1

Saint Louis University The Graduate School

DISSERTATION PROPOSAL

NAME: William Brian Shelton

DEGREE SOUGHT: Ph.D.

MAJOR FIELD: Historical Theology

MINOR FIELD: None

STUDENT’S ADVISOR: Fr. Kenneth B. Steinhauser, Th.D.

COMMITTEE READERS: Fr. Fred McLeod, D.E.O.S.Dr. Ben Asen, Ph.D.

SUBMISSION DATE: December 28, 2001

I. Title

Exegesis and Martyrdom in

The Commentary on Daniel by Hippolytus of Rome

II. The Problem

The relationship between the Roman Empire and the Christian church in the early third

century CE was one of major confrontation. In 202, Emperor Septimus Severus (reigned 193-

211) incited severe persecution against the church for its failure to join the empire in

worshipping the Unconquered Sun, Sol Invictus. Christian noncompliance prompted the

emperor to issue an additional edict that outlawed all new conversions to Christianity.1 The

1 Persecution under Severus was most severe in Africa, but the early church left vivid

descriptions of anti-Christian violence in Rome, Corinth, Antioch, and Cappadocia. Although

2

result was a large number of martyrs within the Christian church. As a Roman presbyter,

Hippolytus had to deal with the problems confronting a persecuted church such as fear of

capture, hardships of secrecy, and apostasy, in addition to questions about God’s providence and

the divine purposes of their suffering. In his Commentary on Daniel, he suggested that these

disastrous events were in fact divinely approved, and were even prefigured in the Old Testament

Book of Daniel. Hippolytus interpreted the symbols, visions, and narratives so that scripture

became strongly operative in the lives of the persecuted faithful: it offered hope and

encouragement. This dissertation will propose that he tried to encourage his congregation by

offering theological credibility to the large number of Christian martyrs by his interpretation of

the Book of Daniel.

The problem with this ancient commentary’s theme is that scholarship has offered either

a limited or a misunderstood treatment of it. All scholars agree that martyrdom was a

fundamental component of the early church and a symbol of the triumph of Christianity over the

empire; its place in church history is virtually immortal. In the mid-third century, Cyprian

indicated the importance of martyrdom to Christianity:

Let us not imagine that what is to come will be easy. The struggle that threatens will behard and fierce, and soldiers of Christ must prepare themselves for it with incorruptiblefaith and unshakable firmness. If we daily drink the cup of the blood of Christ, it is inorder to be ready to shed our blood for Christ as well.2

Few scholars have investigated the topic of martyrdom as a theme with its own merits in this

particular ancient biblical commentary. Several noteworthy scholars mention the incidence of a

Hippolytus himself evidences such a decree, a small number of scholars contend that there wasno formal edict. All agree that it was a time of severe persecution. For an analysis of the edict,see T. D. Barnes, “Legislation Against the Jews” in Journal of Religious Studies 58 (1968): 41.

2 Cyprian, Letters (1-81), Rose Bernard Donna, trans. Vol. 51, The Fathers of the Church(Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1964) 6:2.

3

martyrdom motif, such as Manlio Simonetti: “The commentary concretizes the biblical text on

the theme of martyrdom.” 3 W. H. C. Frend remarks: “He pointed to the existing persecution of

the saints as foreshadowing future (apocalyptic) strife.” 4 However, some do not even admit that

martyrdom and persecution are primary themes in the commentary. While Sten Hidal recognizes

the motif, he remarks, “There is no consistent picture of the book as a whole belonging to a

situation of martyrdom.” 5 Scholars’ analyses of the topic are always cursory, however.

Demetrios Trakatellis provides some more attention to the matter, setting forth the thesis that

“Hippolytus introduced distinctive martyrological motifs in his exegesis.” 6 His work is quite

limited, however, and his effort simply provides justification for a larger project. The explicit or

subtle expectation of martyrdom as a tool of rhetoric in the church fathers has received less

attention, but is not altogether ignored.7 However, there has been no thorough monograph

discussing how Hippolytus interpreted the text in order to promote and encourage martyrdom.

