DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 072 983 SO 002 537

TITLE The Concept of Culture. An Introductory Resource Unitin World Cultures.

INSTITUTION Pennsylvania State Dept. of Education, Harrisburg.Bureau of General and Academic Education.

PUB DATE 69NOTE 55p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Activity Units; *Anthropology; *Concept Teaching;

Cross Cultural Studies; Cultural Differences;*Cultural Factors; Cultural Pluralism; CulturalTraits; *Culture; Generalizations 'nductive Methods;Resource Units; secondary Grades; Social Sciences;Social Studies

ABSTRACTIntended primarily as an introduction to a world

cultures course for secondary grades, this resource unit providesinsights into social studies in general and world cultures inparticular. Objectives are twofold -- to provide teachers with: 1) aclear but scholarly definition of culture, and 2) a sequence ofsuggested learning activities which focus on discovery and usage ofanthropological ("sitneralizations employing an inductive approach.Concepts dealt with include trans-generational learning, culturaldifferences and similarities, cultural traits, cross culturalperspectives, acculturation, and cultural pluralism. Content isprovided on the nature and evaluation of culture, cultural change,cultural areas and cultural problems. Each of the five sectionsoffers a list of generalizations, a content outline whichincorporates the generalizations, and learning activities whichinclude a purpose, an overview of activities, and procedures. Abibliography of books, journals, and audio-visual materials, and asupplement of suggestions by teachers who used the unit in a trialeffort are provided. (SJM)

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ln. siac. Deft- 4 &i c.TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U S OFFICEOF EDUCATION FURTHER REPRODUCTIONOUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER

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Bureau of General and Academic Education

Pennsylvania Department of Education

Copyright 1964, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

First Edition 1964

Second Edition 1965

Third Edition 1966

Fourth Edition 1969

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An Introductory Resource

Unit in World Cultures

AcknowledgmentsrThe Department of Education appreciates the assis-

tance of Dr. Anthony F. C. Wallace, chairman of theAnthropology Department of the University of Penn-sylvania, who prepared the generalizations, outlines ofcontent, and bibliography included in this unit.

Learning Activities developed by John M. Biliman,former social studies adviser, and Charles B. Schultz,former World Cultures consultant.

Cover PhotographyJames C. Thomas

Commonwealth of PennsylvaniaRaymond P. Shafer, Governor

Pennsylvania Department of EducationDavid H. Kurtzman, Secretary

Office of Basic EducationB. Anton Hess, Commissioner

Bureau of General and Academic EducationJohn Kosoloski, Director

Deportment of EducationP. 0. Sox 911

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 19126

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Some time ago I wrote Dr. Malcolm Collier, Director of the Anthropology Curric-ulum Study Project concerning our Concept of Culture. She graciously took time tooffer worthwhile suggestions and up-dated the bibliography for this publication. Thebibliography and suggestions follows

Add an asterisk to:

Braidwood, Robert J., Prehistoric Men. This is now published byScott Foresman, 7th Edition 1967, paperback $2.25.

Add to the Bibliography:

Hertzberg, Hazel W., The Great Tree and the Longhouses Culture ofthe Iroquois, Macmillan Company, 1966, paperback $2.40.

Marriott, Alice, Kiowa Years: Study in Culture Impact, MacmillanCompany, 1968, paperback $2.00.

Gallagher, James J., An Annotated Bibliography of AnthropologicalMaterials for High School Use, Macmillan Company, 1967,paperback $2.44.

Myron, Robert, Shadow of the Hawk, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York,1964.

Gorenstein, Shirley, Introduction to Archaeology, Basic Books,New York, 1965.

Mead, Margaret, People and Places, World Publishing Company, 1959,paperback, Bantam Books.

Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall, The Harmless People, Alfred A Knopf, Inc.1959, paperback; Vintage.

Bunker, Robert and Adair, John, The First Look at Strangers, RutgersUniversity Press, New Jersey, 1959.

FILMS

"Colonial Six" produced by Plimouth Plantation Contemporary Films

"Wave You Considered Archeology" produced by Stuart Scott, StateUniversity of New York at Buffalo

Both of us feel that there is too much material to be covered in three or fourweeks. If time is a limitation, these two sections could be shortened or even omitted:"Cultural Areas" and "Cultural Problems". This might encourage teachers not to try toalways cover everything. Concept of Culture is a resource unit, intended to helpteachers. This does not mean that every single part must be utilized. That decisionis for the individual teacher.

Robert H. CarrollGeography and World Cultures AdviserBureau of General and Academic EducationPennsylvania Department of EducationBox 911Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17126

1414 4 &Ideate

A Word to a Colleague

Page

iv

The Nature of Culture 1

The Evolution of Culture 15

Cultural Change 21

Cultural Areas 27

Cultural Problems 33

Bibliography 37

Audiovisual Materials 43

Supplement 47

COVER EXPLANATION

The African Guro irask on the cover was supplied by the BucksCounty Instructional Materials Center. Levittown. Pennsylvania. Nar-row masks like this one were worn on the forehead during religiousdances. The refined features, rounded forehead and long, slender pro:portions are characteristic of the Guro mask.

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This unit is another effort of the Depart-ment of Public Instruction to develop therecent trend of cooperation between the sub-ject matter specialist and the educator. Thespecialist in this case, Dr. Anthony F. C.Wallace, Chairman of the Anthropology De-partment of the University of Pennsylvania,has prepared the anthropological generaliza-tions and outline of content. Comprehensiveand authoritative, these generalizations im-plement one objective of this unitto providethe teacher with a clear but scholarly defini-tion of culture. Such an understanding isessential if the world cultures course is todeal with culture in more than name.

Realizing that most teachers have not hadanthropological training, mastery of thesegeneralizations represents nothing less thana challenge. They are presented with con-fidence in both the clarity of the content andthe tenacity of the teacher, and with convic-tion that once mastered, they will provide newinsights into social studies in general and worldcultures in particular.

At the same time that these generalizationsmake clear the concept of culture, they arealso tools, if imaginatively employed, for theanalysis of any cultural region. As tools, theyare to be used. The systematic instructionalactivities that follow the first section of gen-eralizations are examples of their use. This,then, is a second objectiveto proiride theteacher with a sequence of learning activitiesin which the student applies these generaliza-tions in the study of culture. Essentially in-ductive, the activities involve the student andmake him think in anthropological terms.Practice in the use of these tools of theanthropologist is necessary if the teacher'sunderstanding of culture is to be transferredto the student.

It must be admitted, in all honesty, thatthese activities will take considerable effortfor the teacher to digest and apply. They arepresented with the conviction that these ef-forts will be well rewarded by heightenedstudent interest and intellectual involvement.

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This unit is intended primarily as an in-troduction to the world cultures course. It ishoped that the generalizations and techniquesincluded will serve as a guide for the examina-tion of other cultural areas.

However, the unit could be used in differentways. Sections of it could be incorporatedinto the American history course or the entireunit could be used as a framework upon whicha course in anthropology is built. The lastsection is particularly applicable to pioblemsof democracy.

World cultures teachers have had a re-sponsibility for which few have had academicpreparation, where instructional materialshave been hard to come by, and where thehuge range of knowledge included is frus-trating to even contemplate. Coping withproblems is not new to them. This challengeis issued in the hope that, once met, it willhelp in the overcoming of others.

Itataise erdtrote

Generalizations

I. Culture is trans-generational learning. In otherwords, it is all those customs of a communityincluding language, science and beliefs, artsand crafts, and the rules of behavior in do-mestic, religious, political, and economic lifewhich are passed on by learning from onegeneration to the next.

II. Each separate human group, small or large,has a culture, more or less different from thatof its neighbors. Large human groups, likemodern nations; each have a distinct culture,just as small primitive tribes do; but becauseof their complexity, modern nations can alsobe looked on as being mosaics of many dif-ferent sub-cultures.

III. Despite their differences, all human cultureshave certain features in common, or, in otherwords, share a universal culture pattern.

IV. Any culture can be analyzed as a unique sys-tem of traits, trait complexes, systems or in-stitutions, and functional relationships.

V. Anthropology is the science which studies cul-ture in an evolutionary and cross-culturalperspective. Anthropology uses the techniquesof excavation of communities; of historical re-search on the recent past; and of field-workin living communities, to obtain its informationabout the cultural aspects of human behavior.

Outline of Content

I. Culture is trans-generational learning. In otherwords, it is all those customs of a communityincluding language, science and beliefs, artsand crafts, and the rules of behavior in do-mestic, religious, political, and economic lifewhich are passed on by learning from onegeneration to the next.

Definitions of Culture

A. For introductory purposes, the most use-ful definition is the classic one of E. B.Ty lor (1871):

"Culture or Civilization, taken in itswide ethnographic sense, is that com-plex whole which include,. knowledge,beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, andany other _capabilities and habits ac-quired by man as a member of society."

Implicit in this definition is the re-striction that the learning which mandoes as a member of society is trans-generational: that is to say, that atleast some of what is learned in onegeneration is passed on to the next,either from parents and other adults tochildren, or from the earlier members ofa group to each new recruit (as in chil-dren's play groups, adult clubs, workteams, etc.).

B. More recent efforts by scientists to de-fine culture tend to stress the cognitiveand super-organic aspects of the concept.

'Culture thus does not refer to the ma-terial objects themselves, like tools orworks of art, which are produced bya society, but to the system of ideasrelevant to these objects: how they aremade, how they are used, what theymean symbolically. Furthermore, theseideas can be said to have a life of theirown, independent, once launched, ofthe individual human beings who aretheir "carriers" from one generation tothe next. Thus, for example, the sys-tem of ideas denoted by the term planegeometry are certainly a part of con-temporary American culture. Theseideas were formalized out of earliermathematical traditions by the Greekgeometer Euclid, about 2,000 yeats ago.

With relatively minor modifications,they have been learned by approxi-mately 100 successive generations ofschool children, including millions ofindividual persons.

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C. In still another and more dynamic sense,culture describes the way in which acommunity of human beings agree tosatisfy their needs. Where needs arenot satisfied, one can expect people totry to produce cultural innovationswhich will satisfy these needs.

II. Each separate human group, small or large,has a culture, more or less different from thatof its neighbors. Large human groups, likemodern nations, each have a distinct culture,just as small primitive tribes do; but becauseof their complexity, modern nations can alsobe looked on as being mosaics of many dif-ferent sub-cultures.

A. Virtually all human beings spend mostof their lives in communities. The com-munity, the minimum culture-bearingunit, is composed of people in face-to-face association, numbers from a fewhundred to several thousand, enduresfrom one generation to the next, andrecruits each new generation partly byreproduction and partly by immigration.

1. In most of the world, each suchcommunity (variously labeledbarrio, village, hamlet, band, etc.)has a distinctive culture of its own,characterized by a special accent,dialect, or language, by special his-torical traditions, and by specialcustoms and interests.

2. Except among the most primitivepeoples, where the community orband is the largest unit of socialorganization, communities arelinked together into larger struc-tures, such as tribes, states, andnations.

3. Even in urban areas, communitiessurvive as neighborhoods althoughtheir cultural uniqueness in thecity is blurred.

B. The supra-community unitbe it tribeor nationgenerally has some uniquecultural characteristics, in language, re-ligion, or political and economic struc-ture, which are shared by each of itsconstituent communities and by otherconstituent groups.

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1. In a large modern state, like theUnited States, a common language(English), certain common lawsand customs (such as monogamyin marriage), and certain commoninstitutions (such as the FederalGovernm:nt) constitute a "na-tional culture."

2. Such modern nations are also aptto be pluralistic in culture, sincenot only are there many com-munities each with its own specialsub-culture, but there are also

various social groups each with itsown special sub-cultural charac-teristics.

a) Sometimes age groups can besaid to have a sub-culture(e.g. the "youth-culture" ofthe United States).

b) Sometimes the experienceand social roles of men andwomen are so different thateach may be said to have asub-culture of its own.

c) Groups differentiated by so-cial class, occupation, educa-tion, income, religion, race,national origin, geographicregion, and so forth oftenhave sufficiently differentcustoms to justify sayingthat they maintain separatesub-cultures.

d) The sub-cultures of thesespecial groups are generallyincomplete, in the sense thatessential features (such aslanguage, law, food supply,etc.) are part of i largerculture, such as a nationalculture. Sub-cultures usuallypertain only to aspects ofculture.

III. Despite their differences, all human cultureshave certain features in common, or, in otherwords, share a universal culture pattern.

A. All complete cultures contain rules ofbehavior governing the following cate-gories of experience:1

1. Language, communication, andrecords

2. Food quest, food processing, fooddistribution, and food consump-tion

3. Territoriality4. Securing and processing of basic

raw materials

5. Clothing and adornment6. Construction, arrangement in

settlement pattern, and dwellingsand other structures

7. Manufacture and use of instru-ments, tools and appliances

8. Ownership and exchange of prop-erty by individuals or groups

9. Travel and transportation10. Fine arts, recreation and enter-

tainment11. Sex and reproduction

12. Kinship, marriage and the family13. Education and socialization14. Social stratification15. Political organization

16. Law, offenses and sanctions andjustice

17. Military technology, armedforces, and war

18. Medical practices and pharma-copoeia

19. Religious practices and beliefs20. Number and measures

21.. Ethnoscience (ideas about na-ture and man)

B. The fact that all human cultures so fardescribed, from the most primitive tothe most highly civilized, include thesame basic elements, is one reason forthe conclusion that all human beings

'share the same basic mental and emo-tional makeup (the so-called psychicunity of mankind).

'See G. P. Mull lock. Clellan S. Ford, et al., Outline of CulturalMaterials (New Haven: Human Relations Area Files, Inc., 1950)for one widely used system of classification for cultural materials.

IV. Any culture can be analyzed as a unique sys-tem of traits, trait complexes, systems or in-stitutions, at,d functional relationships.

A. Although the same basic pattern char-acterizes all cultures, each individualculture has a unique content in detail.

13. The simplest way of describing a cultureis to itemize the content under a list,like the one given above, of the basiccategories of culture. This procedureproduces a list of "traits."

1. Even for the simplest culture, sucha list of traits, if it were complete,would be fantastically large.

2. Examples of culture traits, drawnat random from the cultural rep-ertoire of mankind, includes itemsboth familiar to Americans andunfamiliar:

a. The keystone arch in con-struction of buildings. Thistrait is found among thepeoples of Western civiliza-tion and also, independently,among the Eskimo.

b. The custom of marrying, bypreference, a first cousin.This trait is not accepted inmodern America but is verycommon in other cultures(e.g., among American In-dians).

c. The blood-feud, in 41lich Rninjured or murdereo person'srelatives are allowed by cus-tom to take revenge en theoffender or his kinfolk. Thistrait was once customary inAmerica, but survives tcdayonly as an illegal pract'ce;it was common among manyprimitive peoples.

3. The total range of behavior ex-hibited by mankind, if compiledin a master-list of traits, woulddisplay a vast spectrum of pos-sibilities only a few of which arerealized in any one culture.

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C. Traits seldom exist unrelated to othertraits in a culture. Frequently a wholecomplex of ideas and practices are com-bined into a "complex," which exists asa unit even though it can be analyzedinto a combination of individual traits.

1. Culture complexes are frequentlycomposed of individual traitswhich depend for their usefulnesson the existence of certain othertraits and on features of the na-tural environment.

2. Examples of culture complexes,both familiar and unfamiliar toAmericans, are

a. The buffalo-horse-bow-and-arrow complex of the PlainsIndians;

b. The automobile complex ofcontemporary America.

D. Still more complicated arrangements oftraits are found in "systems" or "insti-tutions," in which an elaborate organi-zation of behavior around a single areaof activity is developed.

1. Systems or institutions generallyinvolve a group of people employ-ing a complex set of rules to carryout an important area of humanpurpose.

