED GUIDELINE

The design speed, as noted earlier, is the single most important factor in the design of

horizontal alignment. The design speed depends up on both type of road and terrain of the

road.

A plain terrain can afford to have a flexible geometry, but to maintain the same standard in a

hilly terrain, it requires substantial cutting and filling implying exorbitant costs as well as safety

concern due to unstable slopes. Therefore, the design speed is normally reduced for terrains

with steep slopes due to restrictions in road geometrics.

Table 6.1 Design speed guide lines

SI No

Design Speed (km/h) Nature

Classification

Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep Corresponding category in IRC

Ruling

Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.

1 Coastal Highway 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20 ODR in Non-

Urban Highways

2 Hill Highway 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20 MDR / MDR in Hill Roads

3 State Highways / By Pass / Ring

roads (NH & SH) 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30 State Highway

4 Other KIIFB Roads

(ODR) 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20

ODR in Non-Urban Highways

5 Other KIIFB Roads

(MDR) 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20

MDR in Non-Urban Highways


a) In general, the ruling design speed shall be adopted for the various geometric design

features of the road.

b) The minimum design speed shall be adopted only where site conditions are restrictive

and adequate land width is not available

6.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway

on the ground is called alignment. The horizontal

alignment includes the straight path, the deviations and

horizontal curves.

While designing the horizontal alignment, the following

general principles shall be kept in view:

a) Alignment shall aesthetically merge and blend

with the surrounding topography.

b) For new roads, the curves shall be designed to have a largest practically possible

radius, but in no case less than the ruling minimum radius corresponding to ruling

design speed.

c) The curves shall be sufficiently long, and they should have suitable transitions to

provide riding safety and pleasing appearance.

d) Long tangent sections exceeding 3km in length shall be avoided as far as possible.

e) Reverse curves shall be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, sufficient

length between the two curves shall be provided for the introduction of requisite

transition curves.

f) Curves in the same direction, separated by short tangents known as broken back

curves, shall be avoided as far as possible.

g) Design of vertical curves and its coordination with horizontal curves shall be in

accordance with IRC:SP:23

h) Hairpin bends on hilly terrain shall be avoided as far as possible. They should be

designed as per the Hill Roads Manual/relevant IRC

6.3.1 TRANSITION CURVES

Transition curves are necessary for the vehicle to have a smooth entry from a straight section

into a circular curve. A properly designed transition curve provides a natural, easy - to - follow

path for drivers, such that the lateral force increases and decreases gradually as a vehicle


enters and leaves a circular curve. Transition curves may be appropriate to make it easier for

a driver to his or her vehicle within its own lane.

Figure 6.1 Transition curves

a) Spiral curves are used as transition curves.

b) The transition spiral is a curve whose degree of curve increases directly as the

distance along the curve from the point of spiral.

c) A spiral transition curve also facilitates the transition in width where the travelled way

is widened on a circular curve. Use of spiral transitions provides flexibility in

accomplishing the widening of sharp curves.

d) The geometric design standards for rural roads viz: IRC:73 / KIIFB guidelines should

be followed.

e) Geometrical design for curves, etc. shall be as per MoRTH / IRC applicable for

minimum ODR Standards

f) Length of transition curves selected based on curve radius, design speed and terrain

as per

IRC:86 for Urban Highway

IRC:73 for Non-Urban Highway

6.3.2 EXTRA WIDENING

The extra width of pavement at Horizontal curves are provided due to Mechanical properties

of vehicle and Psychological parameters of road users.


Table 6.2 Extra width provided corresponding to

the radius of the curve in two-lane road as per

IRC: 73

Radius of Curve Extra Width Below 40 1.5m

40 - 61m 1.2m

61-100 m 0.9 m

101-300 m 0.6 m

Above 300m nil

a) For multi-lane roads, the pavement widening may be calculated by adding half the

widening for two-lane roads to each lane.

b) The increase in the width should be at uniform rate along the length of the transition

curves.

c) Extra width should be continued over the full length of the circular curve.

d) At curves with no transition provide widening with two-third being attain on the straight

section before the start of the curve and one-third on the curve.

e) Widening should be applied equally on both sides of the carriageway, except hill roads.

f) On hilly roads, entire widening is to be done only on the inside of the curve.

6.3.3 OVERTAKING ZONE

For a higher level of service on undivided roads, it is necessary that vehicle moving at

design speed should be frequently able to overtake vehicle slower than them. Since overtaking

manoeuvre involves the occupation of road space

normally used by opposing traffic, drivers must

have sufficient sight distance available to them so

that the whole operation can be accomplished.

The overtaking sight distance can be adopted

corresponding to the design speed as per IRC: 66

Figure 6.2 Wheel track at curves


Table 6.3 Overtaking distance corresponding to design speed as per IRC: 66

Overtaking zones are provided when

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) is not

possible to be provided throughout the length

of the highway especially in hilly roads. These

are zones dedicated for overtaking operation,

marked with wide roads. The desirable length

of overtaking zones is 5-times the required

Overtaking Sight Distance and the minimum is

3- times Overtaking Sight Distance.

6.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT The vertical alignment

should provide for a smooth

longitudinal profile

consistent with the category

of the road and layout of the

terrain.

6.4.1 VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are introduced for a smooth transition at grade changes. Convex

vertical curves are known as summit curves and concave vertical curves as a valley or sag

curves. Both of these should be designed as per relevant IRC. The length of the vertical curves

is controlled by sight distance requirements, but curves with greater length are aesthetically

better. For the satisfactory and smooth drive, a minimum length of vertical curves should be

provided.

Speed (kmph) Safe overtaking sight

distance

40 165

50 235

60 300

65 340

80 470

Figure 6.3 Vertical Alignment


Table 6.4 Minimum length of vertical curves

Minimum Length of Vertical Curves (as per IRC:73)

Design Speed, (kmph)

Minimum length of curve, (m)

Maximum Grade change,

(%) 35 15 1.5

40 20 1.2

50 30 1.0

65 40 0.8

80 50 0.6

100 60 0.5

a) Grade changes should not be too frequent as to case kinks and visual discontinuities

in profile.

b) Broken back guideline, i.e. two vertical cures in the same direction separated by small

tangent should avoid due to poor appearance and preferably replaced by a long curve.

c) Deck of small cross drainage structures (i.e. culverts and minor bridges) should follow

the same profile as the flanking road section, without any break in grade line.

d) While designing a road the amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount

of fill needed so as to minimize the amount of material and construction.

6.4.2 GRADIENT

The grade should be carefully selected keeping in view design speed, terrain conditions and

nature of traffic expected on road.

Table 6.5 Gradients of the road in different terrain as per IRC:73

Terrain Ruling gradient Limiting gradient

Exceptional gradient

Plain or rolling 3.3 percentage (1 in 30)

5 percentage ( 1 in 20)

6.7 percentage ( 1 in 15)

*Mountainous terrain and steep terrain having elevation more than 3000 from mean sea level

5 percentage ( 1 in 20)

6 percentage ( 1 in 16.7)


*Steep terrain up to 3000m above mean sea level




* The rise in elevation over a 2km length shall not exceed 100m in mountainous terrain and

120m in steep terrain.