3 Manlio Simonetti, Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church: An Historical

Introduction to Patristic Exegesis, John A. Hughes, trans. (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1994) 28.4 W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a Conflict

from the Maccabees to Donatus (New York: New York University Press, 1967) 241.5 Sten Hidal, “Apocalypse, Persecution and Exegesis” in In the Last Days: On Jewish and

Christian Apocalyptic and its Period (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1994) 50.6 Trakatellis prefers to see Hippolytus as an apologist and “fighting rhetorician.”

Metropolitan Demetrios Trakatellis, “ΛΟΓΟΣ ΑΓΟΝΙΣΤΙΚΟΣ: Hippolytus’ Commentary onDaniel” in Religious Propaganda and Missionary Competition in the New Testament World:Essays Honoring Dieter Georgi (Lukas Bormann, Kelly del Tredici, and Angela Standhartinger,eds. New York: E. J. Brill, 1994) 537.

7 For example, Lacey Baldwin Smith notes, “Quite consciously the early Christian fatherswere articulating a psychology of martyrdom [in their writings]. That suited the troubled soulsand anxious minds of late antiquity.” Lacey Baldwin Smith, Fools, Martyrs, Traitors: The Storyof Martyrdom in the Western World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997) 95. Ivo Lesbaupin’swork Blessed Are the Persecuted: Christian Life in the Roman Empire, A.D. 64-313 offers apithy overview of the impact of persecution on the early church. Ivo Lesbaupin, Blessed Are thePersecuted: Christian Life in the Roman Empire, Translated by Robert R. Barr (Maryknoll, NY:Orbis Books, 1987).

4

Scholars further complicate the problem by disagreeing whether Hippolytus understood

his own contemporary situation as eschatological. The early church quickly attributed end-time

prophecy to the text of the Book of Daniel, but there is confusion whether Hippolytus saw the

current persecutions foreshadowed in Daniel’s prophecies. For example, Simonetti and Hidal

emphasize that his interpretation of some symbols in Daniel referred to the current Roman

Empire. 8 David G. Dunbar is confident, however, that these interpretations merely “provide a

focus and guide” to some future kingdom’s persecutions. 9 An attempt must be made to

understand the role of martyrdom in Hippolytus’ historical, contemporary, and eschatological

outlooks.

Finally, scholars have failed to explain why Hippolytus employed a Jewish text for the

purpose of Christian exhortation. One of the initial hermeneutical problems for the Christian

church was how the Jewish scripture related to the New Testament.10 Many fathers in the early

church either ignored or rejected the Old Testament, or else they employed it for Christocentric

prophecy alone. Hippolytus occasionally allegorized the Old Testament, but in his Commentary

on Daniel, he daringly interpreted this Jewish text in a historical-literal fashion. Hippolytus wed

the Old Testament text with contemporary Christian circumstances and events in a fashion that

was unique among the fathers. His mysterious choice of the Hebrew Daniel, his complicated

eschatology, and his rigorous devotion to Christianity collaborate to create a fascinating and

perplexing problem.

8 Simonetti 28; Hidal 50.9 David G. Dunbar, “Hippolytus of Rome and the Eschatological Exegesis of the Early

Church” in Westminster Theological Journal 45 (1983): 338.10 Allegory marked much of the exegetical activity in the fathers in an effort to redeem

the Old Testament from obscurity or dubiousness. For a discussion of these and otherdevelopments, see James N. S. Alexander, “The Interpretation of Scripture in the Ante-NicenePeriod: A Brief Conspectus” in Interpretation 12 (1958): 272-80.

5

This topic deserves closer examination because it has great significance for our

understanding of the early church. As the earliest orthodox Christian commentary on a book of

scripture,11 this composition reflects the church’s understanding of itself in relation to divine

history. For instance, Hippolytus is the first to see contemporary Rome as the referent of the

fourth kingdom of the beasts (Dan. 7:2-12); this is “the kingdom which is now in power,”

namely “the kingdom of the Romans” which persecutes God’s people. 12 Furthermore, this

commentary furnishes important insights into the church’s view of scripture, such as her

responsibility to discern prophecy and her duty to apply the Bible’s precepts in the lives of

believers. Hippolytus wed these two principles judiciously, as when he interprets the foods

consumed by the faithful, persecuted Jews in Dan. 1:12 as typing Christian grace: “These are not

earthly meats that give to men their beauty and strength, but the grace of God bestowed by the

Word.”