2. Examples of types of systems orinstitutions, both familiar and un-familiar to Americans, are

a. Kinship systems, which in-clude a particular set ofterms for classes of kinfolk,as seen by one person, plusspecial groupings of kinfolk,plus rules of behavior towardkinfolk.

b. Religious institutions, whichinclude a particular set ofrituals and moral rules, plusa body of beliefs about apantheon of supernatural be-ings, plus various sacred textsor myths.

E. The most difficult to understand arethose relationships among traits, com-plexes, and systems, which are not neces-sarily understood by the members of

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the society, but which exist neverthelessas cause-and-effect relationships.

1. The function of a particular trait,complex, or system or institution,is the whole body of effects thatthis cultural entity has on therest of the culture.

2. Examples of functional relation-ships suggested by social scientistsfor certain customs in other so-cieties, and in our own, are

a. The people of a certain smallPacific atoll (island) believein, and hate, the ghosts oftheir ancestors. A suggestedfunction is that this divertstheir anger and irritationfrom each other onto imag-inary beings and thus re-duces the amount of conflictbetween real people. On thissmall island, too much inter-personal friction could leadto disaster, because completesocial cooperation of allmembers of the society is

necessary to obtain and dis-tribute efficiently food andother essential goods.

b. The mass media in Americapublicize Hollywood and thelives of movie stars. A sug-gested function is that thispublicity provides an outletfor fantasies about a richand colorful life which is un-available to most people(including most people in.Hollywood). In other coun-tries, the place of Hollywood ,in serving this function maybe taken by royalty or byother privileged persons.

3. There is much evidence to showthat personality is functionallyrelated to the culture. Thus per-sonality types tend to be morecommon in certain cultures. Thisis the result of the fact that eachculture provides more or less stand-ardized experiences for the youngduring the early years when per-sonality is being formed.

4. Functional relationships are noteasy to prove. Many suggestionsare plausible but only carefulanalysis can demonstrate that afunctional relationship really ex-ists. This analysis is often madeby assembling statistics frommany cultures to show that when-ever one trait is c-P theris present, and I. i..entthe other is al.sei.t. ...ao.

V. Anthropology is the science which studies cul-ture in an evolutionary and cross-culturalperspective. Anthropology uses the techniquesof excavation of ancient communities, historicalresearch on the recent past, and field-workin living communities, to obtain its informationabout the cultural aspects of human behavior.

A. Archaeology, the branch of science whichstudies ancient civilizations, uses care-ful techniques of excavation and recon-struction to piece together the storyof man's past and the cultures whichcame before our own.

1. Classical archaeology is devoted tothe study of the ancient civiliza-tions of Babylon, Egypt, Greece,and Rome, and generally of thecradle of civilization on the shoresof the Mediterranean and in theNear East, where both physicalremains and written records areto be found.

2. Anthropological archaeologystudies those high civilizations re-mote from our own western cul-tural past, such as the Incas, theAztecs, the Maya, and the greatcultures of east and south Asia,and also the remains of primitivepeoples, such as the people of theStone Age, and the more recentEskimo, Polynesians, Africans, andAmerican Indians.

B. The contribution of historythe studyof written documentsis important inrevealing the cultures of our own pastand the past of my culture which hasleft written records. Written records goback hundreds to thousands of years.

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C. Cultural anthropology, also called eth-nology or social anthropology, whichstudies the cultures of living peopli.

depends upon methods of direct obser-vation (or "field work") to gain in-formation about culture.

1. One method of study used by an-thropologists is the "interview":to talk, ask questions, and listen towhat people can tell the observerabout the customs of their com-munity.

2. Another method is "participantobservation": to take part as muchas possible in tne activities goingonsuch as hunting or gardeningeven when they are unfamiliar.

3. It is important to make accurateobservations and to have a de-tailed record. Therefore the field-worker learns the local language,takes careful notes, makes a mapand a census, and if possible bringsback tape-recordings and photo-graphs, often including movies.

D. Only by very careful and painstakingstudywhether it be by the methods ofarchaeology, history, or cultural an-thror ologycan a culture be accuratelydescribed. It usually requires one ortwo years of full-time study to learnenough about a foreign culture to pro-vide even a minimal description.

E. Anthropologists are also interested inthe application of their methods andknowledge to the solution of practicalhuman problems.

1. Many anthropologists have con-tributed their efforts to the studyof the cultural factors involved inthe cause and treatment of disease,particularly mental disease.

21. Many anthropologists have beenconcerned with the study of proc-esses of technical and culturalchange in the so-called underde-veloped areas of the world.

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Learning Activities

The Introduction

This activity is intended to give the student theopportunity to discover and use anthropological gen-eralizations included in this unit. Discovery and usage,then, are two important ingredients of these sug-gestions. Because of this, some elements of scientificinvestigation are employed; usually, :nformation is

collected, orgpnized and interpreted, and then applied.Since this is a sequential pattern, parts of these ac-tivities can not be taken from their context withouta loss of continuity and clarity.

Because of the nature of these activities, the teacher'sfunction is to help guide the students in their effortsto discover important generalizations. This vital roledemands imagination and ingenuity. While these sug-gestions are detailed and quite specific much is leftfor the teacher to do. Introductory and concludingactivities have not been presented and in some casesadjustments should be made to meet the needs ofspecific classes. Assignments must be made, using read-ings from the bibliography, that will give greaterdepth to the student's experience. Most important,the teacher must "think on his feet" when conductingthe day-to-day classroom sessions. The open-endednature of the activities demands flexibility on theteacher's part.

No basic text is needed; an examination of the localcommunity provides the instructional materials. Infact, one of the advantages of this program is that itcan be used immediately anywhere. However, it shouldbe noted that these activities examine the local com-munity in detail only because it is the most availablesource of information. Emphasis should be placed onan understanding of culture rather than the com-munity which, in this case, is a means to an end.

These suggestions supply activities for three or fourweek's work depending on the plans of the teacherand the interests and abilities of the class. They beginwith a statement of purpose, include an overview ofactivities, and then detail the more specific procedures.The activities for the other sections of content do notfollow this same pattern and are not as systematic ordetailed.

The Purpose

To identify important concepts and generalizationsregarding the nature of culture and use some ofthese concepts as tools of analysis.

To employ elements oc the scientific method of in-quiry.

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To show that a description of culture is a difficultmatter.

The Overview

1. Have students discover the existence of someaspects of a universal cultural pattern.

II. Have students discover the existence of com-plexes and institutpms within a culture andunderstand that some specific aspects of cul-ture could fit into a number of classificationsdepending upon their context within the cul-ture.

III. Have students discover the pluralistic natureof culture and the relationship between sub-cultures and larger cultural units.

IV. Have students discover the means of exposingestablished cultural traits to new generations.

The Procedures

I. Have students discover the existence of someaspects of a universal cultural pattern.

A. Have each student compile a list oflocal traits and rules that govern humanbehavior in his community.

1. Explain to the class that there arepractices and codes that governmuch of what we do and that theserules are often unwritten andmany people are not conscious ofthem.

2. Cite examples of these practices.There are different modes ofhouse construction; in some com-munities most houses are built ofbrick while elsewhere wooden frameconstruction is common. Custor ;regarding eating are prescribed; inthe United States table mannerscall for the use of knives and forks.Standards of cleanliness are estab-lished; the practice of only bath-ing weekly is frowned upon bythose who shower daily.Further examples such as foodpreferences including cookingmethods, courtesy customs, orfavorite sports and leisure timeactivities, may be necessary forsome classes. Pointed questionscould be asked based on traits in

a

the local community. For example,how do students regard someonewho studies hard or wears bobbysocks?

3. Assign each student to identifyas many traits of his communityas he can or that the teacher feelsnecessary.

4. Point out to students that thetraits they select do not have tohave universal applicability to theentire community.

B. Have students organize the traits thathave common characteristics into clas-sifications and identify the common ele-ment in each classification.

1. Have several students read theirlist of traits to the class and listthem on a blackboard or on anoverhead projector. These traitsshould be verified by consensus ofthe class or, in the absence of con-sensus, by further research.

2. The teacher asks the followingquestions:

a. Could some of these traitsbe placed in the same cate-gories? For example, walk-ing to school, riding bicycles,and driving cars would begrouped together. Here theclass should begin to organizetheir traits into classifica-tions.

b. What would be good titlesfor these classifications? Inthe example above transpor-tation would be the title.To be able to give accuratetitles, students must general-ize as to the nature of thetraits having common char-acteristics. In some casesselecting a title is relativelysimple and becomes immedi-ately obvious with the or-ganization of the traits. Inother instances however de-fining a title can be doneonly after considerable dis-cussion.

3. The class should now reorganizeits list of traits according to theagreed upon scheme of classifica-tions and make additions as eachstudent offers traits not previouslymentioned. New classificationsshould be identified for those traitsthat do not fit existing classifica-tions.

4. The fins! results, the many traitsorganized into classifications withtitles, should be duplicated forstudent reference and use.

C. Have students compare a foreign cultureto the local cultural pattern in order todiscover aspects of a universal culturalpattern.

1. Analyze a foreign culture usingany combination of comprehensivewritten descriptions, tapes, photo-graphs, film strips, slides and filmsfrom which students list traits ineach of the classifications theydeveloped in "B". Select a filmlisted at the end of this unit orconsult a local instructional ma-terials center.

a. Especially when looking atfilms, group students by clas-sification so that each stu-dent doesn't have to look forthe total pattern.

b. Instruct students to look fortraits that would not fallinto their classifications.

2. After the analysis of the foreignculture, the teacher should askthe students the following ques-tions which are related to the twosets of traits (local and foreign)they have now gathered:

a. What do the similarities anddifferences revealed in thecomparison indicate aboutthe nature of culture? Theanswer to this questionshould be that a pattern ofuniversals exist for diversecultures and that within thispattern varied traits can be

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classified. THIS IS ONE OFTHE MOST IMPORTANTCONCEPTS TO BE DIS-COVERED IN THIS AC-TIVITY.

b. Did the class's list of uni-versals include most areas ofhuman activity? (See thepattern t.. universals foundon page 6.) It is impor-tant that the students under-stand what is included in thetotal pattern of universalsdeveloped by anthropolo-gists.

II. Have students discover the existence of com-plexes and institutions within a culture andto understand that some specific aspects of cul-ture could fit into a number of classificationsdepending upon 'heir context within the cul-ture.

A. Have the class investigate complexes.

1. Using their duplicated list of localtraits, have students identify cul-tural relationships or complexes.It may be necessary for the teacherto begin this activity by showingone complex to the class usingthe traits from the students' listsrather than those used in the ex-ample below. Students should beinstructed to make an effort tocross the lines of universal clas-sifications in building complexes.

Example of the AutomobileComplex

Trait Classification

Use of the auto TransportationDrive-in theatre EntertainmentUse of traffic Law

police

2. Have the class take several of thecomplexes they have identifiedfrom their list of traits and expandthe scope of these complexes asfar beyond their list of traits astheir knowledge of the complexwill permit. Example: Take theauto complex and ask students toidentify as many cultural traitsthat are part of this complex aspossible.

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3. Using the library, have the stu-dents contrast their complex withcorresponding complexes of othercultures, such as the horse com-plex of the Plains Indians or thecanoe complex of the NorthernHunters.

B. Have the class investigate institutions.

1. The teacher should visually pre-sent three institutions to the classwithout defining them as institu-tions.

Example: a local churcha high schoola stockmarket

2. Then the teacher should matcheach institution with a specifictrait within the institution.

Example: a local churchorganmusic

a high schoolraisinghand for recognition

a stockmarkettickertape machine

3. Now the teacher should ask theclass to explain how all the itemsin the first column differ from theitems i. the second column. Theanswer from the class should re-veal the definitions of institutionselaborate organizations of be-havior centered around a singlearea of activity to carry out animportant human purpose.

C. Have the class discover that some as-pects of culture can be classified as eithertraits, complexes, or institutions de-pending upon their context within theculture.

1. List the following five aspects ofculture on the blackboard:armyfootball teamsororitycoffee breaksupermarket

2. Have each student, as an indi-vidual assignment, classify eachof the aspects of culture listed onthe board as either traits, parts ofcomplexes, or institutions.

3. The teacher should then ask mem-bers of the class whether eachaspect of culture above is a trait,part of a complex, or an institution.

4. The teacher should write the classfindings after each of the aspectsof culture listed earlier.Inasmuch as ale/ one of theseaspects of culture can be a trait,part of a complex, or an institutionthere should be a difference ofopinion in the class about eachaspect.

5. Have students with differences ofopinion about a particular aspectof culture justify their reasons forlabeling the aspect as they did.

6. Ask students to explain the differ-ences that have just been justi-fied. After this discussion hastaken place and if the studentsstill do not see clearly that the con-text determines the nature of theaspect of culture the teacher candraw up on a similar kind of un-derstanding from English grammarby asking the following question:Is the word "walk" a verb or anoun? Obviously the classifica-tion of the word will depend uponits context in a given sentence..In the same way, supermarket is atrait of an urban community; partof a complex that would includeautomobiles, newspaper advertise-ment, mass production; and aninstitution because it is an or-ganized, purposeful activity cen-tered around an important areaof human affairs.

III. Have students discover the pluralistic natureof culture and the relationship between sub-cultures and larger cultural units.

A. Have students identify from their locallist of traits those that are found spe-cifically in their community.

1. The purpose of this activity is toengage the students in the processof sorting traits and thus beginto establish the idea that thereare different levels of community

rather than definitively identify-ing the traits of his community.

2. If the class discovers few uniquetraits then the original observa-tions. of the class were not specificenough or their community doesnot significantly differ from alarger cultural unit.

B. Next have the students identify fromthe remaining traits those that applyuniversally to a larger community. Forexample, English is spoken in the Anglo-American community. Those traits thatdo not have universal application to alarger .community should be set asidefor later consideration.

C. Have students now identify the largercommunities that are represented intheir lists of traits.It may be helpful to list these com-munities starting with the local andgoing to the world community.

D. Have students analyze those traits thatwere put aside in step B. The followingquestions are a guide to making thisanalysis:

1. Why could these traits not be putinto any one particular level ofcommunity?The purpose of this question isto indicate that they do not haveuniversal application to any com-munity.

2. What do these traits then repre-sent?The purpose of this question isto indicate that they representsocial groupings within any com-munity.

3. Which social groups are repre-sented in this series of traits?Here the multiplicity of socialgroups should be emphasized.

E. Have each student chart his member-bership in sub-cultural units and inter-pret the results of his chart.

9

1. Assign students to make the fol-lowing chart:

Step 1. Show the levels ofcommunities to which the studentbelongs. .

Instructions: The student shouldrepresent himself with an "x." Hethen draws concentric circles on"x" for each successive level ofcommunity to which he is a mem-ber, starting with the local andgoing to the world community.Step 2. Show the diversity of so-cial groups to which a studentbelongs.Instructions: Using a differentcolored pencil the student shoulddraw as elipse for each of the so-cial groups to which he belongsand which he just identified inthe previous activity.

Step 3. The final chart will looksomething like this:

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2. Have each student interpret hischart by answering the followingquestions concerning the pluralis-tic nature of culture:

a. To how many different so-cial groups and communitiesdo you belong?This question is to im-press upon the individualstudent the number of so-cial groups to which hebelongs.

b. What is the total socialgroup membership of theclass?Here the class is to be im-pressed with the variety andnumber of social groups.

F. Have the class investigate the effect ofculture upon the individual.This can be done either briefly throughdiscussion or it can be extensively ex-plored by use of scientific inquiry.

1. Discussion MethodRaise some of the following ques-tions for class discussion:

a. What is the difference in at-titudes of teenagers andadults concerning musicpreferences?

b. What is the difference ofattitude between men andwomen concerning theirsmoking of cigars?

c. What is the attitude ofwealthy people concerningsocial security as contrastedwith those not so wealthy?