Ruling gradients shall be adopted as far as possible. Limiting gradients shall be adopted in

difficult situations and for short length.


6.4.3 SIGHT DISTANCE CONSIDERATIONS

The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends on the visibility of the road

ahead of the driver. Thus, the geometric design of the road should be done such that any

obstruction on the road length should be visible to the driver from the minimum desired

distance ahead.

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which

a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving

objects. Mainly four sight distance situations are considered for design:

(i) Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

(ii) Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD

(iii) Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation

(iv) Head light sight distance (HSD) is the distance visible to a driver during night driving

under the illumination of head lights

Table 6.6 Length of vertical curves for different speed when the length of curves is greater than sight distance. (as per IRC: SP:23)

Design Speed

(km/h)

Length of summit curves (m) for Length of valley curves (m) for

headlight distance Stopping sight distance

Intermediate sight distance

Overtaking sight distance

20 0.9A 1.7A 1.8A

25 1.4A 2.6A 2.6A

30 2.0A 3.8A 3.5A

35 3.6A 6.7A 5.5A

40 4.6A 8.4A 28.4A 6.6A

50 8.2A 15.0A 57.5A 10.0A

60 14.5A 26.7A 93.7A 15.0A

65 18.4A 33.8A 120.4A 17.4A

80 32.6A 60.0A 230.1A 25.3A

100 73.6A 135.0A 426.7A 41.5A

Where, A is the algebraic difference between grades expressed as a percentage


6.4.4 CAMBER/CROSS FALL

The camber on straight sections of roads shall be as indicated in the table for various types of

surfaces. Camber is provided to remove the rainwater from the pavement surface as quickly

as possible and to allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.

Figure 6.4 Chamber slope

Table 6.7 Camber/Cross fall slope values for different road surface types.

SI. No. Surface Type Camber/Cross fall

1 Thick type bituminous surfacing (more than 40 mm) or cement concrete surfacing

1.7-2.0 percent (1 in 60 to 1 in 50)

2 Thin bituminous surfacing (Less than 40mm)

2.0-2.5 percent

(1 in 50 to 1 in 40)

3 Shoulders along unkerbed pavements At least 0.5 percent steeper than carriageway pavement

The two-lane roads shall be provided with a crown in the middle. On horizontal curves, the

carriageway shall be super elevated.

6.4.5 SUPER ELEVATION

Super- elevating on curves is intended to

counteract a part of the centrifugal force,

the remaining part being resisted by the

lateral friction.

Super elevation required on horizontal

curves should be calculated from the

following formula. This assumes the

centrifugal force corresponding to three

fourth the design speed is balanced by superelevation and rest counteracted by side friction.

Figure 6.5 Supper elevation


where,

e = superelevation in metre per metre

V = speed in km/h

R = radius in metres

Super elevation shall be limited to 7 percent, if the radius of the curve is less than the desirable

minimum. It shall be limited to 5 percent, if the radius is more than the desirable minimum and

also at the section where Project Highway passes through an urban section or falls on a major

junction.

6.5 HILLY ROADS The hilly regions generally have extremes of climatic conditions, difficult and hazardous

terrains, topography and vast high-altitude areas. For the purpose of efficient and safe

operation of vehicles through a hilly terrain special care should be taken while aligning the

highway. Some of the special considerations for highway alignment through a hilly terrain is

discussed below.

Stability of the slopes: for hilly areas, the road should be aligned through the side of the hill

that is stable. The common problem with hilly areas is that of landslides. Excessive cutting and

filling for road constructions give way to steepening of slopes which in turn will affect the

stability.

Hill side drainage: Adequate drainage facility to avoid water flow through pavement surface

should be provided across the road. Attempts should be made to align the roads in such a way

where the number of cross drainage structures required are minimum. This will reduce the

construction cost.

Special geometric standards: The geometric standards followed in hilly areas are different

from those in flat terrain. The alignment chosen should enable the ruling gradient to be attained

in a minimum of the length, minimizing steep gradient, hairpin bends and needless rise and

fall.

Ineffective rise and fall: Efforts should be made to keep the ineffective rise and excessive

fall minimum.

Some additional features are required for hilly terrain to safe geometric design.

6.5.1 HAIR- PIN BENDS

A hair-pin bend may be designed as a circular curve with transition curves at each end.

Alternatively, compound circular curves may be provided.


6.5.2 GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES

On hilly roads, it is necessary to ease the

gradients at horizontal curves by an amount

known as the grade compensation. This is

intended to offset the extra tractive effort

involved at curves.

Grade compensation (per cent) = , subject

to a maximum of

Where, R = radius of the curve in m.

Since grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4 per cent. In applying

for compensation, the gradient need not be eased beyond 4 per cent.

6.5.3 CLIMBING LANE

Hilly roads at restricted overtaking

opportunities and presence of slow-moving

vehicles can result in substantial

congestion and high accident rates through

injudicious overtaking.

Climbing lanes may be provided wherever

necessary in order to address the

necessity of making available a separate

lane for safe overtaking for a vehicle

Figure 6.7 Grade compensation

Figure 6.8 Climbing lane

Figure 6.6 Hair-pin bends (a) & (b)


travelling uphill, in reaches having continuous exceptional gradients.


Chapter – 7 PAVEMENT ENGINEERING DESIGN

Pavement engineering design consists of determining the thickness of individual pavement or

the combinations of materials and technologies in layers in order to serve traffic for an

anticipated design period. The design depends on various factors, such as intensity of traffic

wheel loads, repetitions, temperature, rainfall, humidity, drainage conditions, sub-grade soil

strength, properties of materials used, criteria of mix design and economic considerations.

Pavement design mainly depends upon the sub-grade strength and axle load on road.

7.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Ground improvement techniques are recommended in difficult ground conditions as

mechanical properties are not adequate to bear the superimposed load of infrastructure to be

built, swelling and shrinkage property more pronounced, collapsible soils, soft soils, organic

soils and peaty soils, foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills, handling dredged materials

for foundation beds, handling hazardous materials in contact with soils, using of old mine pits

as site for proposed infrastructure. The engineering techniques of ground improvement are

removal and replacement, pre-compression, vertical drains, in-situ densification, grouting,

stabilization using admixtures, reinforcement, etc. The purpose of adopting these techniques

is to increase the bearing capacity of the soil and reduce the settlement to a considerable

extent by ensuring the concept of sustainability in construction projects and also to reduce the

thickness of the pavement layers and the consequent reduction in aggregate consumption;

improved performance and lower life cycle cost.

Selection processes for ground improvement methodologies, improved analysis, and

knowledge of long-term performance and understanding of the effects of variability are

required to develop more efficient designs.