So unique are the interpretations in this commentary, that, before Origen, we can only

speak of Hippolytus of Rome as the first Christian exegete. Simonetti remarks that with this

work, “Catholic exegesis, restricted so far to controversial, catechetical or doctrinal purposes, at

last frees itself from these fetters and become an independent literary genre, with works devoted

exclusively to the interpretation, if not yet of an entire book of the Bible, of fairly extensive

passages.”13

This ancient commentary, therefore, is the first use of an Old Testament book to advance

a Christian theology of martyrdom in the early church. The severe persecutions by the Roman

11 The Gnostic Heracleon on the Gospel of John is regarded as the oldest non-Christian

continuous commentary of any book of scripture. It is preserved only in Origen’s Commentaryon John.

12 Daniel, IV.8.1-2.13 Simonetti, 27.

6

Empire in the early third century led Hippolytus to endow his exegesis with martyrdom to

persuade Christians to suffer for the sake of Christ. My dissertation will posit that he elevated

the appeal of martyrdom in the minds of his readers in order to promote a spirit of resolve to

suffer for the faith. Through his interpretation of the biblical text, Hippolytus proposed a higher

calling to persecuted Christians in his day: to submit themselves to God, to trust his providence

unto death, to participate in God’s plan of history, and to transcend spiritually over the

oppressive Roman Empire. This paper’s investigation will demonstrate unmistakable credence

toward such an interpretation.

III. Bibliography

A. Primary Sources.

Collections, Texts, and Versions

Acts of the Martyrs. Herbert Musurillo, trans. Oxford Early Christian Texts. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1972.

Hippolytus. Commentaire sur Daniel. Sources Chrétiennes Series, Vol. 14. Maurice Lefèvre,trans. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1947.

__________. Hippolyte Danielkommentar in Handschrift No. 573 des Meteoronklosters.Constantin Diobountis, ed. “Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichenLiteratur,” Vol. 37. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichsche Buchhandlung, 1912.

__________. Kommentar zu Daniel. Bonswetsch, Nathanael. Hippolytus Werke I.I.Paleoslavonic Version of the Commentary on Daniel. Griechische christlicheSchriftsteller I. Leipzig (1987): XI-XIII.

__________. Kommentar zu Daniel. Georg Nathanael Bonwetsch, trans. Berlin: AkadamieVerlag, 2000.

Migne, J. P. Partologiae cursus completes accurante. Series graeca. Indices digessitFerdinandus Cavallera. Vol. X. Parisiis: Garnier (1857): 637-697.

Pitra, J. B. Analecta sacra IV. Syriac Fragment Versions on the Commentary on Daniel. Parisiis(1883): 47-51, 317-320.

7

Renoux, C. Hippolyte de Bostra? Le dossier du Galata 54. Armenian Fragments on theCommentary on Daniel. Muséon 92 (1979): 133-158.

Translations

Cyprian. Letters (1-81). Rose Bernard Donna, trans. The Fathers of the Church, Vol. 51.Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1964.

Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History. C.F. Crusé, trans. Second Printing. Peabody, MA: HendricksonPublishing, 2000.

Hippolytus. Commentary on Daniel. “The Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. V. Edinburgh: T &T Clark, reprinted 1990.

__________. Commentary on Matthew. “The Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. V. Reprinted.Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990.

__________. Contra Noetum. Robert Butterworth. Heythrop Monographs, trans. London:Heythrop College, 1977.

__________. The Refutation of All Heresies. J. H. MacMahon, trans. “The Ante-NiceneFathers” Series, Vol. V. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, ed. Grand Rapids:Eerdmans Publishing, reprinted 1971.

__________. Treatise on Christ and the Antichrist. “The Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. V.Edinburgh: T & T Clark, reprinted 1990.