(Note: While some questionscan be dealt with more brieflythan others, the teacher shouldguard against oversimplifiedanswers. After discussing thesequestions, students should gen-eralize as to the relationship be-tween attitudes and social groupmembership.)

k

2. The method of scientific inquiry.The previous activity could serveas an introduction to this one.

a. Have the class form hy-potheses concerning the pref-erences of the readers ofnewspapers.These hypotheses should beproposed by relating theitems of a newspaper to so-cial groupings listed below.

Items of a newspaperAdvertisementsComicsEditorial PageFront PageObituariesSociety PageSports PageStock Market ReportsWant Ads

Social groupingsSexAge GroupMarital StatusOccupational StatusPlace of Residence

For instance, the followinghypotheses could be drawn:

(1) Men have a greaserpreference for readingthe sports page thanwomen do.This example is basedon a direct compari-son of two socialgroupings, men andwomen.

(2) Housewives preferreading advertise-ments more thanworking women.This is an exampleof one social group-ing (sex) being sub-divided by anothersocial grouping (oc-cupational status).

(3) The first preferenceof men and womenwill differ.

This is an exampleof a hypothesis basedon over-all findings.

b. Have the class collect datarelating to their hypotheses.It is suggested that the col-lection of data be done bya questionnaire prepared bystudents. Using the question-naire students could thenconduct interviews with awide sampling of membersof the community. Studentsshould be made aware ofthe importance of the fol-lowing matters relating tothe gathering of data.

(1) The need to carefullyprepare the question-naire to include allnecessary questionsabout the inter-viewee listed aboveunder the heading ofsocial groupings, anda list of items in anewspaper arrangedalphabetically withspace for the inter-viewee to rank hispreference by number.This numerical valuewill be used later tototal the raw scoresfor each social group.

(2) Certain precautionsmust be observed inorder to secure an ac-curate sampling.These include giv-ing all intervieweesuniform instructionsto assist him in com-pleting the question-naire and planningthe sampling processcarefully to insure itsthoroughness and toavoid overlapping ofinterviews.

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c. Have the class draw conclu-sions from data gathered.Refer to page 47 for moredetailed instructions.

(1) Sort the answer formsaccording to the so-cial groupings men-tioned in the hypoth-eses. For instance,using the first samplehypothesis above, thequestionnaires wouldhave to be dividedinto two groups, onefor men and one forwomen. Calculationsmay have to be madefor each hypothesisseparately since thereare different socialgroups, or parts ofthem, for each hy-pothesis. For example,the women's groupused in the first hy-pothesis would haveto be further sub-divided by occupationto get the housewife'sgroup in the secondhypothesis.

(2) Tabulate the re-sponses to the itemsin the newspapermentioned in the hy-potheses by totallingthe numerical values

' for each item for eachsocial group and rankeach item in order ofthe raw scores.

(3) Interpret the results--To what degree do

the findings sub-stantiate the hy-potheses?

Compare the find-ings for other hy-potheses and havethe class decidewhich hypothesesare most valid andwhich are the leastvalid.

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Does the data re-veal further conclu-sions not antici-pated by theproposed hypothe-ses?

Are any conclusionsaffected by limita-tions or defects inthe data gatheringprocess?

d. Have the class evaluate thisinquiry.

(1) What are the conclu-sions of the class re-garding the use of -hescientific method ofinquiry in observingsocial phenomena? Inspite of this rigorouseffort to be exact, theclass should be madeaware that this isa relatively crudestudy. Refinementwould require the em-ployment of suchtechniques as randomsampling and statisti-cal analysis.

(2) What does the sam-pling process and theconclusions obtainedreveal about theexistence of socialgroups and their im-pact upon the atti-tudes of members ofthat group?

G. Have the class select two sub-culturesand compare them in detail.

1. Choose two ethnic or religioussub-cultures in the local commu-nity and have the class collecttraits, identify complexes, and ex-amine institutions for each group.

a. This investigation may re-quire visits to local organi-zations, interviews withmembers of each group, andresearch in the local libraryor newspaper file.

b. Classroom time may be spentidentifying important areasof examination, and organiz-ing the collection of data.

2. After as much data as possible hasbeen collected, students should be-gin the task of comparison.

a. Data will have to be organ-ized so that the comparisoncan be centered around im-portant universals in the cul-tural pattern.

b. Comparable traits, com-plexes, and institutionsshould be noted.

3. Students should evaluate theirwork.

a. In which areas was theirdata incomplete?How reliable were thesources of information?

b. How valid are the stereo-types of these groups?

c. What were the sharpest dif-ferences?Where were the closest simi-larities?Is there evidence that bothgroups have assumed aspectsof a larger cultural pattern?

d. Does the examination ofeach sub-culture provide in-sight into behavior of itsmembers?

IV. Have the class discover the means of exposingestablished cultural traits and patterns to newgenerations.

A. Have the class identify attitudes thatare attached to speciac traits. For thepurposes of illustration, attitudes towardmasculinity will be used in this exercise.

1. Reach a consensus among mem-bers of the class about the degreeof masculinity associated with thefollowing traits:Changing a tire on a carWashing dishesSmoking a cigarDriving a carBeing a medical doctor

WhistlingTwirling a batonFixing a leaking faucetWearing slacksRiding a bicycle

2. If the class feels it is necessary,these traits can be made into aquestionnaire that a larger sam-pling of the school population canrank.

13. Have the class devise ways of changingattitudes attached to these traits.

1. Examine this question:How would it be possible tochange the attitudes of membersof a new generation to reflect anopposite conclusion from that dis-covered?Relate this question to a prob-lem by posing a hypotheticalsituation.Have members of the class im-agine that they had full power orcontrol over different aspects ofculture. Then charge them withthe task of trying to change theattitudes toward masculinity at-tached to these traits for thosenew members of society that willmake up the next generation.How would they go about doingthis?

2. Students should be encouraged towrite, draw pictures, or presentskits that would illustrate theirproposed efforts to redirect theshaping influences of culture. Theymight write a short story of a fewhundred words, produce a TVcommercial or design toys forchildren, all of which would at-tempt to reverse the traditionalpatterns. of our culture regardingthese aspects of masculinity.

C Have members of the class identify theagencies of our culture which inductnew members of society into their as-signed roles.

1. Based on their previous activities,the class should be encouraged tospeculate or hypothesize as towhich agencies expose new mem-bers of society to their assigned

13

t

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roles. Consideration should begiven to the influence of the massmedia, parental examples, formaleducational institutions, children'stoys and games and any other in-fluence the class suggests.For each of these agencies a hy-pothesis should be created.Sample hypothesis: Televisioncommercials expose (or do not ex-pose) the viewer to various facetsof masculinity.

2. Students should conduct rigorousobservations of the several agen-cies or influences identified intheir hypothesis. Collected datashould be brought to the class inthe form of children's toys, tapedTV segments, magazine articlesor advertisements, and descrip-tions of parental actions, and ob-servations of school practices.

3. Have students interpret this massof data.

Does the data support the sev-eral hypotheses?Are some agencies more signifi-cant than others?

Do men tend to assume themasculine . behavior as a resultof these agencies and influences?

(Note: This last question is justoutside the limits of theprevious investigation asdefined by the hypothe-ses. NO CAUSE RELA-TIONSHIP HAS BEENDEMONSTRATED.)

The correlation of two circum-stances does not necessarily implycausation. Specific causation is

very difficult to substantiate.A good illustration of this is thedifficulty in upholding the chargethat violence on TV causes vio-lent behavior in children.

4. Students should be encouraged tospeculate or hypothesize aboutthe question of causation and touphold their proposals with argu-ments.At the same time, they shouldbe aware that they are only theo-rizing and not proving their claim.Some students might want tomake an examination of the stud-ies conducted on this subject.

74 Sie lazes 4 &levee

Generalizations

I. From the anthropologist's viewpoint, culturalevolution is a continuing and progressiveprocess, reaching deep into the past, and ex-tending far into the future; particular cul-tures, including our own, are steps in theprogress of mankind.

II. Human cultures did not emerge until the earlyprimates haj developed upright posture, effi-cient hands, stereoscopic color vision, and rela-tively large brains (approximately 900 cubiccentimeters in size). This physical transitionwas not complete until about 1,000,000 to500,000 years ago, in the Old World (Africa,Europe, and Asia).

III. Man did not evolve in the New World. TheAmerican Indians and Eskimos migrated herefrom Asia beginning about 50,000 years ago,bringing a simple hunting and gathering cul-ture with them, and developing more complexcultures after they arrived.

IV. After man learned to make stone tools andto control fire, his brain continued to grow un-til about 50,000 years ago, since which timethe human brain has remained approximatelystable in size (about 1400 cubic centimeters).

V. All surviving human races have passed throughthe severe test of time; all have proven them-selves capable of a cultural mode of existencewhich is vastly more complex than that of anyknown animal; significant biologically baseddifferences in intelligence or temperamentamong the races, if there are any, are soslight as to be almost impossible to distin-guish from the effects of cultural differences,and thus, in the opinion of many scientists,are irrelevant to the tequirements of civilizedlife.

VI. Most of human history was spent in the Paleo-lithic period from about 500,000 to about10,000 years ago.

VII. The "Neolithic Revolution"brought aboutby the invention of agricultureoccurred first

in the Near East, about 10,000 years ago; itprobably occurred a second time, independ-ently, in the Americas, and perhaps a thirdtime in southeast Asia or Oceania.

VIII. The "Urban Revolution" occurred first in theNear East, about 6,000 years ago.

IX. The third great evolutionary transformationin human culture, the "Industrial Revolution,"occurred first in Europe about 200 years ago,and the immediate consequences are still de-veloping before our eyes.

Outline of Content

I. From the anthropologist's viewpoint, culturalevolution is a continuing and progressiveprocess, reaching deep into the past, and ex-tending far into the future; particular cul-tures, including our own, are steps in theprogress of mankind.

A. The idea of cultural evolution growspartly out of the concept of organicevolution and partly out of the "ideaof progress" which is the notion (firstpopular in the 16th Century) that overlong stretches of time, human life be-comes more complex, more orderly, andmore satisfying.

B. It is necessary to distinguish betweentwo types of cultural evolution: generaland special. This section is largely con-cerned with general evolution. .

1. General cultural evolution is theprogressive course of culturalchange, over long periods of time,for mankind as a whole. The seriesof technological inventions andother cultural innovations whichmake up the history of generalevolution need not occur in thesame place or in the same culturaltradition. Thus, for example, the

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first users of steam engines (thepeople in Western Europe) werenot the direct descendants, livingin the same place, of the first in-ventors of agriculture (the peopleof the Near East).

2. Special evolution is the series ofcultural changes that occur in thehistory of a particular culture.

C. The most famous scientist to write aboutcultural evolution was a lawyer andbusinessman from Rochester, New York,named Lewis Henry Morgan.

1. Morgan's book, Ancient Society,published in 1877, proposed theidea that the main stages ofgeneral cultural evolution werelaunched by technical inventions,and that other customs, such asthe rules of marriage, changed inconsequence. He was an economicdeterminist.

2. Morgan classified all human so-cieties into three main typessavage, barbarian, and civilizedand regarded the living societiesof each type as containing "fossil"customs surviving from earlierstages.

3. Morgan's work, although it is nolonger accepted in every detail, hasremained a basis for theories ofcultural evolution both in theUnited States and in other partsof the world, including the SovietUnion.

II. Human cultures did not emerge until the earlyprimates had developed upright posture, effi-cient hands, stereoscopic color vision, and rela-tively large brains (approximately 900 cubiccentimeters in size). This physical transitionwas not complete until about 1,000,000 to500,000 years ago, in the Old World (Africa,Europe, and Asia ).

A. The first archaeological evidences ofhuman-like cultures are chipped stonetools and the remains of hearths datingback on the order of 500,000 years ago.

1. At this remote date, human beings

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anatomically identical with mod-ern man did not yet exist any-where on earth.

2. The makers of these earliest arti-facts were large primates whowalked upright, had efficient handswith opposable thumbs for grasp-ing, presumably possessed stereo-scopic color vision, and ownedbrains larger than any then (ornow) existing monkeys or apes(whose maximum brain size is

about 450 cubic centimeters).

3. The earliest artifacts have beenfound in Europe, Asia, and Indo-nesia.

B. The makers of these earliest artifactsprobably developed from the Austral-opithecus stock, native to Africa.

1. The Australopithecines were inter-mediate in brain size and in otheranatomical features between manand the lower primates.

2. The Australopithecines spreadfrom Africa into Asia and perhapsEurope and became the ancestorsof the various races of modernman.

III. Man did not evolve in the New World. TheAmerican Indians and Eskimos migrated herefrom Asia beginning about 50,000 years ago.

A. The American Indians were the first toarrive, crossing the Bering Straits duringthe last glacial period. The first-comersfiltered southward, eventually reachingthe southern tip of South America, whilenew arrivals were continuing to cross.

The first Indians brought a simple,Upper Paleolithic hunting and gatheringculture with them, and developed morecomplex cultures after they arrived.

B. The Eskimo did not begin to enter NorthAmerica until thousands of years laterand developed a distinctive culture in-dependent of the Indians.

IV. After man learned to make stone tools andcontrol fire, his brain continued to grow un-til about 50,000 years ago, since which time

the human brain has remained approximatelystahie in size ( about 1400 cubic centimeters).

A. The earliest known human culture-makers had brains much smaller thanours, about 900 cubic centimeters.

13. Brains of modern size were first ex-hibited in Europe by the Neanderthals,a European race which survived fromabout 150,000 to about 50,000 years ago.

1. Scientists think that the demandsof a cultural way of living selectedthe larger-brained primates forsurvival. The increase in the sizeof man's brain since he first de-veloped a human type of culturehas been the result of cultureitself.

2. Even the primitive way of life ofthe Neanderthals, who hunted andpracticed their religious rituals inEurope during the last Ice Age,was sufficiently complex to requirea brain equal and often superiorin size to that of modern Euro-peans.

V. All surviving human races have passed throughthe severe test of time; all have proven them-selves capable of a cultural mode of existencewhich is vastly more complex than that of anyknown animal; significant biologically baseddifferences in intelligence or temperamentamong the races, if there are any, are soslight as to be almost impossible to distin-guish from the effects of cultural differences,and thus, in the opinion of many scientists,are irrelevant to the requirements of civilizedlife.

A. All of the major racial stocksCau-casoid ( white), Mongoloid ("Oriental"and "American Indian"), Negroid (Af-rican and American Negro), and Aus-traloid (Australian aborigines)havesurvived through thousands of years ofcultural evolution.

1. The cultures spontaneously pro-duced by each of these stocks allconform to the universal culturalpattern.

2. Persons from any racial stock can,if properly trained, be taught thelanguage and customs of any cul-ture produced by any other race.

B. The physical differences among the racesare partly a product of evolutionaryselection and partly a product of man's"domesticated" mode of cultural exist-ence.

1. A few racial characteristics areplausibly explained as having sur-vival value under particular cli-matic conditions.

a. The flat nose and heavilypadded cheeks of many Mon-goloids (such as Eskimos)are probably an adaptationto extreme cold. During thelast glacial epoch, northernMongoloids developed thesefeatures which protect theowner from the freezing oftissues exposed to cold.

b. The dark skin of Negroidsis probably an adaptation tointense ultra-violet radiationin tropical areas. It protectsthe owner from skin cancerand other skin disorders.

2. The extreme variability of physicaltypes in modern man is also theresult of "genetic drift," the ran-dom fluctuation of genetic charac-teristics which is possible in a safe,secure, domesticated population.

VI. Most of human history was spent in the Paleo-lithic period, from about 500,000 to about10,000 years ago.

A. The Paleolithic, or "Old Stone Age," inEurope, Africa, and Asia lasted fromapproximately 500,000 years ago toabout 10,000 years ago.

1. The Paleolithic period was inau-gurated by the invention ofchipped stone tools and the con-trolled use of fire.

2. During the Paleolithic period,

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early man was a hunter andgatherer only.