7.1.1 MECHANICAL IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

In this method, soil density is increased by the application of mechanical force, including

compaction of layers by conventional steel roller and by vibratory rollers. This technique is

further classified as: -

a. Dynamic Compaction

b. Vibro-Compaction

c. Compaction Grouting

d. Pre-loading and Pre-Fabricated Vertical Drains

e. Blast densification


7.1.2 HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

The modification of soil properties is achieved by forcing the free pore water out of soil via

drains or wells. In case of coarse-grained soils, it is achieved by lowering the groundwater

level through pumping from boreholes, or trenches and for fine-grained soils the long-term

application of external loads (preloading) or electrical forces (electrometric stabilization). Some

of the hydraulic modification methods are: -

a. Preloading using fill

b. Preloading using fill with vertical drain

c. Vacuum preloading with vertical drains

d. Combined fill and vacuum preloading

7.1.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

In this method, soil improvement is achieved by physical mixing of adhesives with surface

layers or columns of soil. The adhesive includes natural soils industrial by-products or waste

materials or cementations or other chemicals which react with each other and the ground.

When adhesives are injected via boreholes under pressure into voids within the ground or

between it and a structure the process is called grouting. Soil stabilization by heating and by

freezing the ground is considered thermal methods of modifications. Some of the physical and

chemical modification methods are: -

a. Grouting

b. Electro-osmosis

c. Soil Cement

d. Heating

e. Vitrification

7.1.4 MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES BY INCLUSION AND CONFINEMENT

In this method modification of soil properties are achieved using reinforcement by means of

fibres, strips bars mesh and fabrics impart tensile strength to a constructed soil mass. In-situ

reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. Stable earth retaining structure can also be

formed by confining soil with concrete, steel, or fabric elements and Geocell. There has been

a large increase in the use of admixtures for ground improvement for both cohesive and non-

cohesive soil in recent years.

a. Sand compaction piles

b. Stone columns

c. Dynamic replacement

d. Semi-rigid and rigid inclusions

e. Geotextile confined columns


7.1.5 MICROBIAL METHODS

In this technique, the microbial materials are used to modify soil to increase its strength or

reduce its permeability. The principle of microbial treatment is to use microorganisms

produce bonding and cementation in the soil so as to increase the shear strength and reduce

the permeability of soil or rock. Suitable microorganisms for the purpose are:

a. Facultative anaerobic bacteria

b. Micro aerophilic bacteria

c. Anaerobic fermenting bacteria

d. Anaerobic respiring bacteria

e. Obligate aerobic bacteria

7.1.6 GEOSYNTHETICS

Geotextiles and geomembranes, broadly speaking are synthetic fibres used to stabilize

structures built on the soil. This method improves the soil response by the interaction between

soil and inclusion. The improving period depends on the life of inclusion. In this technique,

there is no change in the state of the soil. It is a widely used technique as it can be done for

many types of soils. The new widely accepted generic term for these non-natural materials is

Geosynthetics. Geosynthetics include permeable and impermeable materials that are either

of knitted, woven, or non-woven nature, as well as polymer grids and meshes. The role of the

geosynthetic material varies in the different application as it can serve as reinforcement,

separation, filtration, protection, containment, fluid transmission and confinement of soil to

improve bearing capacity. These fibres may also be used to provide tensile strength,

redistribution of stresses and of confinement, thereby increasing the stability of a soil mass,

reducing earth pressures, or decreasing deformation or susceptibility to cracking. Geocell

reinforcement is a recently developed technique in the area of soil reinforcement having a

three dimensional, polymeric, honeycomb-like structure of cells made out of geo-grids

interconnected at joints.

7.2 PAVEMENT DESIGN

7.2.1 NEW PAVEMENT DESIGN

New pavements shall be designed in accordance with the method prescribed in IRC:37-2012

or any alternative pavement composition methods or improvements methods to reduce

pavement thickness. Otherwise, pavement composition and thickness shall not be less than

the minimum requirement specified in IRC:37 2012/ IRC: SP:72-2015 depending on the

projected traffic for the design life.


The following aspects should consider while designing pavement to achieve better

performance.

1. A minimum of 15-year design life should be considered.

2. The select soil forming the subgrade should have a minimum CBR of 8 per cent for

roads having the traffic of 2 msa or higher.

3. The pavement layer thickness shall be selected from corresponding CBR plate and

traffic and supplemented with results/output from IITPAVE software.

4. Roads having design traffic below 2 msa shall be considered as low volume road and

for such roads, the pavement design shall be as per IRC SP: 72-2015.

5. Arterial City roads shall be designed for a minimum of 5 msa traffic.

6. Computation of effective CBR of subgrade for pavement design as per IRC:37-2012.

7. Use of rut resistant surface layer in case of high trafficked highways

8. Use of fatigue resistant bottom bituminous layer in case of high trafficked highways

9. Selection of surface layer to prevent top-down cracking

10. Use of bitumen emulsion/foamed bitumen treated reclaimed asphalt pavements in

base/ binder course.

11. Consideration of stabilized sub-base/ base course with locally available soil and

aggregates.

12. Design of subsurface drainage layer

13. Computation of design traffic as per IRC:37-2012/IRC: SP:72-2015

14. For the heavy traffic roads design of perpetual pavements with deep strength

bituminous layer can be used.

15. The CBR plates and traffic selected for design shall be included with the pavement

design.

The new pavement surface shall satisfy the following performance standards at any time

during the design life of the pavement:-

a) Surface finish as per requirements of Clauses 902 and 903 of MORTH

Specifications soon after construction.

b) Roughness in each lane should not more than 2000 mm/km for each lane in a

km length

c) Rutting in wheel path measured by 3 m Straight Edge in each lane should be

less than 10mm.

d) No cracking or any other distress on the carriageway.


7.2.2 OVERLAY DESIGN

The overlay is the difference between the thickness required for a new pavement and the

effective thickness of the existing pavement. Pavement deflections can be used to determine

the nature and extent of reconstruction for an existing distressed roadway.

Pavement evaluation based on IRC: 81 or IRC: 115 are to be conducted to the characteristic

deflection of the existing pavement. Based on a characteristic deflection and the cumulative

number of standard axle loads required overlay provided as per IRC:81 and IRC:115 as and

when required. The characteristic rebound deflection value for any project road should not

exceed 1.0mm any time during the design life.

7.3 ALTERNATIVE PAVEMENT DESIGN Any method which can reduce the layer thickness of pavement by alternatives design methods

for pavements can be adopted on the basis of optimization of material and life-cycle cost of

pavement. The proposals submitted shall include a detailed evaluation of alternatives and

shall arrive at the most optimal design in the context of road development in Kerala.

a) Full Depth Reclamation

a. Helps in reducing the consumption of construction materials in the wake of

shortage of the same in Kerala

b. Serves as an environment-friendly and sustainable construction method.

b) As per the guidelines in IRC: SP: 59 uses of geotextile in pavements and

associated works.

c) Cold recycling of existing bituminous layer with RAP used pavement design method

ass per IRC:120 -2015

d) Hot recycling methods on top bituminous layer for improving the riding quality

e) Micro surfacing / Ultra-thin white topping can adopt based on pavement structural

and functions conditions

f) Permeable pavements for low volume roads

Type of pavement surface to allow stormwater runoff to filter through voids in

the pavement surface and infiltrated under the drain layer.