__________. The Treatise on Apostolic Tradition of St. Hippolytus of Rome, Bishop and Martyr.Gregory Dix and Henry Chadwick, eds. London : The Alban Press, 1992.

__________. The Extant Works and Fragments of Hippolytus. S. D. F. Salmond, trans. “TheAnte-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. V. Reprinted. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1990.

Irenaeus. Against Heresies. Robert M. Grant, trans. in Irenaeus of Lyons. New York : RoutledgePublishing, 1997.

Jerome. Commentary on Daniel. Gleason L. Archer, trans. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House,1958.

Josephus. Jewish Antiquities. H. St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus, trans. Cambridge,Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998.

Justin Martyr. Apology. “Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. I. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1951.

8

___________. Dialogue with Trypho. “Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. I. Edinburgh: T & TClark, 1951.

Origen. Commentary on the Gospel According to John. Books 1-10. Ronald E. Heine, trans.Washington, D. C.: Catholic University of American Press, 1993.

Prudentius. Crowns of Martyrdom, Vol. XI. H. J. Thompson, trans. London: WilliamHeinemann, 1969.

Tertullian. Against Marcion. The Ante-Nicene Fathers Series, Vol. III. Edinburgh: T & T Clark,reprinted 1989.

____________. Apology. The Ante-Nicene Fathers Series, Vol. III. Edinburgh: T & T Clark,reprinted 1989.

B. Secondary Sources

Hippolytus

Alès, Adhémer D. La Théologie de saint Hippolyte. Paris: G. Beauchesne & Cie, 1906.

Bardy, Gustave. “Introduction.” Commentaire sur Daniel. Sources Chrétiennes Series, Vol. 14.Maurice Lefèvre, trans. Introduction by Gustave Bardy. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1947.

____________. “L’éngime d’Hippolyte.” Mélanges de science religieuse 5 (1948): 63-88.

Beyschlag, Karlmann. “Kallist und Hippolyt.” Theologische Zeitschrift 20 (1964): 103-24.

Black, Matthew. “The Account of the Essenes, in Hippolytus and Josephus.” The Background ofthe New Testament and Its Eschatology. W. D. Davies and David Daube, ed. Cambridge:The University Press, 1956.

Brent, Allen. Hippolytus and the Roman Church of the Third Century: Communities in Tensionbefore the Emergence of a Monarch-Bishop. Texts and Studies of Early Christian Lifeand Language Series, Vol. XXXI. J. Den Boeft, et al., editor.New York: E.J. Brill, 1995.

____________. “Hippolytus' See and Eusebius' Historiography.” Studia Patristica 24 (1993):28-37.

____________. “Ligorio's Reconstruction of Hippolytus' Statue and the Recovery of theHippolytan Corpus.” Medieval Codicology, Iconography, Literature, and Translation:Studies for Keith Val Sinclair. Peter Rolfe Monks and D. D. R. Owen, ed. Leiden: E. J.Brill. 1994.

9

____________. “Was Hippolytus a Schismatic?” Vigiliae Christianae 49: (1995) 215-44.

Capelle, Bernard. “Hippolyte de Rome.” Recherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale 17(1950): 145-74.

____________. “Le Logos, Fils de Dieu, dans la théologie d’Hippolyte.” Recherches dethéologie ancienne et médiévale 9 (1939): 109-24.

Cherniss, Harold. “The So-Called Fragment of Hippolytus, per’’i. a;dou.” Classical Philosophy24 (1929): 346-50.

Connolly, R. H. “New Attributions to Hippolytus.” Journal of Theological Studies 46 (1945):192-200.

Coxe, A. Cleveland. “Introductory Notice to Hippolytus [AD 170-236].” The Ante-NiceneFathers Series, Vol. V. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, Reprinted 1990.

Döllinger, John J. Ignatius von. Hippolytus and Callistus. Alfred Plummer, trans. Edinburgh: T& T Clark, 1876.

Dunbar, D. “The Eschatology of Hippolytus.” Doctoral Dissertation. Madison, NJ: DrewUniversity, 1979.