3. During the latter part of thisperiod, he developed the earliestforms of religion.

a. The Neanderthals, a LowerPaleolithic people, buriedtheir dead carefully and builtshrines in honor of the cavebear.

b. The Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnon people of Europe,in addition to continuingreligious traditions similar tothose of the Neanderthals,developed a grin arttheso-called "cave art" ofFrance and Spain.

c. During the Paleolithic pe-riod, early man developedlanguage, use of shelter andclothing, customs of familyand kinship, community or-ganization, and methods ofhunting, which together withother cultural traits made itpossible for man to spreadover all the five continents.

B. A few marginal peoples, living in out-of-the-way parts of the earth, have con-tinued until recent times as "UpperPaleolithic survivors." They will bediscussed later in a section on PrimitiveCultures.

VII. The "Neolithic Revolution"brought aboutby the invention of agricultureoccurred firstin the Near East, about 10,000 years ago; itprobably occurred a second time, independ-ently, in the Americas, and perhaps a thirdtime in southeast Asia or Oceania.

A. The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, isnot significant so much because of im-proved methods of working stone (bygrinding and polishing, as opposed tochipping), as for the domestication ofplants and animals (i.e., the inventionof agriculture).

1. The "Neolithic Revolution" may

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have occurred independently sev-eral times: first, in the Near East,about 10,000 years ago; second inthe Americas, by the AmericanIndian; and third, in southeastAsia or Oceania.

2. Wherever agriculture was inventedor spread, a more sedentary wayof living, in small villages ortowns, developed.

3. Wherever agriculture was intro-duced, population increased andspecialiiition of labor became im-portant.

B. Most of the primitive cr "underdevel-oped" peoples of the Americas, Oceania,Asia, Africa, and until recently, evenEurope, have been living on essentiallya Neolithic level of existence.

VIII. The "Urban Revolution" occurred first in theNear East about 6,000 years ago.

A. The Urban Revolutionthe beginningof life in towns and citiesis signifi-cant as the point at which a complex ofthings happened in the evolution ofculture.

1. The Urban Revolution, like theNeolithic, has occurred independ-ently several times: first in theNear East about 6,000 years agoand again in Asia, Africa, and theAmericas.

2. Several other things usually comewith living in towns: a writtenlanguage; metal work; the wheel;specialized trades, crafts, and pro-fessions occupied by persons whoare not directly food producers;and a complex religious and polit-ical structure.

B. The Urban Revolution usually leads tothe rise of militarily competitive city-states, slavery, the development of sharpdistinctions between social classes, andearly nations and empires.

1. The bulk of the period of writtenhuman history up to the Industrial

Revolution is the history of city-states and their attendant nationaland imperial strivings.

2. The artistic and architecturalmonuments of the early cities arethe principal interest of manyarchaeologists.

IX. The third great evolutionary transformationin human culture, the "Industrial Revolution,"occurred first in Europe about 200 years ago,and the immediate consequences are still de-veloping before our eyes.

A. The Industrial Revolution, which beganabout 1750 in Europe, was the resultof the combination of a number of in-novations which had been developingover thousands of years.

1. Science contributed one principalingredient: the knowledge of howto tap new sources of power, fromfuels (the steam engine) andgravity (the water mill), and di-rect them to do useful mechanicalwork.

2. Social knowledge of how to or-ganize large economic enterpriseswas a second principal ingredient.

3. The Industrial Revolution has op-erated as a continuously acceler-ating chain of cultural innovations,each discovery and invention lead-ing to several others.

4. Modern industrial society is nowitself geared to continuous changeresulting from scientific researchand development.

B. The social consequences of the Indus-trial Revolution have been great andhave to a large extent been both unan-ticipated and uncontrolled.

1. A vast and sudden increase in thepopulation of the earth has oc-curred as a result of the reductionin the death rate from starvationand disease.

2. The destructive potentiality of the

new weapons used in warfare havemade major wars increasingly dev-astating.

3. The peoples of Europe, who orig-inally controlled the new technol-ogy, completed their military con-quest of the entire world duringthe 18th and 19th Centuries. Theystill remain by colonization, or po-litically, economically, and some-times militarily, in control of fourof the six continents and parts ofthe other two.

Learning Activities1. Select a cultural artifact, such as the automobile,

and have the class identify those human physicalfeatures that were necessary to produce it. Next,have each student examine the corresponding phys-ical features of adVanced primates, such as apes.Then, have the students make a chart on whichpictures or drawings of those physical features ofboth human and animal species are displayed andhave the students show how each human featureaids in the development of culture.

2. Using library references, films, or pictures, have thestudents attempt to compare a society of primateswith a simple human society on the basis of theuniversal cultural pattern. Refer to the Audio-Visual Materials section of this unit for suggestions.

3. After the previous activities, conduct a class dis-cussion, panel, ur debate on the topic, "Only Hu-mans Have Culture".

4. Have the students chart the physical differencesamong the various races of man. Then have theclass compare this with their chart of physical fea-tures necessary for culture that they drew up inthe first activity. Discuss whether racial differencesaffect the ability of any race to develop a highlycomplicated culture.

5. Hive each student construct a timeline which iden-tifies the stages of cultural evolution and gives thecharacteristics of cach stage. Using this timeline,have the students consider the following:

a. Which is the longest stage in the history ofmankind?

b. What proportion of the history of mankinddoes the present stage make up?

c. From the characteristics of the various stages,

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trace the cultural evolution of political or-ganizations, economic activities, and socialstructures.

d. Investigate the following questions throughlibrary research.

(1) How are the political organizations,economic activities, and social struc-

20

tures at any one stage interrelated andinterdependent?

(2) How would a change in one factor, suchas political organization, affect theothers in the same stage?

6. Have the students read and report to the class onselected books on this topic from the bibliography.

ef.d4osal &eagle

Generalizations

I. In addition to evolutionary development, otherprocesses of culture change are important: inparticular, innovation, diffusion, acculturation,and revitalization.

II. The study of cultural innovation shows thatinventions are in large part recombinations ofpre-existing elements and therefore are, in asense, inevitable products of a certain stage ofcultural development.

III. The diffusion of culture traits occurs over widedistances and is resronsible for the fact thatmost cultures, including our own, are made upof traits from many different places.

IV. Acculturation is the process of exchange oftraits between two cultures. Frequently oneculture is dominant over the other, becauseits owners possess superior military, economic,and political power, but even in such casesthe exchange usually goes on in both directions.

V. Sometimes a culture is viewed by its ownersas ineffective and undesirable. Under thesecircumstances, a revitalization movement isoften at,empted, frequently under religiousauspices, which seeks to transform the societyinto a utopia. Revitalization movements areapt to be fanatical, hostile, and totalitarian,even in primitive societies.

VI. Most human beings are "ethnocentric" (theylike to believe their own culture is superior toothers), and for this reason conflict is apt tooccur when two social groups with differentcultures live in close proximity.

VII. The stability 'of a culture depends upon theability of the society not only to socialize theyoung in the way of life of the older generation,but also to find ways of organizing the diversityof individuals and of differing cultural tradi-tions.

Outline of Content

I. In addition to evolutionary development, otherprocesses of culture change are important: in

particular, innovation, diffusion, acculturation,and revitalization.

A. Innovation may be defined as the processof development of a new cultural trait.

1. Many innovations are technical in-ventions which in our own societyare covered by patents.

2. Equally important, however, areinnovations in religious beliefs andritual, in social customs, and other"intangible" areas of culture.

B. Diffusion may be defined as the processby which culture traits spread from onecommunity to another. The processhas been compared to the spreading ofripples on a pond.

C. Acculturation may be defined as theprocess by which two cultures in contac-with one another exchange culture traitsacross a boundary or interface.

D. Revitalization may be defied as a de-liberate organized effort by members ofa society to construct a more satisfyingculture.

II. The study of cultural innovation shows thatinventions are in large part recombinations ofpre-existing elements and therefore are, in asense, inevitable products of a certain stageofcultural development.

A. Most innovations are recombinations ofalready existing elements in a new re-lationship or for a new purpose.

1. The occasional radically new dis-coveries, like the use of fire or thedomestication of plants and ani-mals, may have momentous resultsfor the evolution of culture.

2. A community's general acceptanceof an innovation depends upon thefitness of the cultural context forits use.

B. Many innovations can be regarded asinevitable at a certain stage in a cul-ture's development.

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1. Evidence for this statement isfound in the frequency with whichthe same innovation is made in-dependently by different peopleat about the same time.

2. From this point of view, "greatmen" in the sense of great in-novatorsare as much a productof their times as creators of thesetimes.

III. The diffusion of culture traits occurs over widedistances and is responsible for the fact thatmost cultures, including our own, are made upof traits from many different places.

A. All human cultures show evidence ofdiffusion: i.e., there is no known societywhich has developed its entire cultureby itself.

1. Our own culture is a hodge-podgeof traits drawn from all parts ofthe world.

2. Even relatively isolated groups,like the Eskimo, show evidence ofdiffusion of culture traits fromother areas.

B. The process of diffusion is responsiblefor the growth of "culture areas": i.e.,of wide regions in which many differentcultures share a number of importanttraits in common.

C. The process of diffusion sometimes pro-duces an "age-area" correlation.

1. Just as the ripple in a pool whichis farthest from the center is alsothe "oldest," so the traits foundin a roughly circular belt farthestout from a center of diffusion areapt to be the oldest.

2. Sometimes by the time these traitshave reached the peripheral area,they have been supplanted by newtraits in the center.

IV. Acculturation is the process of exchange oftraits between two cultures. Frequently oneculture is dominant over the other, becauseits owners possess superior military, economic,an 1 political power, but even in such casesthe exchange u: ,,l'.. goes on in both directions.

A. A subor to culture often makes im-

22

portant contributions to the dominantone.

1. During the past several centuries,Colonial areas of the world havecontributed much to Western civil-ization.

2. The dominance of one culture overanother is the result of military,economic, and political power anddoes not necessarily mean moral,artistic, or intellectual superiority.

B. The acculturation process may make itpossible for the subordinate culture toachieve equality with, or even domi-nance over, the previously dominantculture. (See, for example, the changingrelationship between western Europeand Rome.)

C. Mutual acculturation is almOst, ifnot completely, impossible to prevent,whether the two parties are equal orunequal.

V. Sometimes a culture is viewed by its ownersas ineffective and undesirable. Under thesecircumstances, a revitalization movement isoften attempted, frequently under religiousauspices, which seeks to transform the societyinto a utopia. Revitalization movements areapt to be fanatical, hostile, and totalitarian,even in primitive societies.

A. Revitalization movements generally canbe recognized by the possession of theseattributes:

1. A leader who is regarded as beingthe possessor of an unquestionableauthority.

2. A code, or body of beliefs, whichdescribes

a. the existing world as evil;

b. a future state of society asideal ("utopian");

c. a way of life which, if fol-lowed, will lead to the trans-formation of the world fromthe evil state to the idealstate.

3. An action program designed to

convert unbelievers and destroyopposition.

B. Some revitalization movements haveproduced important and far-reachingchanges in the way of life of their com-munities, and thus have contributed im-portantly to culture change.

1. In the modern world, revitaliza-tion movements are of exceptionalimportance in the political andeconomic development of under-developed areas and also in ourown country. For example:

a. The communist revolutionin China can be regarded asa revitalization movement.

b. The democratic revolution inPuerto Rico can be regardedas a revitalization move-ment.

c. The American Negro civilrights movement can be re-garded as a revitalizationmovement.

2. Revitalization movements in pasthistory have been of great andlasting significance. For example:

a. The Protestant Reformationand the Catholic Counter-Reformation can each beconsidered as religious re-vitalization movements.

b. Generally speaking, new de-nominations and faiths beginas revitalization movements.

C. Among primitive peoples in contact withdominant European cultures, religiousrevitalization movements have beenvery common. There are several well-known types, such as:

1. Cargo Cults. These are found es-pecially in Melanesia and take theform of a belief that a great shipis coming, filled with a cargo ofEuropean goods; the Europeansettlers and administrators will bethrown out and the land returnedto the native owners; in prepara-tion for this event, the natives

must abandon their old religiousceremonies.

2. Nativistic cults. These were foundespecially among American In-dians, who on such occasions asthe Ghost Dance, believed that thewhite people and their customswould be thrown out and the In-dians could return to the ways oftheir forefathers.

D. Not all revitalization movements aresuccessful.

1. Sometimes the movement is basedon a "crackpot" idea and is certainto collapse.

2. Sometimes, even though the ideais excellent, there is too much op-position for it to succeed.

VI. Most human beings are "ethnocentric" (theylike to believe their own culture is superior toothers), and for this reason, conflict is apt tooccur when two social groups with differentcultures live in close proximity.

A. It is a good thing for people to haveconfidence in their own way of ilfe.

1. People who are ashamed of theirown culture are apt to be bitter,unhappy, and hostile toward thosewho enjoy what they regard as abetter way of life.

2. When two different cultures are incontact, members of both groupsare likely to feel uneasy and mayin self-defense say and do thingsexpressive of dislike or contempttoward the other.

3. The relation between the twogroups can stabilize only when oneof two things happens:

a. both share the same culture,Or

b. both respect the culture ofthe other without feeling dis-satisfied with their own.

B. In acculturation situations, some scien-

23

M

tists believe there is an increased rateof mental and emotional illness because:

1. "Marginal" men who share incon-sistent customs and values fromboth cultures find it difficult to fiteasily into either group.

2. Members of a subordinate groupare subject to many evidences ofcontempt from members of thedominant group and suffer ex-tremely in consequence.

C. In scientific work (but not necessarilyin other areas of life), social scientistsoften find it necessary to adopt the at-titude of cultural relativism in orderto avoid biasing their research.

1. Cultural'relativism means that thescientist tries, for research pur-poses, to evaluate customs accord-ing to the values of the peoplewho practice them and to assumethat, in each society, there is somereasonable explanation for the ex-istence of every custom.

2. This does not mean that as acitizen the same person will takea morally neutral attitude towardtypes of behavior which violatehis own ethical standards.

VII. The stability of a culture depends upon theability of the society not only to socialize theyoung in the way of life of the older generation,but also to find ways of organizing the diversityof individuals and of differing cultural tradi-tions.

A. Every culture tends, particularlythrough the way parents bring up theyoung, , 1 produce people with more orless similar types of personality; theseyoung people, in turn, tend to find theexisting culture congenial as they be..come adults, and to bring up their ownchildren as their parents did before them.

1. This process tends to maintainboth culture and personality con-stain from one generation to thenext.

24

2. Even in America, where change isconstant, the expectation of tech-nological change is one of the con-stant personality traits of genera-tion after generation of Americans.

B. Despite the standardizing influence ofcultural norms, contemporary culturesare heterogeneous, and people in anyculture grow up with distinctive per-sonalities.

1. All cultures must provide ways ofharnessing the energies of manydiverse people.

2. Excessive standardization of rolesis not only likely to be resented;it is also wasteful of the varietyof talents which diverse kinds ofpeople can contribute to the build-ing of a complex culture.

Learning Activities

1. Have each student select a cultural trait, such asthe use of cosmetics, and trace that trait throughtime and across cultural boundaries to get as closeas possible to its origin. In doing this, studentsshould be aware that their main goal is not toidentify the origin of the trait itself but to developa history of sufficient length to reveal some of itscultural ancestry and how it has been modified.The teacher should guard against the selection oftraits that zre so minute that information is difficultto obtain. Interesting trait histories should be pre-sented to the class, some depicted visually withphotographs or drawings. On the basis of thesepresentations, the class could generalize as to howculture changes with the teacher making sure thatboth the processes of innovation and diffusion areidentified.

2. Have the class investigate innovations as a meansof cultural change by:

a. Selecting several inventions and determiningthe previous inventions that made them pos-sible.

b. Attempting to identify inventions or innova-tions that are not recombinations of alreadyexisting elements.