There are different types of permeable pavement surfaces, including pervious

concrete, porous asphalt and permeable interlocking concrete pavers.


Chapter – 8 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The function of the drainage system in the roadway is removing and controlling excess surface

and sub-soil water within the roadway or right of way. Adequate drainage is essential for the

protection of the investments made in the roadway structures. Therefore design, construction

and maintenance of appropriate drainage system is one of the most important tasks. Roadway

drainage system consists of two parts.

i. Side drain systems

ii. Cross drain systems

8.1 SIDE DRAIN SYSTEM a. A road drainage system designed as per IRC: SP:42- 2014 and must satisfy two

main criteria if it is to be effective throughout its design life:

i. It must allow for a minimum of disturbance

of the natural drainage pattern.

ii. It must drain the surface and subsurface

water away from the roadway and

dissipate it in a way that prevents the

excessive collection of water in unstable

areas and subsequent downstream

erosion.

b. The depth of drain may be varying according

to the stormwater drainage characteristics and lead to the nearest discharge point.

c. Drainage design is most appropriately included in alignment and gradient planning.

d. Natural drainage characteristics of a hillslope shall not be changed.

e. A cross drainage may be provided 20m before the start of the hairpin bend for proper

drainage of surface water and adequate drainage may be also be provided on hill

side of the bend so that water does not cross road surface.

f. There are many pre-cast sides available at different depth

g. Design of drains should be as per IRC: SP- 42 recommendation

h. Interceptor drains to be provided along hill slopes, where required.

Figure 8.1 side drain


(a) (b)

(c ) (d)

(e ) (f)

Figure 8.2 Typical sections of (a) Side drain with catch pit & (b)Precast drain with slab (c) cast in situ drain up to 1m depth (d) Precast and extension with cast in situ drain (e ) Precast cover slab plan ( f) Precast slab section


8.2 CROSS DRAIN SYSTEMS The water flow along the road side drains are collected by suitable cross drains through cross

drainage structures (CD structures) at locations of natural valleys and streams and streams

and disposed of to the natural water course.

Figure 8.3 Slab culvert Figure 8.4 Box culvert

Figure 8.5 Precast box culvert Figure 8.6 Pipe culvert

a) CD structure may generally be a suitable type of culvert, depending on the quantity

of water to be carried across and the span.

b) A minimum of 1200cm diameter pipe culvert should be selected.

c) The CD structures should extend up to the full formation width of the road.

d) Ends of CD structure should be protected by suitable abutments and parapet walls.

e) The width of river or stream to be crossed more than 6m the minor bridge type

cross drain structure adopted.


Figure 8.5 Culvert with abutment


Chapter – 9 UTILITY CORRIDOR AND CROSS DUCT

Utility corridor and cross ducts

are provided to avoid frequent damage to

roads by digging roads for utility flow and

cross duct for utility crossing purpose and

this will increase the life of the pavement.

a. Utility ducts are provided at suitable

depths without obstructing the drainage

flow.

b. Utilities include water supply line, gas

pipeline, electricity cables, optical cables,

etc.

c. Cross duct for utility should provide at

an interval of minimum 500m in populated

areas for utility crossing purpose to avoid

pavement cross digging.

d. Utility corridor or duct provide at utility

space under to footpath.

Figure 9.1 road cutting for utility laying

Figure 9.2 Utility duct

Figure 9.3 Utility cross duct


Chapter – 10 ROADSIDE AMENITY

10.1 FOOTPATH AND PEDESTRIAN CROSSING Pedestrians have same importance same as

vehicle traffic. There should be separate

pedestrian facilities such as side-walk and

pedestrian crossing facilities in roads in order to

minimize accident injuries and fatalities of the

pedestrian.

There should be required space to cater to

pedestrian facilities such as raised footpaths,

safe crossing facilities at-grade and grade

separated crossing facilities at appropriate

locations.

a) Footpath should be designed with Interlocking Concrete Paver Blocks as per IRC:

SP:63, and combinations with tactile.

b) The width of footpath shall be adopted corresponding to

pedestrian volume as per IRC: 103.

c) Utility or drain slab area shall be used as footpath

otherwise paved tiles or interlock tiles shall be provided

at the footpath area.

d) Raised footpath with universal design provision for

accessibility shall be provided with considering access

to the differently abled person.

e) Table-top pedestrian crossing are to be provided at

heavy pedestrian crossing volume road stretches or

intersections.

f) Footpath shall be provided with guard rails at unsafe

manoeuvre crossing areas and heavily built-up areas

especially in urban areas

Figure 10.1 foot path

Figure 10.2 Tactile patterns


Figure 10.3 Table top pedestrian crossing

Figure 10.3 (a) & (b) Table top pedestrian crossing


10.2 BUS BAYS AND BUS SHELTERS Bus bays are recommended for new and high-volume roads, other than low-volume roads.

They enable buses to slow down and stop

outside the traffic lane, and this greatly

reduces the risk of following traffic colliding

with them or having to overtake in a panic.

Bus bays should be at least 3 m wide and

should be placed adjacent to the paved or

gravel

a) shoulder so that buses can stop

clear of the carriageway.

b) Bus bay must be long enough to

enable the bus to leave the

through traffic lanes at

approximately the average running speed of the highway without undue inertial

discomfort or sideways to passengers

c) Bus bays should preferably be located on straight, level sections of road with good

visibility (at least Stopping Sight Distance).

d) Bus bays shall not be sited opposite each other, because this can cause safety

problems.

e) Bus bays must be staggered tail to tail so that departing buses move away from

each other.

f) Bus traffic near intersection interferes with the traffic flow. It is desirable that the bus

stops should be located at least 50m away from the intersections.