____________. “Hippolytus of Rome and the Eschatological Exegesis of the Early Church.”Westminster Theological Journal 45 (1983): 322-39.

Ekenberg, Anders. “St. Hippolytus of Rome.” The Early Church On-Line EncyclopediaGlossary. The ECOLE Initiative. 21 Dec 1999. <http://cedar.evansville.edu/~ecoleweb/glossary/hippolytus.html>.

Farmer, David. “Hippolytus.” The Oxford Dictionary of the Saints. 4th edition. New York:Oxford University Press, 1997.

Ferguson, Everett “Hippolytus.” Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Everett Ferguson, ed. NewYork: Garland Publishing, 1990.

Gwynn, John. “Hippolytus and His ‘Heads Against Gaius.’” Hermanthena 6 (1888) 397-418.

___________. “Hippolytus on Matt. xxiv, 15-22.” Hermathena 8 (1890): 137-50.

Hanssens, Jean-Michel. La liturgie d’Hippolyte, ses documents, sen titulaire, ses origins et soncaractere. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 155. Rome: Pont. Institutum OrientaliumStudiorum, 1955.

10

Kirsch, J. P. “St. Hippolytus of Rome.” The Catholic Encyclopedia On-Line. 31 Aug 2000.<http://www.Newadvent.org/cathen/07360c.htm>.

Marcovich, Miroslav. “Textual Criticism on Hippolytus’ Refutio.” Journal of TheologicalStudies 19 (1968): 83-92.

Nautin, Pierre. Hippolyte et Josipe: Contribution à l’histoire de la litérature chrétienne dutroisième siècle. Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1947.

___________. “Hippolytus.” Encyclopedia of the Early Church. Angelo Di Berardino, ed.Adrian Wolford, trans. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

___________. “Notes sur le catolgogue des oeuvres d’Hippolyte.” Recherches de sciencereligieuse 34 (1947): 99-107.

Ogg, George. “The Computist of AD 243 and Hippolytus.” Journal of Theological Studies 48(1947): 206-7.

___________. “Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.” Vigiliae Christianne 16(1962): 2-18.

Prinzivalli, E. “Statue of Hippolytus.” Encyclopedia of the Early Church. Angelo Di Berardino,ed. Adrian Wolford, trans. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Richard, Marcel. “Einleitung.” Kommentar zu Daniel. Georg Nathanael Bonwetsch, trans.Berlin: Akadamie Verlag, 2000.

___________. “Pour une nouvelle édition du commentaire de s. Hippolyte sur Daniel.”Kyriakon: Festschrift Johannes Quasten. Patrick Granfield and Josef A. Jungmann, ed.Munseter Westfalen: Verlag Aschendorff, 1970.

Ritschl, D. “Hippolytus’ Conception of Deification.” Scottish Journal of Theology 12 (1959):388-99.

Salmon, George. “The Commentary of Hippolytus on Daniel.” Hermathena 8 (1893): 161-90.

_____________. “The Commentary of Hippolytus on Daniel.” Hermathena 14 (1899): 82-128.

Toon, Peter. “Hippolytus.” The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D.Douglas, ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978.

Trakatellis, Metropolitan Demetrios. “ΛΟΓΟΣ ΑΓΟΝΙΣΤΙΚΟΣ: Hippolytus’ Commentary onDaniel.” Religious Propaganda and Missionary Competition in the New TestamentWorld: Essays Honoring Dieter Georgi. Lukas Bormann, Kelly del Tredici, and AngelaStandhartinger, eds. New York: E. J. Brill, 1994.

11

Tsirpanlis, Constantine. “The Antichrist and the End of the World in Irenaeus, Justin,Hippolytus, and Tertullian.” Patristic and Byzantine Review 9 (1990): 5-17.

Vallée, Gérard. A Study in Anti-Gnostic Polemics: Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius. Studies in Christianity and Judaism Series, Vol. 1. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981.

Violard, E. Etude sur le commentaire d’Hippolyte sur le Livre de Daniel. Montbéliard:Imprimerie Montbéliardaise, 1903.