L. Identifying innovations in less tangible areassuch as social customs.

3. Conduct a panel or debate on whether great Li-novators are the product or the creators of theirtimes.

4. Establish a series of severe classroom regulations

that violate the usual patterns of student behavior.

Examples of this would be using physical heightinstead of testing as a means of grading or keeping

all students after school for additional work forwhich no credit is given.

Then select a group of students to discuss whatthey would do if they had to live by these rules.Have the class, as it observes this group, note their

suggestions and compare the group's activities tothe characteristics of a revitalization movementdescribed in this section.

Finally, ask each student, as a written assignment,to give an example of a revitalization movementand to substantiate their choice by comparing itin detail to the characteristics of such a movement.

5. Have the students read and report on selected books

on this topic from the bibliography.

95

ealewtod I9feect4

Generalizations

I. There are approximately 40 major culture areasof the world, according to anthropologicalstudies. These culture areas have, of course,been extensively overlaid since the 15th Cen-tury by the "world culture," based on Euro-pean technology and imported into all partsof the world by colonization, trade, and ac-culturation. The map on page 28 and the ac-companying Table below do not reflect thisrecent expansion of European civilization.2

11. The main characteristics and distinctive fea-tures of each major culture area are outlinedin the Table, which lists the areas shown onthe map. On the map, primitive huntersand gatherers are indicated by bars, primitiveneolithic food producers ale indicated bysquares. All high cultures are unshaded.

Outline of Content

Primitive Cultures

Hunters and Gatherers

North America

Eskimo

Wintercamps on sea ice; seal primary food re-source; two boatskayak for hunting and umiakfor family travel; saucershaped lamp; snow house;semilunar woman's knife; family the unit of socialand political life; Eskimo-Aleut language stock.

Northern AthapascanHunting and fishing for food; snowshoe; toboggan;large and small bark canoes; house covered withbrush, skin, or bark; band organization; sometribes have matrilineal descent groups; Athapas-can language; fear of the Nakani.

Northern AlgonkianHunting and fishing for food; snowshoe; toboggan;large and small hark canoes; hand organization;shaking-tent for predicting future events; cradleboard; Algonkian language; fear of Wiitiko.

7 The map and table, including the capsule descriptions of culturearea characteristics, are taken from pp. 116-143 THE WORLDOF MAN by John J. Honigmann, 1959. Reprinted with the permis-sion of Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.

Pacific Northwert CoastCleat dependence on seafood, especially salmon;some land hunting; large rectangular gabled housesof upright cedar planks; %vood carving; large sea-going dugouts; armor; social organization of

nobles, commoners, slaves; unilinear descentgroups; village and maximal political unit; pot-latch; secret associations; elaborate ceremonial life.

PlateauExtensive use of salmon, deer, and berries; salmonpulverized with roots for storage; semisubterra-ncan winter house; summer house of mats orrushes; basketry; hark fiber clothing; armor; vil-lage maximal political unit.

PlainsDependence on bison for food, skins, and hone fortools; conical dwelling covered with skin (tipi);travois drawn by dog and, later, horse; flat skinbag (parfleche) for storage; circular stiield; large-band organization; emphasis on warfare, especiallyafter introduction of the horse; military associa-tions; great linguistic diversity.

California Great BasinAcorns chief vegetable food supplemented by wildseeds and some hunting; simple dwelling of brushand grass; basketry; reed raft for ferrying; feetgenerally hare; elaborre girl's puberty ritual;gifts burned in mourning rituals; band organiza-tion.

South America

Marginal

Dependence on hunting and fishing with unin-tensive hoe agriculture; kinship primary basis ofsocial organizations; small temporary shehers; nouse of salt; warfare primarily for defense; passagerites main form of ritual; adornment of body moreimportant than clothing except in the south; bandorganization.

Africa

Bushman

The bushmen arc hunters who work only in woodand stone; dog only domesticated animal; simpleshelters; realistic animal painting; bullroarer usedin ceremonies; band organization; language be-longs to Click family.

27

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Asia

Siberian

Coast: Subsistence closely tied to fishing and seamammal hunting: semisubterranean house; dogsled.Interior: Hunting and fishing important; snow-shoe; conical skin dwelling (tipi); tailored skinclothing; reindeer domestication practiced by somepeople; reindeer-drawn sleds.

Oceania

Australia

Subsistence in aboriginal times depended exclu-sively on hunting and food collecting; simple shel-ters; band organization; ceremonies to increasethe game supply and commemorate heroes of theDream Time; male initiation ceremonies impor-tant; genital mutilations; men naked.

Neolithic Agriculturalists and Pastore lists

North America

Eastern Woodlands

Hoe cultivation of maize, squash, and beans;hunting also important; rectangular bark house insummer; dome-shaped house of bark or mats forwinter ( wigwam); secret associations; fortifica-tions; skin clothing; relatively elaborate ceremoniallife.

Southwestern(Pueblo used as the type-culture.) Maize maindomesticated plant; hoe; turkey raised; uprightloom; painted pottery; elaborate ceremonial lifeincluding head-washing; masked dancers, andunderground ceremonial structure (kiva); cottoncultivated for textiles; apartment house dwellings;village as basic political unit. (The Navaho,Apache, Pima, and Papago vary from this type.)

Southeastern

Intensive cultivation of maize, cane, pumpkins,melons, tobacco by hoe; domestication of turkey;persimmon; bread; rectangular house; fortifiedtowns; blowgun; sun worship; elaborate cere-monial life; confederation of tribes as maximalpolitical unit.

South America

Circum-Caribbean

Hoe agriculture sufficiently intensive to supportlarge permanent villages; hammock; loom weavingof cotton; work in gold, silver, copper; class or-ganization with nobility based on military dis-tinction; ceremonials involve temples and idols;ancestor worship; conquest led' to small, unstableempires; human sacrifice.

Tropical Forest and Southern AndesKinship primary basis of social organization; hoeagriculture; hammock; blowgun; loom weaving ofcotton; use of rubber; dugout canoe; metal re-ceived by trade; village, basic political unit; pas-sage rites main form of ritual; in the southernAndes villages were fortified and metals worked.

Africa

Desert

Camel and horse pastoralism; caravan transpor-tation; sharply stratified classes with the pastoral-ists acting as overlords over peasants; oasis cerealcultivation; raising of dates; Islam. The regionis generally a blend of African and Middle Easternelements derived from the north; Hamito-Semiticlanguages are spoken.

Eastern SudanCereal hoe agriculture and domestication of cattle,horses, and camels; camel milk important in desertregions; round houses with thatched roofs; pastoralpeople live in tents; Islam widely accepted thoughpagan enclaves remain.

Congo

Root crops and maize cultivated with hoe; chick-ens raised; Pygmy tribes are primarily hunters;cannibalism; houses often rectangular with gabledroof but also round houses; markets; men weaveon upright looms; iron working; ancestor ritualswith human sacrifice; bridewealth of hoes andcowrie shells; village tends to be maximal politicalunit; Bantu language belongs to Niger-Congofamily.

East African Cattle AreaHoe agriculture; domestication of cattle, sheep,goats; soured milk often drunk; men tend cattle;prestige correlated with size of cattle herd;bride-wealth paid in cattle; round houses with grassroof; iron work; large-scale political organizationunder kings found in some regions; polygyny com-

29

mon; ancestor ritual; Bantu language belongs toNiger-Congo family. Coastal towns show influenceof the Middle East.

Eastern HornDesert pastoralism and, in highland Ethiopia,cereal agriculture with use of plow; women tendcattle, men work with camels; markets; iron work;animal bridewealth; languages are primarily ofthe Hamito- Semitic family.

HottentotThe Hottentots are cattle pastoralists living indome-shaped mat houses; ox transportation; vil-lages in a territory are governed by a hereditarychief; language belongs to the Click family.

Steppe

Horse domesticated for transportation, milk, hides,and prestige; also sheep, goats, camel; dome-shaped tent; large-band organization; Islam.

Oceania

Indonesia

Dry rice the main crop; chickens, pigs, waterbuffalo, cattle, horses, sheep, goats domesticated;people live in small villages that sometimes shiftwhen the land under cultivation becomes ex-hausted; bamboo houses with thatched roofs;cotton clothing; tattooing; blowgun; bow; mat-ting and basketry; weaving; outside of areas influ-enced from mainland Asia, the village was themaximal political unit in aboriginal times; Islamhas been adopted by 90 percent of the population;languages belong to Malayo-Polynesian family.While the languages in Madagascar belong to thisfamily, the culture of that island is partially tran-sitional to that of Africa.

Melanesia

Subsistence dependent on taro, yams, and the sagopalm; pigs raised; fishing and hunting contributeto diet; cannibalism; elaborate men's houses withsteep gabled roofs; pile dwellings in some places;grass-fiber skirts; kinship groups the primary unitof organization; villages politically independent.

Micronesia

Coconut, pandanus, breadfruit, and taro the maincrops; fishing important for food; pigs and chickensdomesticated; great skill in navigation with out-rigger canoes; rectangular houses of wood andthatch; cotton cloth woven only in west; tattoo-ing; grass skirts; matting; sling and spear; ad-

ative units under kings tended to grow

30

through conquest; languages belong to Malayo-Polynesian family.

Polynesia

Aboriginally and today reliance on fishing; pigsand chickens domesticated; taro, breadfruit, coco-nuts, bananas, yams, sugar cane cultivated; papermulberry tree cultivated for bark to provideclothing; use of kava; grass skirt; matting; tat-tooing; great consciousness of rank; conquest ledto large political units; premarital sexuality; lan-guages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family.

High Cultures

Cities But No Written Language

Central Andes

Developed agriculture; foot plow; loom for weav-ing cotton and wool; domestication of llama andalpaca; work in gold, silver, copper, bronze, plati-num; elaborate painted pottery; occupationalspecialization of labor; large public buildings;hereditary class system; war for conquest led toInca empire; elaborate ceremonial life.

Irestern Sudan

Subsistence based largely on cereal agriculturewith hoe and cattle domestication; a number ofempires maintained relatively stable existenceshere in pre-European times; round houses withthatched roofs enclosed in compounds; markets;large towns or cities; secret associations; Islamwidely accepted.

Guinea CoastRoot crops and maize are important for food; hoecultivation; large towns and cities; markets; ironand brass work in the hands of specialists; rela-tively large empires; elaborate ancestor rituals in-volving human sacrifice; many deities associatedwith their own temples and priesthoods; languagesbelong to Niger-Congo family.

Cities and Written Language

Mexico-Guatemala

Dependence on hoe agriculture; maize, potatoes,gourds, tobacco, and cotton cultivated; cotton tex-tiles; bees domesticated; water drum; two socialdivisionsIndians and Ladinos, the latter identi-fying with a Spanish-type culture; extensive cere-monies connected with the saints and other Cath-olic concepts. In precontact times work in gold,

silver, and copper; writing; calendar; extensiveempires developed by Maya and Aztecs; largetowns; elaborate ceremonial life; human sacrifice.

Egypt (modern)Irrigation farming along the Nile and desert pas-toralism; cereals main crop; plow; intensive divi-sion of labor based on skill; Islam the prevailingreligion; the Arabic language belongs to theHamito-Semitic family.

Southwest Asian

( Excluding the desert pastoralists.) Area is markedby cereal cultivation; use of the plow; irrigation;wheat and barley main crops; ox, ass, horse, andcamel used for transportation or draft purposes;goat and sheep raised for food; mud houses; un-

.tailored garments; Islam main religion; languagesprimarily belong to the Hamito-Semitic family,except in Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, whereIndo-European languages are used.

JapanThe original Ainu culture was pushed to thenorthern periphery by mainland migrants bring-ing influences from China and Korea. Subsistencebased on wet rice cultivation with plow; Euro-american contact has introduced intensive indus-trial manufacturing and other changes; use ofChinese ideographs in writing.

Chinese

Millet and wheat cultivated oy plow are staplecrops in the north; wet rice in the south; housesof mud or sun-dried brick, domestication of cat-tle, sheep, horses, pig, fowl; balance pole for carry-ing; weaving of textiles; ancestor ritual in addi-tion to Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism;traditional bureaucratic administration with adivinely sanctioned sovereign at the head; ideo-graphic writing; extensive literature.

Korean

An indigenous stratum of culture, including ele-ments like the seclusion of women, men's topknot,slight emphasis on religion, alphabet, female ex-orcists who cure spirit possession and are them-selves possessed, and bull packing, is blended withmany Chinese influences.

TibetanSedentary plow farminc; pastoral nomadism;Buddhism; many cultural influences from Indiaand China blend here.

IndianPlow used to cultivate wheat, barley, and leg-umes; irrigation; mud houses except in the east,where bamboo takes over; caste organizationsanctioned by Hindu doctrine; empires, but vil-lage council retained autonom:, in local affairsuntil British conquest; southern languages areDravidian, those in the north mainly Indo-European.

Southeast AsianWet and dry rice form staple crops; water buffalois draft animal; bamboo houses, especially in south;Hindu Indian influences are apparent as well asChinese; religions include Hinduism, Buddhism,and Islam; languages primarily belong to Sino-Tibetan family.

Europe

Dominance of industrialism; subsistence based onfishing, cattle and pig domestication, and (exceptin far north) plow agriculture; considerable foodimported in exchange for manufactures; largepolitical units; colonialism; languages primarilyIndo-European; Christianity. The same culture isfound today in North America, having replacedaboriginal lifeways.

Learning Activities1. Have the class discover the location of the three

types of culture and reasons for their location bytaking the following steps.

a. Describe to the class the three types of cul-ture discussed in this section and devise mapsymbols to identify each. In order to do this,the teacher will have to find the characteris-tics of each type of culture by examining thespecific cultures listed in this section.

b. Using blank maps of the world, have eachstudent speculate where each type of culturewas located in their original state and beforewestern impact by shading the map accord-ing to the key.

c. Conduct a discussion in which members ofthe class defend their proposals.

d. Present the correct map and have the stu-dents compare it to their results and discussreasons for differences. The class might wantto examine the geography of certain areas inmore detail to consider the effect the environ-ment has had on cultural development. Otherfactors, such as diffusion, might be consideredas reasons for the location of certain cultures.

31

2. Assign readings from the bibliography that exem-plify the types of cultures described in this section.Have each student classify the culture assigned tohim according to these types. Students should up-

32

hold their choice by showing how it corresponds tothe characteristics of the type of culture selected.Of course, all cultures will not fit rigidly into onetype; students should note that overlapping exists.

ealtaital Arotitema

Generalizations

I. Perhaps the piincipal cultural problem in con-temporary America is the development oflaws, institutions, and customs which willmake it possible for all racial, religious, andnational-origin groups, each with its own dis-tinctive sub-cultural traditions to work to-gether peaceably, happily, and efficiently.

II. Aggravating the first problem, and a principaleconomic problem in its own right, is thecontinually increasing volume of unemploy-ment resulting from accelerating technologi-cal progress. Technological unemployment, asa consequence of the Industrial Revolution,began at the very outset of the IndustrialRevolution in the 18th Century. The culturalproblem arising from this situation is the de-velopment of institutions to alleviate the cul-ture of poverty which unemployment entailsin both rural and urban areas.

III. Two major world problemsthe Cold Warand population pressureare in some of theiraspects also cultural problems, directly or in-directly produced by the Industrial Revolu-tion, and of major concern to Americans.

IV. In the effort to resolve these problems, peopleof the world, including Americans, are attempt-ing to spread the world culture more rapidlyand to develop political customs which willmake possible the protection of local andnational interests without resort to hot war.

Outline of ContentI. Perhaps the principal cultural problem in con-

temporary America is the development oflaws, institutions, and customs which willmake it possible for all racial, religious, andnational-origin groups, each with its own dis-tinctive sub-cultural traditions, to work to-gether peaceably, happily, and efficiently.

A. Most modern countries, including theUnited States, are a mosaic of differingsocial groups.

1. These social groups may differwith respect to race, religion, na-tional origin, region, social class,and other important features.