Figure 10.5 Bus shelter models

Figure 10.4 Bus bay


Figure 10.6 Typical layout of the bus bay


10.3 SMART STREET LIGHT

Figure 10.7 Smart street lights

A large proportion of road accidents are caused in the night and one of the chief reasons is

the unsatisfactory lighting. Improved visibility at night by means of artificial lighting lessens the

strain on driving and ensures comfort. In this modern world, smart street lighting systems with

solar powered are available to full fill road lighting requirements.

a) Streetlight system with solar powered should be encouraged by checking their

economic and financial viability.

b) Streetlight arrangements and span should be selected based on uniform luminance to

the pavement surface

c) There are four type patterns of light arrangements are possible:

a. Staggered: either side of the carriageway

b. Opposite: either side of carriageway opposite to one another

c. Central: axial line close to the centre of the carriageway

d. Single-sided: one side of the carriageway

d) Smart street light with solar-powered light, advertisement light, WiFi routes can provide

on streets

e) Solar powered advertisement display wall with mobile charging points at street or

walkway


10.4 CYCLE TRACK

A cycle track is an exclusive bike facility that

combines the user experience of a separated path with the

on-street infrastructure of a conventional bike lane. A cycle

track is physically separated from motor traffic and distinct

from the sidewalk.

a) Cycle tracks should be designed as per IRC:11-

2015

b) Cycle track must be in different pavement colour/texture to separates the cycle track

from the sidewalk and motor traffic.

c) A minimum of 2m width cycle track provided at least

a minimum of 5km continues length in city roads,

coastal highway stretches, and road stretches

having more cycle traffic.

d) Cycle tracks should be protected by delineators or

curb to block motor traffic to the cycle track.

Figure 10.9 Cycle shelters

Figure 10.8 Cycle track


10.5 PARKING

Vehicle parking facilities are constructed to provide a convenient area for travellers

to park the vehicles in an organized manner. With the growing

population of motor vehicles, the problem of parking has

assumed serious proportions. Parking demand is a function

of land use. Uncontrolled parking may reduce the carriageway

width, and it causes the capacity reduction of the road.

a) There shall be directional signs guiding people to the

accessible parking.

b) Dedicated parking slots at select stretch considering

the traffic requirements and importance of the road

stretch.

c) Based on demand assessment, organised parking space for an auto/taxi should be

provided.

d) Two all accessible parking lots with an overall minimum dimension of 3600 mm wide

and 5000mm length (including aisle space), shall be provided.

e) The parking shall be marked for the physically challenged at the ratio of 2:25 of the

total number of parking.

Figure 10.11 Layout for universal parking space

Figure 10.10 Parking


Figure 10.12 Dedicated parking slots


10.6 AMENITY CENTRE Fatigue is a significant issue for those travelling long distances in the rural road environment.

It is estimated that fatigue is the main

contributing factor in approximately 25% of

road crashes involving serious injury. The

provision of rest opportunities through rest

areas represents a management tool in

addressing fatigue-related crashes. Rest

areas are off-road designated locations

provided for drivers and passengers to

take rest breaks and overcome fatigue. A major challenge to realizing the potential benefits of

rest areas is to increase backing by those road users travelling long distances.

a) Mini amenity centres or rest area with public

toilets and kiosks shall be provided even at

every 10km along by considering basic way-

side amenities provided at hotels and petrol

bunkers

b) Modern amenity centres with toilet,

refreshments, Wi-Fi facility etc at distance of

not more than 25 km.

c) Amenity centres should have parking facilities

to heavy commercial vehicles.

Figure 10.13 Parking area sign

Figure 10.14 Amenity centres sign


10.7 AVENUE PLANTATION AND LANDSCAPING 1) The area where footpaths are not essential, buffalo grass turfing may be considered

between the edge of ROW line and end of paved shoulders to facilitate the limited

pedestrian movement and smooth natural drainage.

2) Avenue plantation with Kanikkonna and/or Jackfruit trees at a spacing of 10 m c/c at select

stretches of roads provided land is available or can be obtained at free of cost or can be

acquired with reasonable cost.

Figure 10.15 Avenue plantation

Figure 10.16 Pre-cast concrete Tree gratings


Chapter – 11 TRAFFIC FURNITURE

11.1 ROAD SIGNS The purpose of road signs is to promote road safety and efficiency by providing for the

orderly movement of all road users on all roads in both urban and non-urban areas. Road

signs notify road users of regulations and provide warning and guidance needed for safe,

uniform and efficient operation.

To be effective, a road sign should meet five basic requirements:

1) Fulfil a need;

2) Command attention;

3) Convey a clear and simple meaning;

4) Command respect from road users; and

5) Give adequate time for response.

Road signs are classified under the following three heads:

1) Mandatory/Regulatory Signs

2) Cautionary/Warning Signs

3) Informatory/Guide Signs

11.1.1 MANDATORY/REGULATORY SIGNS

Mandatory signs specify that an instruction must be carried out. All Mandatory or

regulatory Signs are circular in shape except octagonal red STOP sign and the

triangular GIVEWAY or YIELD sign. They are with

Prohibitory Regulation: Red circular ring and diagonal bars with black

symbols or arrows or letters on white background.

Operational Control: The red ring indicates prohibitory regulation, and the

diagonal red bar prohibits the action or movement indicated by the black

symbol.

Compulsory Direction Control: Mandatory signs giving positive instructions

are circular with a white symbol on a blue background.


11.1.1 "Stop" and "Give Way" signs (Right of way signs)

Stop Give Way

11.1.2 "Prohibitory" signs

U-Turn Prohibited One way One way

Left Turn Prohibited Right Turn Prohibited Overtaking Prohibited

No Entry Vehicles Prohibited In

Both Directions

Priority to Vehicles from

the Opposite Direction

Horn Prohibited Pedestrians Prohibited Trucks Prohibited


Buses Prohibited Two Wheeler Prohibited Cars Prohibited

11.1.3 "No Parking" and "No Stopping" signs

No parking No Stopping No Standing

11.1.4 "Speed Limit" and "Vehicle Control" signs

Axle Load Limit Height Limit Length Limit

Load Limit Width Limit Maximum Speed Limit

11.1.5 "Restriction Ends" sign

Restriction Ends


11.1.6 "Compulsory Direction Control" and other signs

Compulsory Ahead Compulsory Ahead or

Right Turn

Compulsory Ahead or

Left Turn

Compulsory Turn Right Compulsory Left Turn Compulsory Turn Right

(In advance Junction)

Compulsory Left Turn

(In advance Junction)

Compulsory Keep Left Compulsory Keep Right

Pass Either Side Minimum Speed Limit Compulsory Sound

Horn


Compulsory Cyclist and

Pedestrian Route

Pedestrian Only Bus Way/Bus Only

11.1.2 CAUTIONARY/WARNING SIGNS

Cautionary/Warning signs are triangular in shape with a red border and black symbol

in the white background used to caution and alert the road users to potential danger

or existence of certain hazardous conditions either on or adjacent to the roadway so

that they take the desired action.