General

Alexander, J. N. S. “The Interpretation of Scripture in the Ante-Nicene Period.” Interpretation12 (1958): 272-80.

Barnes, T. D. “Legislation Against the Christians.” Journal of Religious Studies 58 (1968): 32-50.

Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca. François Halkin, ed. Vol. I. 3rd Edition. Bruxelles: Sociétédes Bollandists, 1957.

Bodenmann, Reinhard. Naissance d’une exégèse:Daniel dans l’eglise ancienne de trois premierssiècles. Beiträge zur Geschichte der biblischen Exegese 28. Tübingen: Mohr, 1986.

Bowersock, G. W. Martyrdom and Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Braverman, Jay. Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel: A Study of Comparative Jewish and Christian Interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic Biblical QuarterlyMonograph Series 7. Washington, DC: The Catholic Biblical Association ofAmerica, 1978.

Bromiley, G. W. “The Church Fathers and Holy Scriptures.” Scripture and Truth. D. A. Carsonand J. Woodbridge, editors. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity AD 150-750. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.,1989.

Chicago Manual of Style. 14th Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

Collins, John J. Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. 2nd

Edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

____________. “Apocalyptic Literature.” Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Everett Ferguson,editor. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

12

____________. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Minneapolis: Fortress Press,1993.

____________. Daniel: With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature. The Forms of the OldTestament Literature, Vol. XX. Rolg Knierim and Gene M. Tucker, editors. GrandRapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1984.

Daley, Brian E. The Hope of the Early Church: A Handbook of Patristic Eschatology.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Daniélou, Jean. Gospel Message and Hellenistic Culture. A History of Early Christian DoctrineBefore the Council of Nicaea Series, Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.

Di Lella, Alexander A. Daniel: A Book for Troubling Times. Hyde Park, NY: New City Press,1997.

Dockery, D. S. Biblical Interpretation Then and Now: Contemporary Hermeneutics in the Lightof the Early Church. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1992.

Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The Effect of the Early ChristologicalControversies on the Text of the New Testament. New York: Oxford University Press,1993.

Ferguson, Everett, editor. Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. 1st edition. New York: GarlandPublishing, 1990.

Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and Christians: Religion and The Religious Life From the Second tothe Fourth Century A.D., When the Gods of Olympus Lost Their Dominion andChristianity, with the Conversion of Constantine, Triumphed in the MediterraneanWorld. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987.

Frend, W. H. C. The Early Church. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982.

__________. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a Conflict from theMaccabees to Donatus. New York: New York University Press, 1967.

__________. The Rise of Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984.

Gammie, John G. “A Journal Through Danielic Spaces: The Book of Daniel in the Theology andPiety of the Christian Community.” Interpretation 39 (1985) 144-56.

Geerard, Mauritius, editor. Clavis Patrum Graecorum. Vol. 1. Turnhout: Brepols, 1947-1987.

Gigot, Francis E. “Book of Daniel.” New Advent’s On-Line Catholic Encyclopedia. 21 Aug2000. <http://newadvent.org/cathen/04621b.htm>.

13

Goldingay, John E. Word Biblical Commentary: Daniel. Word Books Series, Vol. 30. David A.Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, eds. Dallas: Word Books, 1989.

Grant, Robert. Augustus to Constantine. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.

___________. Early Christianity and Society: Seven Studies. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1977.

___________. Gnosticism and Early Christianity. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.

Grillmeier, Aloys. Christ in the Christian Tradition. Vol. 1: From the Apostolic Age toChalcedon (451). John Bowden, trans. 2nd revised edition. London: Mowbrays, 1975.

Hamill, Patrick J. Handbook of Patrology: A Concise, Authoritative Guide to the Life and Worksof the Fathers of the Church. New York: Alba House, 1968.

Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalytpic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of JewishApocalyptic Eschatology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979.

Harvey, Susan Ashbrook. “Persecution.” Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Everett Ferguson,editor. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

Hidal, Sten. “Apocalypse, Persecution and Exegesis.” In the Last Days: On Jewish and ChristianApocalyptic and its Period. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1994.