2. Each ethnic group so defined hasits own distinctive sub-culture.

3. Every person is a member of atleast one such social group (e.g.,southern whites are as much anethnic group as southern Ne-groes).

4. Only a few very primitive socie-ties are homogeneous (have noethnic sub-cultures).

B. Despite the occurrence of frictions be-tween ethnic groups, the advantages ofincorporating ethnic and social diver-sity into a national state are so greatthat almost all states since the UrbanRevolution have encouraged, as a mat-ter of public policy, the inclusion ofculturally diverse elements under onepolitical sovereignty.

1. Different ethnic groups generallyproduce a certain amount of fric-tion as a result of differing de-grees of access to advantages andalso as a result of attitudes of mu-tual ethnocentrism toward differ-ing customs.

2. Some groups are minorities: i.e.,they are often taken advantage ofand made to feel inferior by largerand more powerful groups.

3. Nevertheless, complex societyneeds people with different kindsof talents, skills, and even values,because complexity requires spe-cialization.

4. Hence, with very few exceptions,national boundaries do not coin-cide with ethnic boundaries de-spite the problem which inter-group friction brings; nationhoodis almost incompatible with cul-tural uniformity.

33

C. In order for a nation to function at itsbest, the energies of its citizens mustnot be drained away in silently strug-gling or openly fighting among them-selves; hence, the United States seeksto develop new institutions to minimizeconflict among its ethnic groups.

1. This issue is currently most acutein the area of white-Negro rela-tions.

2. It is in the national interest, allparties agree, that interracialstrife and tension diminish.

3. The ancient method of solvingthe problem of intergroup frictionwithin national boundaries was bysocial and geographic segregationof differing social and ethnicgroups.

4. This method of segregation is nolonger acceptable because, sincethe Industrial Revolution com-munication and travel have be-come so effective that disadvan-taged groups are constantlyreminded of their disadvantages.

5. Current and pending civil rightslegislation, and Negro efforts to"desegregate" various institutions,are attempts to eliminate the eco-nomic, political, and emotionaldisadvantages of membership in aNegro ethnic group.

II. Aggravating the first problem, and a principaleconomic problem in its own right, is the in-creasing volume of unemployment and under-employment resulting from accelerating tech-nological progress a consequence of theIndustrial Revolution. The cultural problemarising from this situation is the developmentof institutions to alleviate the culture of pov-erty which unemployment and underemploy-ment entail.

A. The Industrial Revolution has, sincethe middle of the 18th Century, con-tinuously replaced human labor by newmethods of organizing work and bymachinery.

1. The current replacement of hu-

.34

man labor by "automation" is aneffect of the same cultural process(technological improvement)which began more than two hun-dred years ago.

2. It can be expected that "automa-tion" and other technological de-velopments will, not only in theUnited States, but everywhere inthe world, keep on eliminatingjobs previously done by humanhands and brains.

B. Cultural innovations are required toprovide employment to the "technologi-cally" unemployed. A number of sug-gestions to "spread the work around"have been made:

1. Reduce daily working hours andencourage people to engage insports and hobbies in their in-creased amount of "leisure time."

2. Increase the level of educationfor all so that more people arequalified to enter the professionswhere there is still a peat demandfor personnel.

C, Such changes would entail extensivefunctional consequences for the societyas a whole.

1. They would require desegregationin employment and educationwith respect to race (lest the Ne-gro community be left behind as areservoir of unemployment).

2. Both would require a reorienta-tion of social values for manypeople, with increasing emphasison education and on the arts.

3. The need for one or another ofthese solutions (or for some othersolution, for that matter) will be-come even more intense if dis-armament proceeds.

III. Two major world problemsthe Cold Warand population pressureare of great concernto Americans. In some of their aspects theyare also .ultural problems directly or indirectlyproduced by the Industrial Revolution.

A. The Cold War is in part an ideo-logical (cultural) confrontation and inpart a confrontation of traditionalnationalisms.

1. The important cultural differencesbetween the Free World and theCommunist JVorld revolve arounddiffering conceptions of what kindof economic, political, and reli-gious structure will most effec-tively lead to progress, in whichboth sides believe.

2. Traditional nationalistic aims alsocontribute to the Cold War bypert -.7uating competitive economicand military interests.

3. Deliberate efforts to subvert ordestroy existing national systemsby revolution or invasion compli-cate the peaceful resolution, or ac-ceptance, of cultural differences.

B. The continuing increase in the world'spopulation is in part a consequence ofuncoordinated cultural changes.

1. The improvement of medical careand public sanitation everywhereproduces a decline in the deathrate.

2. Unless the birth rate is also re-duced, the population will con-tinue to increase.

3. Increased production of fOod andother necessaries may or maynot be able to catch up withthe increase in population.

4. If production increase does notkeep up with, or exceed, popula-tion increase, the standard of liv:-ing will decline.

5. If the standardof living declinestoo far, the population will face amultitude of ills: starvation, in-ternal strife, disillosionment anddespair, political revolution, war,disease, etc.

C. Both the Cold Wal- and the new prob-lem of population pressure are productsof the Industrial Revolution.

1. Both the Communist philosophy

and the Free World political andeconomic philosophy were formu-lated to explain what was happen-ing in the world as a result of theIndustrial Revolution and to rec-ommend ways of ensuring that itcontributed to human welfare.

a. The Free World viewpointemphasized the need for ahigh degree of political andeconomic freedom for the in-dividual and for the corpo-rate group.

b. The Communist viewpointemphasized the need for ahigh degree of control ofpolitical and economic be-havior by the state.

2. The methods designed to savelives, by medical and publichealth measures, are largely a

product of the new industrialtechnology.

IV. In the effort to resolve these problems, peopleof the world, including Americans, are attempt-ing to spread the world culture more rapidlyand to develop political customs which willmake possible the protection of local andnational interests without resort to hot war.

A. The world culture can be regarded ashaving two major components:

1. Technical

2. Political

B. The technical aspect of the world cul-ture includes the following featureswhich each nation seeks to secure foritself:

1. Universal literacy

2. "Western" (European and Ameri-can) technology, partictJarly inregard to:

a. productive economic activity

b. communication and trans-port

c. housing

d. medicine and public healthe. military equipment

C. The political aspect of the world culture

35

includes the following features:1. The dissolving of empires

2. A strong central government ineach nation with a military estab-lishment adequate to insure in-ternal order and freedom fromfear of invasion

3. The transference of group pridefrom ethnic and other sub-groupsto the national state

D. In order to avoid the degeneration ofthe world culture into a jungle ofcompetitive and mutually exploitivenationalisms, virtually all nations areengaged in establishing importantsupra-national political unions whichare culturally new in the sense thatthey go beyond being merely leaguesor alliances.

1. The most comprehensive of theseefforts is the United Nations.

2. Scarcely less ambitious are theefforts by both Free World andCommunist nations to build, onthe basis of old military alliances,economic 'and cultural unions,such as the North AtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO) andthe Warsaw Pact.

3. The European Common Marketis developing, some experts be-

:36

lieve, into a "United States ofEurope."

4. We can expect that as more andmore underdeveloped areas are,

for whatever reasons, introducedto the world culture, the need tosolve the cultural problems pre-sented by the pressures of ideo-logical and nationalistic competi-tion, and by population pressure,will bring about supra-nationalpolitical unions.

Learning Activities

1. Have the students make a collection of newspaperarticles and pictures that are centered around themain cultural problems outlined in this section.

2. Conduct a debate on the effectiveness of civilrights legislation in helping to solve this importantcultural problem.

3. Conduct a panel on possible solutions to the prob-lems created by automation.

4. Have the students write a report that would iden-tify elements of a world culture and supply sup-porting evidence.

5. Have the students review and report on selectedbooks on this topic from the bibliography.

General Bibliography

General Bibliographies of Anthropology

Mandlebaum, David G., Lasker, Gabriel W. andAlbert, Esther I., eds., Resources for the Teachingof Anthropolc,gy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni-versit; of California Press., 1934

*Woodbury, Nathalie F. S., Paperbound Books onAnthropology in Print in the 1). S. A., Autumn,1961; in Current Anthropology, Vol. 3, No. 1,Feb. 1962

Textbooks and Collections

Beals, Ralph Leon, and Hoijer, Harry, An Intro-duction to Anthropology. With the collabora-tion of Virginia More Roediger, 2nd ed. NewYork: The Macmillan Co., 1959

Calverton, Victor Francis, The Making of Man;An Outline of Anthropology. New York: TheModern Library, 1931

Fried, Morton Ilerbert, ed., Readings in Anthro-pology. New Yolk: Crowell, 1959 (2 v.:V. 1. Physical Anthropology, Linguistics, andArchaeology; V. 2. Cultural Anthropology)

Herskovits, Melville Jean, Man and his Works:the science of cultural anthropology. New York:Knopf, 1948

Honigmann, John Joseph, The World of Man.Elmsford, New York: Harper & Row, 1959

International Symposium on Anthropology, NewYork, 1952, Anthropology Today: an encyclo-pedic inventory, prepared under the chairman-ship of A. L. Kroeber. Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1953

*tKluckhohn, Clyde, Mirror for Man: the Relationof Anthropology to Modern Life. New York:Whittlesey House, 1949. Greenwich, Connecti-cut: Premier Books, Fawcett Publications, Inc.(Paper)

Kroeber, Alfred L., Anthropology: race, language,culture, psychology, prehistory. New ed., rev.New York: Harcourt Brace & World, Inc., 1948

*flax, Sol, Anthropology Today, ed. Illinois: Phoe-nix Books, University of Chicago Press, 5750Ellis Ave., Chicago 37

Recommended for high school studentst Available in paperback.

Serial Publications

American Anthropologist, v. 1, 1888, Steven T.Boggs, Exec. Sec., American AnthropologistAssociation, 1530 P Street, N. W., Washington5, D. C. Six times a year; subscription by mem-bership at $15.00 a year to libraries. Subscrip-tion includes supplementary memoirs.

American Antiquity, v. 1, 1935, Society for Amer-ican Archaeology, University of Utah Press,Salt Lake City 12, Utah. Quarterly. Subscrip-tion by membership at $8.00 per year. Subscrip-tion includes supplementary memoirs.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology, v. 1,1918, Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Woodland Ave. and 36th St., Philadelphia,Pa. 19104. Quarterly. $7.50 per year.

Current Anthropology, v. 1, 1960, University ofChicago, 1126 East 59th St., Chicago 37, III.Five times a year.

Human Organization, v. 1, 1941, Society of Ap-plied Anthropology, New York State School ofIndustrial and Labor Relations, Cornell Uni-versity, Ithaca, N. Y. Quarterly. Subscriptionby membership in the Society at $8.00 per yearfor libraries.

Language, v. 1, 1925, Linguistic Society ofAmerica, Waverly Press, Inc., Mt. Royal andGuilford Ave., Baltimore 2, Md. Quarterly.Subscription includes supplementary languagedissertations, language monographs, and Bulle-tin of the Linguistic Society of America.

History of Anthropology

*tHays, Hoffman Reynolds, From Ape to Angel;An Informal History of Anthropology (1stedition). New York: Knopf, 1958; London:Methuen, 1959

*f Kramer, Samuel Noah, History Begins at Sumer.New York: Doubleday, Garden City, 1959.Doubleday Anchor Books. A175

*tKramer, Samuel Noah, Sumerian Mythology; AStudy of Spiritual and Literary Achievementin the Third Millennium, B.C. Pennsylvania:The American Philosophical Society, Philadel-phia, 1944. Harper Torchbook

37

tLowrie, Robert Harry, The History of EthnologyTheory. New York: Farrar and Rinehart,1937

tMason, J. Alden, Ancient Civilizations of Peru.Maryland: Penguin Books, 3300 Clipper MillRoad, Baltimore 11

tMontague, Ashley, Man: His First Million Years.New York: Mentor (World Publishers), 1957

Nature of Culture*t13enedict, Ruth (Fulton), Patterns of Culture.

Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin,1934. New York: New American Library,1959. (Mentor Books, MD89). Paper: with anintroduction by Franz Boas and new preface byMargaret Mead.

Firth, Raymond William, Human Types. (an in-troduction to social anthropology) London:Rev. ed. Nelson, 1956; U. S. distributor, NewYork: Barnes and Noble, New York: NewAmerican Library, 1958 (Paper: MentorBooks, MD227).

Gennep, Arnold van, Rites of Passage. Illinois:Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press,5750 Ellis Ave., Chicago 37

Ilockett, Charles Francis, A Course in ModernLinguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1958

Kluckhohn, Clyde, & Kroeber, Culture. NewYork: Vintage Books, Random House, 457Madison Ave., New York 22

Kroeber, Alfred Louis, The Nature of Culture.Chicago: University of Chic.ago Press, 1952

Kroeber, Alfred Louis, Configurations of CultureGrowth.

Lowie, Robert H., Primitive Society. New York:Torchbooks, Harper & Row, 49 East 33rd St.,New York 16

Malinowski, Bronislaw, Scientific Theory of Cul-ture and other Essays. New York: GalaxyBooks, Oxford University Press, 417 FifthAve., New York 16

tMalinowski, Bronislaw, A Scientific Theory ofCulture, and other essays; with a preface byHuntington Cairns. North Carolina: Univer-sity of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1944.New York: Oxford University Press, 1960.Galaxy Books (Paper)

38

t Redfield, Robert, The Primitive World and ItsTransformations. New York: Cornell Univer-sity Press, Ithaca, 1953 .

Redfield, Robert, Primitive World and Its Trans-formations. New York: Compass Books, TheViking Press, 625 Madison Ave., New York 22

Redfield, Robert, Little Community and PeasantSociety and Culture. Illinois: Phoenix Books,University of Chicago Press, 5750 Ellis Ave.,Chicago 37

Wallace, Anthony F. C., Culture and Personality.(Studies in Anthropology) New York: Ran-dom House, 457 Madison Ave., New York 22

tWallace, Anthony F. C., Culture and Personality.New York: Random House, 1%1

tWhite, Leslie A., The Science of Culture, a Studyof Man and Civilization. New York: Farrar,Straus, 1949. New York: Grove Press (Ever-green Paperback Books, E105), 1958

Biological Evolution

Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Ap-praisal. Betty J. Meggers, ed. AnthropologicalSociety of Washington, 1959

Braidwood, Robert J., Prehistoric Men. Chicago:Chicago Natural History Museum Press, 1948

Clark, W. E. LeGros, History of the Primates.(an introduction to the study of fossil man)4th ed. London: printed by order of the trus-tees of the British Museum, 1954

Clark, W. E. LeGros, The Foundations of Hu-man Evolution. Line drawings by ChristineCourt. Oregon: Oregon State System of HigherEducation, Eugene, 1959 (Condor Lectures,1959)

Clark, W. E. LeGros, History of the Primates.Illinois: Phoenix Books, University of ChicagoPress, 5750 Ellis Ave., Chicago 37

Clark, W., E. LeGros, Antecedents of Man: AnIntroduction to the Evolution of the Primates.New York: Torchbooks, Harper & Row, Pub-lishers, 49 E. 33rd St., New York 16

Coon, Carleton, ed., AnthropologyA to Z. NewYork: Universal Reference Library, Grosset &Dunlap, Inc., 1107 Broadway, New York 10

Eisley, Loren C., The Immense Journey. NewYork: Random House, 1957. Paper: New

York, Modern Library, 1959 (Modern Libraryof the World's Best Books, p. 47)

Hooton, Earnest Albert, Up from the Ape. Rev. ed.New York: Macmillan, 1946

Howells, William, Back of History. New York:The Natural History Library, Doubleday &Co., 575 Madison Ave., New York 22

Leakey, L. S. B., Adam's Ancestors: The Evolu-tion of Man and His Culture. New York:Torchbooks, Harper & Row, 49 E. 33rd St.,New York 16