Left-Hand Curve Right-Hand Curve Right Hairpin Bend

Left Hairpin Bend Right Reverse Bend Left Reverse Bend

Series of Bends 270 Degree Loop Side Road Right


Side Road Left Y- Intersection Y- Intersection

Major Road Ahead Cross Road Roundabout

Traffic Signals Staggered

Intersection

T- Intersection Major Road

Ahead

Speed Breaker Rumble Strip Dangerous Dip

Merging Traffic Ahead

(From Left)

Merging Traffic Ahead

(From Right)

Narrow Road Ahead


Road Widens Narrow Bridge Ahead Steep Ascent

Airport Reduced

Carriageway

Left Lane(s) Reduced

Reduced Carriageway

Right Lane(s) Reduced

Start of Dual

Carriageway

End of Dual

Carriageway

Gap in Median

Pedestrian Crossing School Ahead Built-up Area

Two Way Operation Two-way Traffic on

Cross

Road Ahead Warning

Lane Closed

(Two-Lane Carriageway)


Lane Closed

(Three Lane

Carriageway)

Lane Closed

(Four Lane

Carriageway)

Traffic Diversion on Dual

Carriageway

Men at Work Danger Warning Wild Animals

Slippery Road Overhead Cables Playground Ahead

Quay Side or River Bank Tunnel Ahead Falling Rocks


Guarded Railway Crossing

Single Chevron Double Chevron Triple Chevron

Object Hazard (Left) Object Hazard (Right) Two Way Hazard Marker

11.1.3 INFORMATORY/GUIDE SIGNS

These are used to give such information to road users which will help them along the

route in most simple and direct manner. All Informatory signs and guiding signs for

facilities are rectangular in shape.


Advance Direction Sign Map type Advance Direction Sign

Map type Advance Direction Sign on

Roundabout

Reassurance Sign

Place Identification Sign Flag Type Direction Sign

Gantry Mounted Advance Direction Sign

KAZHAKKOOTTAM

THAMARAKULAM

THONNAKKAL


Eating Place Light Refreshment Resting Place

First Aid Post Toilet Filling Station(Fuel

Pump)

Hospital Public Telephone U-Turn Ahead


Pedestrian Subway Police Station Bus Stop

Repair Facility Industrial Area Taxi Stand

Autorickshaw Stand Airport Toll Road Ahead

Railway Station/Metro

Station/Monorail Station

Parking Parking for Persons with

Disabilities


State Highway National Highway Expressway

11.2 ROAD MARKING The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They

supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and

signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the

safe movement of traffic. Hence, they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and

harmonious flow of traffic.

Commonly used materials for road markings are:

Hot-applied thermoplastic compound

Solvent-borne and waterborne road marking paints

Pavement markings are broadly classified into following seven categories based on the

placement of markings regard to vehicular movement and also based on the function of

the markings.

i. Longitudinal Marking

ii. Transverse Marking

iii. Hazard Marking

iv. Block Marking

v. Arrow Marking

vi. Facility Marking

11.2.1 LONGITUDINAL MARKINGS

Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface,

for the purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway.

11.2.1.1 Centre Line

The centre line should be used only on single carriageway roads to separate the

opposite stream of traffic and to facilitate their movements. On unimportant roads


with less than 5.5 metres wide carriageway, centre lines are considered

undesirable as these entail discomfort and hazard.

For normal sections: 3 m Mark + 6 m Gap of 100 mm/150mm

For warning Sections: 6 m Mark + 3 m Gap of 100 mm/150mm

11.2.1.2 Traffic Lane Lines

The carriageway having two or more in one direction are divided into separate

lane by traffic lane line marking for vehicles to move in proper lanes and to

discourage the meandering tendency of the drivers.

For normal sections (divided and undivided): 3 m Mark + 6 m Gap of 100

mm/150mm

For warning Sections: 3 m Mark + 3 m Gap of 100 mm/150mm

11.2.1.3 No overtaking Lines

No overtaking zones shall be established on summit curves, horizontal curves

and places with restricted sight distances or other hazardous conditions. No

overtaking Lines shall be marked by a solid line either single or double along the

centre or by ladder hatching.

11.2.1.4 Warning lines


These are marked on horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater

than prohibitory criteria specified for non-overtaking zones. These are always

single, they should never be used as part of double line installation

11.2.1.5 Border or edge lines

These indicate carriageway edges of roads without kerbs to delineate the limits

up to which driver can safely venture. It is a single continuous white line with 100

mm/150 mm width.

11.2.1.6 Bus lane markings

Reserved for buses, without physical separation should be provided with the white

line as bus-lane markings. Base width of 2m is required for bus-lane.

11.2.2 TRANSVERSE MARKINGS

The marking provided across the

carriageway for traffic control with broken

lines. single& double continuous lines such

as Stop marking and Give way marking are

classified under this category. The transverse

marking shall always be accompanied with a

corresponding sign. The transverse line is

0.75 m long and 1.75 m apart for urban roads.

11.2.3 HAZARD MARKING

The pavement marking that facilitating traffic merging / diverging, prohibiting to cross-

over and to deflect the traffic ahead of hazardous situations, generally done with like

chevron and diagonal marking, hatch marking and prohibitory marking and such

markings are classified under Hazard Marking. The hazard marking shall always be

accompanied with an appropriate sign.


11.2.4 KERB MARKING

Kerbs located in the line of traffic flow shall be painted with alternative black and white

stripes of 500mm wide.

11.2.5 BLOCK MARKING

The zebra crossing for pedestrians, triangular marking for speed breakers and Give

way symbol which is painted in blocks on carriageway are classified under Block

Marking as per IRC:35.

Figure 8 Pedestrian crossing marking

11.2.6 ARROW MARKING

The arrows painted on carriageway are meant to give direction for the driver to take

mandatorily and are classified under Arrow Marking.


Arrow marking for route direction for design speed more than 50kmph


Arrow marking for route direction for a design speed of 50kmph or less

11.2.7 FACILITY MARKING

The marking for parking, the word messages for buses, cyclists and disabled ones are

classified under Facility. Letters of length 1.25 m high in the direction of travel should

be adopted for speeds up to 50 kmph speed, 2.5 m for 51-100 kmph and 5 m for speed

greater than 100 kmph and expressways.

11.3 ROAD STUDS Retro-reflective studs are used to supplement longitudinal/transverse reflectorizes road

markings, which would improve visibility in night time and adverse conditions. Road studs

are also used across the carriageway to serve as speed arrector coupled with eschewing

warning through the creation of the rumbling sensation to the user. The use of different

colours of studs is as follows.

White: Indicate traffic lane line and centre of the carriageway.

Red: Indicate lines which should not be crossed and mainly

to delineate the left hand edge of the running carriageway.

Yellow: Indicate lines which should not be crossed and mainly

to delineate right-hand edge of the running carriageway.

Solar-type road stud


Median indication road stud and median opening indicating studs


Chapter – 12 JUNCTION IMPROVEMENT

The importance of the design of the junctions and intersections stems from the

fact that the efficiency of operation, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly

governed by the design. The main objective of intersection or junction design is to facilitate the

convenience, comfort, and safety of

people traversing the intersection while

enhancing the efficient movement of

the motor vehicle, buses, trucks,

bicycles, and pedestrians and to

reduce the number and severity of the

potential conflicts between these stake

holders.