Knowles, Louis E. “The Interpretation of the Seventy Weeks of Daniel in the Early Fathers.”Westminster Theological Journal 7 (1945): 136-60.

Lesbaupin, Ivo. Blessed Are the Persecuted: Christian Life in the Roman Empire, A.D. 64-313.Robert R. Barr, trans. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987.

Lynch, E. M. The Controversy over Patristic Exegesis 1875-1965. Lauderhill, FL: Atlantic,1976.

Koester, Helmut. “Writings and the Spirit: Authority and Politics in Ancient Christianity.”Harvard Theological Review 54 (1991): 353-72.

MacMullen, Ramsey. Christianizing the Roman Empire: AD 100-400. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1984.

MacRae, Allan A. The Prophecies of Daniel. Singapore: Christian Life Publishers, 1991.

de Margerie, Bertrand. An Introduction to the History of Exegesis. The Greek Fathers, Vol. I..Petersham, MA: Saint Bede’s Publications, 1991.

14

Martin, Ralph P. “Martyr; Martyrology.” The New International Dictionary of the ChristianChurch. J. D. Douglas, ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978.

McCollough, C. Thomas. “Daniel.” Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Everett Ferguson, ed.New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

McKay, Gretchen Kreahling. “The Eastern Christian Exegetical Tradition of Daniel’s Vision ofthe Ancient of Days.” Journal of Early Christian Studies 7 (1999) 139-61.

McRay, J. “Scripture and Tradition in Irenaeus.” Restoration Quarterly 10 (1967): 1-11.

Miller, Fergus. Emperor in the Roman World 31 BC-337 AD. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UniversityPress, 1977.

Neal, Gordon C. “Porphyry.” The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. J.D. Douglas. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1978.

Osborne, Catherine. Rethinking Early Greek Philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1987.

Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. I,The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1971.

Quasten, Johannes. Patrology. 3 volumes. Utrecht-Antwerp: Spectrum Publishers, 1966.

Ruffin, C. Bernard. The Days of the Martyrs: A History of the Persecution of Christians fromApostolic Times to the Time of Constantine. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, Inc.,1985.

Russell, David M. The “New Heavens and New Earth”: Hope for the Creation in JewishApcocalyptic and the New Testament. Studies in Biblical Apocalyptic Literature, Vol. 1.Philadelphia: Visionary Press, 1996.

Russell, David S. Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic. Minneapolis:Fortress Press, 1992.

_____________. The Jews from Alexander to Herod. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.

___________. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C.-A.D. 100.Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964.

Shea, William H. “Early Development of the Antiochus Epiphanes Interpretation.” Symposiumon Danie: Introductory and Exegetical Studies. Frank B. Holbrook, ed. Daniel andRevelation Committee Series, Vol. 2. Washington, D. C.: Biblical Research Institute,1986.

15

Simonetti, Manlio. Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church: An Historical Introduction toPatristic Exegesis. John A. Hughes, trans. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1994.

Smith, Lacey Baldwin. Fools, Martyrs, Traitors: The Story of Martyrdom in the Western World.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.

Society of Biblical Literature. The SBL Handbook of Style: For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical,and Early Christian Studies. Patrick H. Alexander, et al, eds. Peabody, MA:Hendrickson Publishers, 1999.

Visser, A. J. “A Bird’s-eye View of Ancient Christian Eschatology.” Numen: InternationalReview for the History of Religions 14 (1967): 4-22.

Williams, Robert Lee. “Persecution.” Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Everett Ferguson,editor. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

Wilken, Robert L. The Christians as the Romans Saw Them. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984.

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.

_____________. Persecution in the Early Church: A Chapter in the History of Renunciation.London: Charles H. Kelly, 1906.

IV. Review of Related Literature

The works of Hippolytus have been completely translated into modern languages. There

are a few independent editions of his individual works. The most widely published of his works

is the Apostolic Tradition and there is a recently modified critical edition of it by Gregory Dix.14

The Ante-Nicene Fathers Series contains the most extensive English collection of his dogmatic,

exegetical, and theological treatises including fragments of the Commentary on Daniel by

14 Hippolytus, Treatise on Apostolic Tradition of St. Hippolytus of Rome, Bishop and

Martyr, Gregory Dix and Henry Chadwick, eds. (London: The Alban Press, 1992).