Southwick, Charles H., Primate Social Behavior.New Jersey: Insight Books, D. Van NostrandCo., 120 Alexander St., Princeton

Tax, Sol, ed., Evolution after Darwin. 3 vols.Illinois: Chicago, University of Chicago Press,1%0

White, Leslie A., Science of Culture. New York:Evergreen Books, Grove Press, 64 UniversityPlace, New York 3

Surveys of Cultural Evolution andCulture History

tBurkitt, Miles, Old Stone Age. New York:Atheneum Publishers, 162 East 38th St.

tChilde, Vere Gordon, What Happened in History.New ed. London: Parrish, 1960. Paper: NewYork, Penguin, 1946 (Pelican Books, A108)

Childe, Vere Gordon, Short Introduction, to Ar-chaeology. New York: Collier Books, 60 FifthAve., New York 11

tChilde, Vere Gordon, Man Makes Himself. Lon-don: Watts and Co., 1948 (A Mentor Book)

Clark, John Graham, The Study of Prehistory.England: University Press, Cambridge, 1954

Coon, Carleton Stevens, The Story of Man; Fromthe First Human to Primitive Culture and Be-yond. 1st edition. New York: Knopf, 1954

tHowells, William, Back of History. London:Watts and Co., 1956

tfluntington, Ellsworth, Mainsprings of Civiliza-tion. (Out of Print)

tLinton, Ralph, The Tree of Culture. New York:Knopf, 1955. Paper: Vintage Books, RandomHouse, New York 22

tOakley, Kenneth, Man the Toolmaker. Chicago:Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press.London: Printed by order of the trustees ofthe British Museum, 1950

Sahlins, Marshall David, and Service, Elman R.,eds., Evolution and Culture. (by Thomas C.Harding and others) Foreword by Leslie A.White. Michigan: University of MichiganPress, Ann Arbor, 1960

Steward, Julian Haynes, Theory of CultureChange; The Methodology of Multillnear Evo-lution. Illinois: University of Illinois Press,Urbana, 1955

tWhite, Leslie A., The Science of Culture, a Studyof Man and Civilization. New York: Ever-green Books, E105, Farrar & Straus, 1949

Wright, Ernest, Biblical Archaeology. Pennsyl-vania: Westminster Press, Witherspoon Bldg.,Philadelphia 7

Cultural ChangetBarnett, Homer Garner, Innovation: The Basis

of Cultural Change. 1st ed. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1953

Barnett, H. G., Innovation: The Basis of Cul-tural Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Paper-back Series, 330 W. 42nd St., New York 36

Goodenough, Ward C., Cooperation in Change.New York: Russel Sage Foundation, NewYork, 1963

Keesing, Felix Maxwell, Culture Change: AnAnalysis and Bibliography of AnthropologicalSources to 1952. California: Stanford Univer-sity Press, Stanford, 1953. (Stanford Anthro-pological Series, no. 1.)

tMead, Margaret, New Lives for Old: CulturalTransformationManus. (1928-1953) NewYork: Morrow, 1956. Paper: New York, NewAmerican Library, 1961 (Mentor Books)

Mead, Margaret, ed. Cultural Patterns and Tech-nical Change. New York: Mentor Books, NewAmerican Library of World Literature, 501Madison Ave., New York 22

World Federation for Mental Health, CulturalPatterns and Technical Change; a manual editedby Margaret Mead. Paris, UNESCO, 1953(Tensions and Technology Series). Paper:New York, New American Library, 1955. (AMentor Book, MD134.)

:39

Culture Areas

Collections of tribal portraits.

Bohannan, Paul, Africa and Africans. New York:American Museum Science Books, DoubledayPaperbacks, 565 Madison Ave., New York 22

Coon, Carleton Stevens, ed., A Reader in GeneralAnthropology. New York: Holt, 1948

Linton, Ralph, ed., Most of the World; the peoplesof Africa, Latin America, and the East today.New York: Columbia University Press, 1949

'Lisitzky, Gene, Four Ways of Being Human.Viking Press, 625 Madison Ave., New York 22,1%1

Mead, Margaret, New Liver for Old. New York:Mentor Books, New American Library of WorldLiterature, 501 Madison Ave., New York 22

Mead, Margaret, ed., Cooperation and Competi-tion Among Primitive Peoples. Enl. ed. with anew preface and appraisal. Massachusetts:Beacon Press, Boston, 1%1

Murdock, George P. Our Primitive Contempo-raries. New York: The Macmillan Company,60 Fifth Avenue, New York 11, 1934

Sanders, Irwin Taylor, ed., Societies Around theWorld. Prepared at the University of Kentuckyby Irwin T. Sanders, editor; Richard B. Wood-bury, asst. editor; Frank J. Essene (and others).A new shorter ed.: Edited in one volume byHoward Becker. New York: Dryden Press,31 W. 54th St., New York City 19, 1956

Service, Elman Rogers, A Profile of Primitive Cul-ture. Elmsford, New York: Harper and Row,1958

Weyer, Edward Moffatt, Primitive Peoples Today.(Illus. with 212 photos and 14 maps.) NewYork: Doubleday and Co., Garden City, 1960(Dolphin Book, C200)

Surveys of Culture Areasand Tribal Groups

Buck, Peter H., Vikings of the. Pacific. Illinois:Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press,5750 Ellis Ave., Chicago 37

40

Drucker, Philip, Indians of the Northwest Coast.New York: American Museum of ScienceBooks, Doubleday Paperbacks, 575 MadisonAve., New York 22

DuBois, Cora, People of Alor. (With analysis byAbram Kardiner and Emil Oberholzer.) 2 vols.,Elmsford, New York: Harper and Row, 1%1

tFortune, R. F., Sorcerers of Dobu. New York:Everyman Paperbacks, E. P. Dutton & Co.,201 Park Ave., South, New York 3

tHeyerdahl, Thor, Kon-Tiki. Across the Pacific byRaft. New York: Rand McNally, 405 ParkAvenue, New York 22, 1950

Hodge, Frederick Webb, Handbook of AmericanIndians North of Mexico. New York: PageantBooks, 1959 (Reprint of U. S. Bureau of Ameri-can Ethnology. Bulletin 30, first published 1907-1910)

tJenness, Diamond, People of the Twilight. Illinois:Phoenii Books, University of Chicago Press,Chicago, 1959

Kluckhohn, Clyde, & Leighton, Dorothy, Navaho.New York: The Natural History Library,Doubleday & Co., 575 Madison Ave., New York22

tMalinowski, Bronislaw, Argonauts of the WesternPacific. New York: Everyman Paperbacks,E. P. Dutton Co., 201 Park Ave., South, NewYork 3

tMead, Margaret, Growing Up in New Guinea. NewYork: Mentor Books, New American Libraryof World Literature, 501 Madison Ave., NewYork 22

-Mead, Margaret, Coming of Age in Samoa. NewYork: Mentor Books, New American Libraryof World Literature, 501 Madison Ave., NewYork 22

Murdock, George Peter, Africa: Its People andTheir Culture History. New York: McGraw-Hill, 330 West 42nd Street, New York 36, 1959

Steward, Julian Haynes, ed. Handbook of SouthAmerican Indians. Prepared in cooperation withthe United States Department of State as aproject of the Interdepartmental Committee onCultural and Scientific Cooperation. Washington,U. S. Govt. Printing Office, 1946-1959, 7 v.(U. S. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin143). v. 1-6

'Suggs, Robert Carl, Island Civilizations of Poly-nesia. New York: New American Library, 501Madison Ave., New York 22, 1960

'Underhill, Ruth Murray, Red Man's America.(A history of Indians in the United States)Illus. by Marianne Stoller. Illinois: Univ. ofChicago Press, Chicago, 1953

'I Von Hagen, Victor W., World of the Mayas. NewYork: New American Library, 501 MadisonAve., New York 22, 1960

Wag ley, Charles, Amazon Town. New York:Random House, 457 Madison Ave., New York22

'Wallace, Paul, Indians in Pennsylvania. Pennsyl-vania: Pennsyl Historical Museum, Har-risburg, 1961

Warner, Lloyd, L Civilization. New York:Torch Books, ' et & Row, 49 E. 33rd St.,New York 16

Wolf, Eric, Sons Shaking Earth. Illinois:Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press,5750 Ellis Ave., Chicago

Cultural Problems in theContemporary World

Laswell, Harold D., "The Emerging InternationalCulture," United States Papers Prepared forthe United Nations Conference on the Appli-cation of Science and Technology for the Benefitof the Less Developed Areas. Vol. X, Science,Technology and Development, InternationalCooperation and Problems of Transfer andAdaptation. Superintendent of Documents,U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.

Leighton, A. H., The Governing of Man. NewJersey: Princeton University Press, Princeton,1945

'Lewis, Oscar, Five Families. (Mexican case studiesin the culture of poverty, with a foreword by

Oliver La Farge.) New Yoik: Basic Books,404 Park Ave., So., New York 16, 1959

Lewis, Oscar, Five Families. New York: ScienceEditions, 605 Third Ave., New York

41

Adeocgamal Nate/seal

Films

Note: The following abbreviations were used in thislist of films.

CFCc atemporary Films, Inc.267 W. 25th StreetNew York 1, New York

NYUNew York University Film Library26 Washington PlaceNew York 3, New York

PCRPsychological Cinema RegisterPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

PSUPennsylvania State UniversityAudio-Visual Aids LibraryUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

(Many of these films are also available at no chargefrom Regional Instructional Material Centers.)

African Village

color17 minutes$5.75PSU

Life in mid-tropical Africa; crude methods of cook-ing, washing, weaving, planting, harvesting; visitsto market. People becoming aware of 20th Cen-tury, keeping old rituals in connection with plant-ing while using modern tools.

Ape and Child Series

black and whitesilent17 minutes$2.00PCR

Compare "incidental" or non-experimental be-havior of human infant and chimpanzee after 6months in same environment; range of 13 1/2

months to 161/2 for chimpanzee, and 16 to 19months for child. Nine comparisons:, upright

walking, reaction to colored picture book; differ-ence in climbing ability, eating with spoon, drink-ing from glass, beginning of cooperative play,Gesell Test of pointing to parts of body, imitationof scribbling of experimenter (Gesell Test) andaffectionate behavior toward each other.

Brotherhood of Man

color10 minutes$3.75PSU

Animated cartoon amusingly suggests that ffer-ences between races are superficial, accidental andenvironmental.

Circle of the Sun

color30 minutes$12.50 day, $25.00 weekCF

While this film does not deal with the Iroquois, itis addressed to a problem of contemporary Iroquoislife: the problem of young people suspended be-tween two cultures. The Great Circle Dance ofthe Blood Indians of the Blackfoot Confederacyis seen through the eyes of a young Indian whohas worked off the reservation but who comes backfor the central ritual of ,his people. Much of thecommentary is in his voice. The photography isgood. This would be an excellent film to use toopen up a discussion of what it is like to not quitebelong in any culture (a position similar to thatin which many adolescents feel themselves).

Courtship and Marriage

color60 minutes$11.25PSU

Comparison and contrast in the attitudes andpractices of courtship in Sicily, Iran, Canada, andSouthwest India.

Desert Nomads

color

20 minutes$4.25

PSU

Life of people who wander in search of pasture butreturn to oases to exchange their products for agri-cultural crops.

43

Fifty Miles from Poona

color

20 minutes$4.25

PSU

Day-to-day life of a farmer in the village ofPhursangi; traditional Hindu customs and beliefs;farming; food preparation; dress.

Four Families, Part 1

black and white30 minutes$5.75

PSU

On-the-spot comparison of family life in India andFrance in which Margaret Mead discusses howthe upbringing of a child contributes to a dis-tinctive 'national character.

Four Families, Part 11

black and white31 minutes$6.25

PSU

On-the-spot comparison of family life in Japan andCanada in which Margaret Mead discusses howthe upbringing of a child contributes to a distinc-tive national character.

Gentle Winds of Change

color

33 minutes$11.00

PSU

Life among the Banyankole tribe in Uganda.Study of individual differences in the Westerniza-tion proass.

The Hunters

black and white73 minutes (2 reels)$13.25

PSU

Story of four natives and the giraffe which theyhunt in the Kalahari Desert of Southwest Africa.

44

The Loon's Necklace

color

20 minutes

$10.00/day---$20.00 five-day school weekNYU

This lovely film is the story of how the loon gothis necklace of feathers. It is a legend of theIndian of the British Columbia Coast. -The filmis done entirely with masks. Men, animals, thesnow and wind, are all masked. It thus createsa magical world of myth in which man and natureare involved together as part of a mythical world-view. The feeling and atmosphere of this film aresuch as to make it an excellent introduction tomyth.

Making Primitive Stone Tools

black and whiteNYU

This is a simple straightforward film showing aman (not an Indian) making various stone tools.It is clear and good with a how-to slant. Becauseit is short, it could be shown several times so thatstudents could take notes and try to make toolsthemselves. It would make a fine introduction tothe study of tools.

Man and His Culture

black and white15 minutes$3.50

PSU

In the form of a "Report From Outer Space,"shows different cultures on the earth's surface andthe reasons for these differences. It also considersthe things which most cultures have in common,how cultures are transmitted from one generationto the next, and the ways in which they change.

Man, One Family

black and white20 minutes$4.25

PSU

Refutation of the master rree theory; logically at-tacks belief that there is such a thing as racesuperiority.

Monkey into Man

color

20 minutes$4.25

PSU

Family social life and variation in mental abilitiesin baboon, gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee, andgorilla. Comparison of most intelligent of thesewith man.

New Lives for Old

color

20 minutes$7.00

PSU

Dr. Margaret Mead talks of the changes experi-enced in a 25-year period by the Manus peopleof the Admiralty Islands, and the society's adapta-tion to a new way of life.

Our Changing Family Life

black and white20 minutes

$4.25

PSU

Changes in family life during the last 75 years.Correlated with Green: Sociology..

People by the Billions

black and white28 minutes$5.75

PSU

Examination of the implications of the populationexplosion.

Population ExplosionCBS Reports

black and white43 minutes$8.00PSU

Sobering look at grave consequences of worldgrowth, with India as the most prominent exampleof this crisis. Discussion by Nehru, government,,and religious leaders.

Primitive Man in Our World

color12 minutes$4.75PSU

Basic pattern of life as it still exists in the SepikRiver region of New Guinea in the South Pacific.

Primitive PeoplesThe Hunt (Part II of a 3 partseries)

black and white12 minutes$2.75PSU

Mewite people making spears and simple domesticimplements; kangaroo hunt during which men useprimitive magic to gain power over animal; kan-garoo eaten with due ceremony and dance.

Remnants of a Race

color18 minutes$5.75PSU

Life of the Bushman in the Kalahari desert inBechuanaland. Unceasing hunt for food; sketchesand paintings on ostrich egg; utensils; dikingmanner of speech; religious dances.

Social Class in America

black and white15 minutes$3.50PSU

Lives of three boys, representing three differenceclasses used to illustrate factors determining socialclass.

Social Process (Values and Institutions)

black and white20 minutes$4.25

PSU

I Iarold 1). Laswell conducts a seminar on the pat-terns of behavior common to all cultures; developsthe concept of social process as man seeking valuesthrough institutions using resources; employsterminology evolved from this concept in theanalysis of community forms.

45

delta filadeofiatial 7/late/add

Graphic Aids For Basic A nthropometry

R. F. G. Spier and Dale R. Hennitig,Department of Sociology and Anthropology,University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri (1961-

1962)

The objective of this project is to help give an-thropology students a basic knowledge of anthro-pometric technique. The project has developed:( I ) exact bone reproductions, in unbreakableplastic, with measurement points clearly markedand accompanying desk- and wall-charts indicatingmeasurements to be taken; (2) color slides de-picting actual measurement of skeletal materials;and (3) inexpensive but reasonably accurate an-thropometric instruments.