The basic principles of good intersection design are:

i. Separate conflicts in space or time and minimize the number of conflict points reduce

the risk of accidents.

ii. Give priority to major traffic movements, through alignment, signing and traffic control.

iii. Control the angle of conflict; crossing

streams of traffic should intersect at

a right angle or near right angle.

iv. Define vehicle paths and ensure

adequate sight distances

v. Control approach speeds using

alignment, lane width, traffic control

or speed limits.

vi. Minimise roadside hazards, Provide

for all vehicular and non-vehicular

traffic likely to use the intersection,

vii. including goods vehicles, public

service vehicles, pedestrians and

other vulnerable road users.

viii. Simplify the driving task, so that road users have to make only one decision at a time

and minimise road user delay

Components of junction design


1) Traffic channels

Channelisation is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite

paths of travel by the use of pavement markings or raised islands, to facilitate the safe and

orderly movement of both vehicles and pedestrians.

2) Pedestrian island or refuge island

Pedestrian safety islands limit pedestrian exposure in the intersection. While safety islands

may be used on both wide and narrow streets, they are generally applied at locations where

speeds and volumes make crossings prohibitive, or where three or more lanes of traffic

make pedestrians feel exposed or unsafe in the intersection

3) Pedestrian walk area – Provided in chapter 10.1

4) Hand rail- Provided details in chapter 13.1

5) Road markings- Provided in chapter 11.1

6) Chevron markings as per IRC:35-2015

7) Traffic signals

Traffic signal design and installation should be as per IRC:93.


Chapter – 13 ROAD SAFETY BARRIERS

The safety barriers are designated to redirect errant vehicles

with a specified performance level and provide guidance for

pedestrians or other road users. They are designed to

redirect the vehicle and have a lower severity than the

roadside hazard they protect. There are three main types of

safety barrier (but within these types, there are different

systems which have their own specific performance

characteristics).

13.1 RAILINGS

Railings may be used in median, dividers and footpaths to prevent pedestrians to the un-

manner crossing. Railing to be fixed with a strong concrete base and should be continues.

Typical layout of railing

Railing may be considered for footpaths in the vicinity of junctions to ensure that pedestrians

can cross only at the designed crossing and also to prevent vehicles movement on the

footpath.


13.2 RUMBLE STRIPS

These strips are raised, or grooved patterns mainly provided inside edge of paved shoulders

on the unprotected roads. Roads rumble strips are provided to reduce run-off-road collisions.

Rumble strips (a) bitumen & (b) yellow line at inside side edge of paved shoulder

13.3 SAFETY BARRIERS

13.3.1 Flexible barriers are made from wire rope supported between frangible posts. Flexible

barriers may be the best option for minimizing injuries to vehicle occupants, however, they

may pose a risk to motorcyclists. These barriers deflect more than other barrier types and

need to be repaired following impact to maintain their re-directive capability.

13.3.2 Semi-rigid barriers are usually made from steel beams or rails. These deflect less than

flexible barriers and so they can be located closer to the hazard when space is limited.

Depending on the impact these barriers may be able to redirect secondary impacts.


(i) W beam crash barrier

(ii) Roller type

Roller type barriers can also be provided where needed.

13.3.3 Rigid barriers are usually made of concrete and do not deflect. Rigid barriers should

be used only where there is no room for deflection of a semi-rigid or flexible barrier. Rigid

barriers are often utilized at high volume roadwork sites to protect road workers or other road

users, particularly where another barrier type is awaiting repair. Currently (depending on their

height and other details) these provide the highest level of containment of heavy vehicles. In

most cases following an impact, these barriers require little or no maintenance.


13.4 GUARD POST

Guard stone or boundary stones shall be fixed

at all angular points of the boundary. Where

boundary is on a curve or the land is costly and

likely to be encroached upon, there shall be

planted closer, as necessary in each case.

13.5 BOLLARDS

Bollards are entry restricting elements on streets whose purpose is to

discourage vehicle from entering into pedestrian space or cycle tracks.

Bollards are also used to demarcate and safeguard any space for

pedestrians. Bollards should have reflective radian tape fitted on it to make

it easily visible in the dark.


13.6 DELINEATORS Delineators help guide pedestrians and motorists alike

around construction areas or even accidents. Using

a delineator is an effective way to safely redirect traffic away

from potentially harmful situations.


Chapter – 14 ROAD SAFETY AUDITING

14.1 ROAD SAFETY AUDITING Road safety audit shall mandatorily be conducted by a third party certified road safety auditor,

as per IRC: SP- 88, for all roads developed under KIIFB funding, as per standard practices

and all provisions shall mandatorily be included in the DPR and estimate. The road safety audit

should be conducted during the construction and operational stages also.

A road safety audit is a term used internationally to describe an independent review of a future

road project to identify anything that may affect the road’s safety. The audit team considers

the safety of all road users and qualitatively reports on road safety issues and opportunities to

improve safety.

Specific aims of Safety Audit;

i. To minimize the risk of accidents likely to occur/occurring on the project facility and

to minimize their severity.

ii. To minimize the risk of accidents likely to occur/occurring on adjacent roads i.e., to

avoid creating accidents elsewhere on the network.

iii. To recognize the importance of safety in highway design to meet the needs

and perceptions of all types of road users; and to achieve a balance between the

needs of different road user types where they may conflict with one another.

iv. To reduce long-term costs of a project facility, bearing in mind that unsafe designs

may be expensive or even impossible to correct at a later stage.

v. To increase awareness about safe design practices among all those involved in the

planning, design, construction, and maintenance of roads,

Typical Activities in Road Safety Auditing.

i. Minimize the likelihood of crashes occurring through safety conscious planning

and design

ii. Identification of Black spots

iii. Ensure that, if crashes occur, then the likelihood of injury is minimized (Such as

provision of anti-skidding surface and safety barriers)

iv. Ensuring that safety-related design criteria (eg. Critical sight distance) have been

met.

v. Managing risk, such that the risk of occurring major safety problem is less than

the risk of minor safety problems occurring.


vi. Reducing the whole life cycle cost of a design (unsatisfactory designs are

expensive to correct after built.)

vii. Minimize the risk of crashes occurring in the adjacent road network.

Figure: 3. Steps involved in road safety auditing as per IRC: SP-88

14.2 SOCIAL AUDITING Social Audit is a monitoring process through which project information is collected,

analyzed and shared publicly in a participatory fashion. Social audits may go beyond the

oversight of project finances and procurements to examine all aspects of the project, including

the level of access to information, accountability, public involvement, project outputs, and

outcomes. Social audits are typically carried out by community volunteers (social audit

teams/committees) and findings are presented at a public forum/hearing. Steps involved in the

social auditing process

1. Define the scope of the audit

2. Information gathering and analysis

3. Public disclosure and evidence-based dialogue

4. Social audits institutionalized and repeated regularly

A social audit helps to reduce the gaps between vision and reality, between efficiency and

viability. It values the voice of stakeholders, including marginalized/poor groups whose voices

are rarely heard. Social auditing is taken up for the purpose of enhancing rehabilitation by local


governance, particularly for strengthening accountability and transparency in local bodies.

Social auditing shall be conducted as per prevailing KPWD / CPWD / MoRTH / IRC rules

before commencing of the project to evaluate the demand and requirement of the project.

14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING Environmental auditing is essentially an environmental management tool for measuring the

effects of certain activities on the environment against set criteria or standards. These are

used to help improve existing human activities, with the aim of reducing the adverse effects of

these activities on the environment. Environmental auditing shall be conducted as per

prevailing KPWD / CPWD / MoRTH / IRC rules before commencing of the project to evaluate

the demand and requirement of the project. Environmental auditing must be conducted by

considering,

1. Air Quality

– recommended for dust control and mitigative measures

2. Noise control

– recommended for an adopt noise reduction method of working and equipment’s

3. Water Quality

– recommended for mitigating measures to minimize water control during the

construction phase.

4. Resource management (waste management, deforestation, etc.)

- recommended for avoidance and minimization of waste generation

- recommended for reuse of materials

- recommended following relevant environmental protection and pollution laws.


Chapter – 15 SUSTAINABLE ROADS

Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This definition

is focused on the concept of "needs" and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of

technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future

needs. In a shorter version of this, sustainability is often described as being made up of the

three components of environmental, social, and economic needs.

"Sustainable" in the context of pavements refers to system characteristics that encompass a pavement's ability to:

1. Achieve the engineering goals for which it was constructed

2. Preserve and (ideally) restore surrounding ecosystems

3. Use financial, human, and environmental resources economically

4. Meet basic human needs such as health, safety, equity, employment, comfort, and happiness.

A "sustainable pavement" is, at present, an aspirational goal. That is, it is unlike any pavement

system based on current knowledge and technology could satisfy all or even most of the

characteristics in the previous sustainability definition. However, continued improvement with

an emphasis on each of these characteristics leads to more sustainable pavements, and,

ultimately, to pavements that actually meet the rather demanding standards of sustainability.

Progress towards sustainability may at first mean reducing bad outcomes (e.g., less pollution,

reduced extraction of non-renewable resources, less waste).

Improving sustainability can be achieved through the adoption of "sustainable best practices";

these are practices that work to either (1) go above and beyond required regulatory minimums

or standard practice, or (2) show innovation in meeting these minimums and standards.

15.1 IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

The roadway system is one part of a transportation network that provides mobility and access

to a range of users. The roadway network is not only important to overall economic vitality by

providing for the movement of freight and commodities, but it also provides social benefits as

well (e.g., access to schools, services, and work; leisure travel; and general mobility).

Pavements are an integral part of this roadway network. Pavements provide a smooth and

durable all-weather travelling surface that benefits a range of vehicles (cars, trucks, buses,


bicycles) and users (commuters, commercial motor carriers, delivery and service providers,

local users, leisure travellers).

With regard to components, listed below are just a few examples of how pavements can impact

sustainability:

Environmental component: energy consumption; GHG emissions; noise; air quality; storm water treatment.

Social component: safety (fatalities, injuries, property damage); smoothness; vehicle operating costs; GHG emissions; access, mobility; aesthetics.

Economic: construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation costs; vehicle operating costs; crash costs.

In worldwide pavement engineering communities have adopted several technologies as a way

of improving sustainability, such as the increased use of recycled materials in pavement

structures, the incorporation of modified binders to increase pavement performance, and the

development of rating systems to measure sustainability.

There are no universal characteristics or design features that describe sustainable pavement.

Only a general sustainability framework for pavement can be defined, it is context sensitive in

that each situation is unique, with specific needs depending on the location, climate, available

materials, facility type, the required level of service, and so on, as well as on the overall goals

of the organization.

15.2 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF BEING MORE SUSTAINABLE?

Opportunities for improving the pavement sustainability exist throughout the pavement life

cycle and have the potential to deliver tremendous economic, environmental, and social

benefits. Listed below are just a few examples of the benefits of being more sustainable about

the three pillars of sustainability.

Economic

Reduced pavement life-cycle costs

Environmental

Reduced energy use

Reduced noise emissions

Improved air quality

Improved water quality

Social


Improved safety

Improved ride quality

Resource conservation

Reduced landfill space


REFERENCES: IRC :9 - Traffic Census on Non-Urban Roads

IRC: 11 – Design & Layout of cycle Tracks

IRC: 23 - Vertical Curves for Highways;

IRC:34 – Recommendations for road construction in areas affected by water logging, flooding

and/or salts infestation (first revision)

IRC: 35 Code of Practice for Road Markings;

IRC: 36 - Recommended practice for the construction of earth embankments and sub-grade

for road works;

IRC: 37- Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements;

IRC: 38 - Guidelines for Design of Horizontal Curves for Highways and Design Tables;

IRC: 64 Guidelines for Capacity of Roads in Rural Areas;

IRC: 66–Recommended Practice for Sight Distance on Rural Highways;

IRC: 67–Code of Practice for Road Signs;

IRC: 72- Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements for Low Volume Rural Roads;

IRC: 73 Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-Urban) Highways;

IRC: 79 Recommended practice for Road Delineators;

IRC: 80 Type Designs for Pick-up Bus Stops on Rural (i.e., Non-Urban) Highways;

IRC: 81 Guidelines for the strengthening of flexible road pavements using Benkelman Beam

Deflection Technique;

IRC: 86 -Geometric design standards for urban roads in plains.

IRC: 93 - Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffic Signals;

IRC: 103 Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities;

IRC: 108 - Guidelines for Traffic Prediction on Rural Highways;

IRC: 115 - Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements

Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Technique;

IRC: 119 – Guidelines for Traffic safety barriers


IRC: SP-13 Guidelines for the design of small Bridges and Culverts;

IRC: SP-15 – State of the art: Landslide correction techniques.

IRC: SP-19 - Manual for Survey, Investigation and Preparation of Road Projects

IRC: SP-41- Guidelines on Design of At-Grade Intersections in Rural & Urban Areas;

IRC: SP-42 - Guidelines on Road Drainage;

IRC: SP-50 - Guidelines on Urban Drainage;

IRC: SP-59 - Guidelines for use Geotextile in road pavement and associated works;

IRC: SP-63 - Guidelines for the use of interlocking concrete block pavement;

IRC: SP:72- Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements for Low-volume Rural Road

IRC: SP-73 – Manual of specification & standards for two laning of highways with paved shoulder

IRC: SP-88 - Manual on road safety auditing;

IRC: SP:89- Guidelines for soil and granular material, stabilization using cement lime& fly ash

IS: 2720 (Part 4) - Grain size analysis

IS: 2720 (Part 5) - Atterberg limits

IS: 2720 (Part 8) - Modified Proctor Test (OMC & MDD)

IS: 2720 (Part 16) - California Bearing Ratio

Draft GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING AND DESIGN FOR ROADS ...

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