Kinship Models

Edward A. Kennard,Department of Anthropology,University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania

A kit of materials for the construction of a three-dimensional representation of kinship structuresis being prepared. A ball-and-stick model systemwith color, form, and alpha-numerical coding per-mits representation of kin groups (families, line-ages, and clans), marriage systems (symmetricalfirst or second cross-cousin marriage), and kinterminologies.

Man and His Environment

International Communications Foundation,870 Monterey Pass Road,Monterey Park, California

This kit includes six sound-color film strips onselected cultures, including Nepal, the Philippines,Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Yugoslavia. Hardhound phono -hooks of Yugoslavia and Nepal are

46

also included, each with a seven inch 33141 RPMrecord. Forty-two black and white study printsare part of the set as well as a teacher's studyguide.

An/mu tit of Alan: Basic Slide Collecting for Anthro-pology Courses

Jack Conrad,Department of Sociology and Anthropology.Southwestern at :Memphis,Memphis, Tennessee

Museum of Man is a collection of 3(X) color pro-jection slides (35 mm) in cardboard mounts, de-signed to facilitate the teaching of anthropologycourses. For the most part, the slides show arti-facts and displays found in major American mu-seums. A 120-page descriptive catalog accompany-ing the set provides basic information about eachslide. The collection contains 25 slides in eachof the following 12 universals of culture: SymbolSystems: Tools and Devices; Food and Drink;Clothing and Ornamentation; Social Organization;Social Control and Social Relations; ReligiousS stems; Functions of Religion: Religious Masks;Plastic Arts; Musical Arts; Functions of the Arts.

Has of Mankind

National Association of Educational Broadcasters,University of Illinois,Urbana, Illinois

This long-playing record album of original radioprograms consists of 13 dramas of peoples of the.world. The subjects for these dramas in-clude: Culture, Language, Technology, Education,Values, Groups, Family, Ethics, Authority, Statusand Role, Arts, Religion, Society: A summing up.The following book is the text of these dramas.Goldschmidt, Walter, ed., Ways of Mankind,Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1954

1

SmoteeteatBecause of the newness of both the content and instructional procedures, this unit was tested in representative schools through-

out the Commonwealth. The Department of Education is indebted to the following teachers tt ho gave so freely of their time and energyto teach and evaluate these materials.

Harvey Cope, Liberty High School, BethlehemMisr Mary Flannery, Scranton Technical High SchoolWilliam Gilbert, North Clarion High School, LeeperEdward Meell, Mt. Lebanon High'School

Henry Nacrelli, Media High SchoolM rr. Janice Rice, Chester High School:Vim Virginia Thrush, Ship, , sburg High School

The following suggestions are a result of their experience. It is hoped that these trial efforts will make it easier for other teachersto use this unit.

Daily Schedule of ActivitiesThis schedule is a synthesis of those used by the expe-imenting teachers. It is a workable breakdown of the general procedures intodaily lessons and assignments. While based on a three -week program, it can be adjusted to a class' particular needs

Class Page Reference ActivitySession Page Column Outline Number Description

1 9 2 IA Present general introduction. Define terms such as culture andanthropology. Introduce trait collection assignments.

2 10 1 IB 1-2 Review cultural traits and begin organization.3 10 1 IB 2 Continue organization of traits and then name each group of traits.4 10 2 IC Compare local classifications with those of different culture.

5 11 1 II BC6 11 1 MARC f Identify cultural complexes and institutions.

7 12 1 III ABC Identify levels of community.

8 12 2 III DEF 1 Identify social groups, chart cultural membership, i^testigate effectof culture.

9 14 1 III F 2 a Form hypotheses, assign sections of the community for survey, haveb 1&2 questionnaires prepared for students by the close of school.

10 15 1 III F 2 c l&2 Interpret results.

11 15 1 III F 2 c 3&4d Complete interpretation and evaluate.

12 16 2 IV AB 1&2 Rank masculinity traits and make assignments to change attitudes.

13 16 2 IV B2 Present student proposals to change attitudes. Form hypotheses andC 1&2 assign students to collect data.

14 16 2 IV C 3&4 Interpret data and evaluate.15 Summarization and/or Examination.

Alternative Schedule:

9 15 2 IIIG1 Prepare the collection of comparative data on two ethnic groups.10 16 1 II1G2 Begin comparison of data.

11 16 1 111G3 Evaluate data.

47

.T.

1

Sample ExaminationTests for units such 25 these are admittedly difficult to prepare

Some of the items listed below require only simple recall: othersare intended to test conceptual understandings and the abilityto apply 'earnings. The following examination may be used asis, modified to meet adaptations in the learning activities, or usedat 2 model for other tests.

Initructions: Print answers in CAPITAL letters. Select the bet:answer.

(B) I. An anthropologist would be least satisfied with which ofthe following definitions of culture? A. all the learnedbehavior of 2 group. B. refinement and sophistication:C man's way of coping with his physical environment:D. the beliefs, habits, customs, and products of 2 group.

(D) 2. Which of the following terms would have the most com-prehensive meaning? A. trait: B. sub-culture: C. com-plex: D. culture.

(A) 3. Which of the following would he an example of a culturaltrait? A. eating with a fork: B. families: C. religion:D. iron ore.

(B) 4. Cultural traits--A. can't change: B. are extremely num-erous: C. can only be grouped in one class:fication inthe universal pattern: D. 211 of these.

(D) 5. Cultural traits-A. are small units of human behavior:B. actually represent standards of human behavior:C. are the same in all cultures: D. A & B.

(D) 6. As a trait, mystery stories could be placed in which ofthe following classifications? A. communication:, 13. art:,C. recreation: D. all of these.

(C) 7. A comparison of cultures will reveal that-A. the Mittare the same: B. some have complexes: C. they havethe same classifications of traits: D. none of these.

(A) 8. An examination of several cultures will reveal that-A. each has different traits organized within any oneclassification: B. the fact that each culture has differentclassifications of traits can be explained by the naturalenvironment of each: C. that cultures can't be. com-pared: D. A & B.

(A) 9. In organizing traits within a universal pattern whichof the following is out of place? A. students eat lunchin cafeterias: B. teachrs assign homework:. C. schoolis used in evenings for adult education: D. students raisehand in class for recognition.

(D) 10. Which of the following would not be 2 classification oftraits common to all cultures? A. systems of laws andjustice: B. means of transportation: C. manufactureof tools: D. natural resources.

(B) 1 I. All cultures have-A. democracy: 13. family organization:,C. written language:, D. B & C.

(P.) 12. A culture may be analyzed 25 a unique system of allof the following except-A. races: 13. traits: C. com-plexes: D. institutions.

(A) 13. Traits are to 2 complex 25 ships sae to a-A. fleet:B. sailor: C. storm: D. 211 of these.

(B) 14. Which of the following is the molt complicated arrange-ment of traits? A. forms: 13. institetions: C. habits:D. complexes.

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(A) 15. A cultural complex consists of-A. traits grouped to-grther because they need each other in order to functionB. univerals:, C. the most complicated traits in anyone classification:, D. all of these.

(D) 16. Cultural complexes can be used to-A. compare otherways of life: B. define the classification of each culturaltrait:, C. to show how different parts of 2 COMM arerelated:. D. A & C.

(D) 17. A supermarket would be an example of-A. trait:B. complex: C. an institution: D. all of these.

(D) 18. Young people represent-A a social group: B an agegroup: C. 2 level of community I) A & B.

(C) 19. The main difference between a large nation's culture andthe culture of 2 tribe is that the culture of the nationhas more-A. languages: B. classifications. C. sub-cul-tures: D. none of these.

(C) 20. Sub-cultures are generally-A. the same as the parentculture: B. completely different from the parent culture:C. incomplete forms of the parent culture with distinctivefeatures of their own:, D. none of these.

(B) 21. Levels of community differ from social groups in that-A. more people belong to them: B. they are geographi-cally based: C. membership is restricted: D. B & C.

(C) 22. Which of the following is not directly employed in 2

transmission of culture from one generation to another'A. newspapers: 13. parents: C. transportation: D. toys.

(D) 23. In order to formulate 2 hypothesis there should be-A. an uncertain condition: B. an answer to a problem:C. 2 hunch: D. A & C.

(A) 24. Which of the following conclusions could not result fromthe hypothesis that "television commercials expose theviewer to the established attitudes toward masculinity":'A. television commercials do effect the attitudes towardmasculinity of those who view them: 13. television com-mercials do not expose the viewer to attitudes towardmasculinity: C. attitudes toward masculinity are notpresented on television commercials: D. television com-mercials do expose the viewer to the established attitudestoward masculinity.

(D) 2S Which of the following is necessary to collect informationproperly? A. use the hypothesis as a guide to the col-lection of information:, B. record information immedi-ately:, C. use 2 large sampling. D. all of these.

The Non-Academic StudentThese workbook exercises, examples of the kind teachers can

make, were developed especially for use by non-academic studentsto ground their activities in tangible, concrete instructional pro-cedures and to maintain 2 sense of continuity.

This mimeographed or dittoed workbook can be easily developedfrom ;he procedures included in the learning activities. For ex-ample, the activities that deal with the universal cultural patternon page 9 could be structured in workbook form by simply pro-viding space for the student to record his assignments such asthe following three exercises:

1. Space for the student's own list of local traits assigned inactivity IA, page 9.

2. Provision in one column to note the list of universal classi-fications developed by the class in activity IB, page 10.

Students will refer to this again as the list of classificationsis expanded. In an adjacent column, space could be provided

for the listing of universals on page 6. This would be pre-sented to the class after the examination of a foreign culture.

3. This exercise would include one column for listing traits ofa foreign culture as depicted in the film, readings. and photo-graphs suggested in activity IC, page 10, and a second

column in which the traits could be classified by the headingsdeveloped in class.

Sample Exercises for Institutions

More specifically, the following two workbook exercises, basedon activity II page 11, are offered as examples that deal with in-stitutions.

Exercise Number I

In the space provided below, list the ways all the items in thefirst column differ from those in the second column.

Column I

The churchThe high schoolThe stockmarket

Column II

Organ musicRaising hand for recognitionUse of ticker tape machine

Record the class definition of institutions in this space.

Exercise Number 2

Some parts of our culture can be classified as traits, complexes,or institutions. Classify each of the following aspects of culture;give a reason for each choice.

ASPECT CLASSIFICATION REASON(traits, complexes,institutions)

Army

Football Team

Sorority

Coffee Break

Supermarket

Sample Exercises on Sub-culturesThe sorting procedures used in the activity dealing with sub-

Cultures, activity III, page 12, could be pri,,ented in workbookform in the following way.

Exercise Number I

List the traits from the class' collection that are found specifi-cally in your local community.

1. 2

3. 4.

5. 6

Exercise Number 2

In the first column below list those traits that universally applyto a larger area. In the second column identify the area to whicheach trait applies.

TRAITS LEVEL OF COMMUNITY

1

2

3

Exercise Number 3

In the first column list the levels of community identified bythe class in the previous activity. In the second column listseveral additional traits for each level that have not been dis-cussed in class.

LEVELS OF COMMUNITY TRAITS

Exercise Number4Examine the class' list of traits. In the first column below list

those traits that do not apply universally to any level of com-munity. In the second column identify the group to which thetraits belong, and in the third column describe the kind of gropp.

TRAITS

1.

2.

3.

GROUP KIND OF GROUP

Exercise Number S

In the space below chart your sub-cultural group membershipby indicating the levels of community with concentric circlesaround the "x" which represents the student. Draw ovals torepresent the social groups. Name each social group and levelof community.

X

Exercise Number 6

Write your def.iiition o, social groups and levels of community.

Social Groups

Levels of Community

Record the class definition of social groups and levels of com-munity that resulted from the discussion of the individual defini-tions.

Social Groups

Levels of Community

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I

Tabulating Procedure for Newspaper SurveyThis tabulating procedure is suggested as an alternative to that

listed on page IS because it will allow for greaer simplicity andaccuracy. The main feature of these additions is the use of theTotal Sheet shown on the following page

Across the top of this form are the nine newspaper sectionsused on the questionnaire. Listed on the left are the social groupsused in the hypotheses the students developed. These are pre-sented as an example and, of course, would vary with each classIn order to tabulate, it is essential that every social group men-tioned in the hypotheses be included in this list as well as on thequestionnaire. It is also important that each student have a clearunderstanding of the definition of each social group. To facilitatethis section of the act;vities, both the questionnaires and the TotalSheets could be prepaed in advance with the actual social groupsomitted. These could be added by the students after their hypoth-eses are formed.

Homework Assignment: Collecting data.

I. Give each student enough copies of the questionnaire sothat the class can make an adequate sampling. The student'sjob is to collect opinions. In order to insure representativesampling, the teacher could assign each student an equalnumber of informants for each social group.

2. Also give each student one Total Sheet on which he is totransfer the information collected on the questionnaires.

a. To do this, the student will have to write the number thatis next to the advertisement section on the questionnairein each block under the advertisement column on theTotal Sheet. This must be done for each social group ofwhich the informant is a member, as shown in the sampleTotal Sheet. Numbers for every other section of the.newspaper must be transferred to the proper column onthe Total Sheet. Th.s can be done quickly after the in-formant's social group membership has been recordedonce.

b. The student then transfers the results of his other ques-tionnaires to the Total Sheet in the same manner. Eachblock will contain several numbers, depending on theinformants' sociti groups.

Classroom Assignments: Tabulating results.

I. Have each student count the numbers in each block in theadvertisement column and write the total in front of eachsocial group. This will identify the number of people inter-viewed in each group.

2. Divide the class into as many groups as there are socialgroups on the Total Sheet. In this case there would be eleven.

3. After collecting the Total Sheets from the students, cut themhorizontally and give each group of students those for onesocial group.

4. Now, each group will have four tasks.First, add the numbers in each block of each strip.Second, add the totals in each block on all strips (e.g. TeenAdvertisements).

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Third, on a separate sheet, list the newspaper sections andtheir total in order of preference for that social group.Fourth, total the number of people interviewed for theirsocial group.

5. On a replica of the Total Sheet on the blackboard, enterin each square the rank and total number found by thestudent groups,as well as the number of informants

6 Provide each student with a blank Total Sheet on which hecan record these results.

7 The class will now have the data in a form that can beinterpreted. Refer to page 15, activity c (;) for furtherinstructions

SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire below has been filled in as an example ofwhat the completed form will look like. The preference of 5 givento the Advertisement Section has been transferred to the TotalSheet on the previous page according to the informant informationindicated on this questionnaire.

INFORMANT INFORMATION:,

Age Group

Teen Adult Retired

Sex

Male J Female

Marital Status

Married Single

Occupational Status

Professional Non-Professional ,/

Place of Residence

Local Non-Local

INSTRUCTIONS:.

Rank the following parts of a newspaper by writing the numbers'1' to '9' next to each item according to the order of your prefer-ence. Use 'I' to indicate your greatest preference and '9' to indicateyour least.

5 Advertisements

2 Comics

4 Editorial page

3 Front page

8 Obituaries

7 Society page

1 Sports page

9 Stock Market reports

6 Want Ads

1

SAMPLE TOTAL SHEET

z5.1

043cn

04r4a.<a.vl3calZ

SOCIAL GROUPS

a

.>c

.<

.2o

C.)

e%as

a..

as

i'..

ii1.4

a,beasa.wcP.

ca.

w.r.as

B..c0

a%asa.>,...a)

A

aasasa.w

C;"cn

P.

o.02

a,..,;,w2

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r:..tc

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AGE GROUPS

Teen 5 2 4 3 R 7 1 9 6 .

Adult

Retired

SEX

Male 5 2 4 3 8 7 1 9 6

Female

MARITAL STATUS

Married

Single 5 2 4 3 8 7 1 9 6

OCCUPATION

Professional

Non-Professional--- -- -- 5 2 4 3 8 7 1 9....

6

RESIDENCE

Local 5 2 4 3

11J.......m.

S 7 1 9 6

Non-Local

TOTALS

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