16

Hippolytus of Rome. 15 However, this early translation does not consider the manuscript

developments in the mid-twentieth century.16 There are two complete translations of the work.

The Sources Chrétiennes Series work Commentaire sur Daniel has the Greek text juxtaposed to

a French rendition.17 In 2000, the Akadamie Verlag published a revised edition of their

Kommentar zu Daniel. This German translation by Georg Nathanael Bonswetch is from the Old

Church Slavonic version and contains the original Greek text.18

There is much debate surrounding the biographical material on Hippolytus of Rome. The

most recent secondary scholarship addresses the identity of the historical Hippolytus and the

efforts to ascertain the exact corpus of Hippolytus’ works. The discovery of a statue in 1551

enabled scholars to link the historical Roman figure with several extant anonymous works.

However, many scholars disagree on genuine Hippolytian authorship of some of these works,

particularly the anti-heretical Refutation of All Heresies, or Elenchos. In the late 19th century,

John Döllinger identified Hippolytus as author of the work previously attributed to Origen and

brought scholarly attention to this neglected church father. Döllinger popularized the theory that

Hippolytus was no mere Roman presbyter, but that he claimed to be the legitimate bishop in

Rome. 19 Pierre Nautin’s 1947 work Hippolyte et Josipe had a powerful impact on Hippolytian

15 Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel. “The Ante-Nicene Fathers” Series, Vol. V

(Edinburgh: T & T Clark, reprinted 1990).16 For a summary of the manuscript evidence, see the “Einleitung” by Marcel Richard

with its critical manuscript analysis in Kommentar zu Daniel, Georg Nathanael Bonwetsch, trans.(Berlin: Akadamie Verlag, 2000) ix-xlii.

17 Hippolytus, Commentaire sur Daniel, “Sources Chrétiennes” Series, Volume 14,Translated by Maurice Lefèvre, Introduction by Gustave Bardy (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1947).

18 Hippolytus, Kommentar zu Daniel, Georg Nathanael Bonwetsch, trans. (Berlin:Akadamie Verlag, 2000). To this date there is no critical edition of the Old Church Slavonic.

19 John J. von Döllinger, Hippolytus and Callistus, Translated by Alfred Plummer(Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1876). For a discussion of the theories of Hippolytus’ office consultthe meticulous review by Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Vol. II (Grand Rapids:Eerdmans, 1966) 771-74 # II.

17

scholarship. Dissatisfied with the popular view about the life of Hippolytus, he engaged in a

critical study of some of his works. He concluded that the Refutation of all Heresies was not by

Hippolytus, but one Josephus was the author of the anti-heretical work.20

The newest and most extensive examination of these issues is Allen Brent’s Hippolytus

and the Roman Church of the Third Century: Communities in Tension before the Emergence of a

Monarch-Bishop.21 It offers an excellent analysis of the conflict between Hippolytus and Bishop

Callistus that precipitated the schism that marked Hippolytus’ theological and ecclesiastical

career. Brent contends that the exact nature and extent of this schism is not certain, yet it has

prompted much debate and speculation. This enigma will require my attention because I will

argue that this same spirit of contention prompts his exhortation to Christian martyrdom. There

is scholarly unanimity that Hippolytus is the author of the Commentary on Daniel.

Perhaps the most significant theological topic to consider is the important role that the

Book of Daniel played in the early church as an inspiration for Christian suffering. Scholars

have always agreed that martyrdom profoundly shaped the character of early Christianity and

aided its triumph over the empire. This dissertation will explore how this book of scripture has

influenced the attitude of Christians facing martyrdom. In particular, the book motivated ideas

of hope for those suffering for the Lord’s sake with its themes of sovereignty, deliverance,

resurrection, judgment, and eternal rewards. Two good essays identifying this are “Daniel” by

20 This literary study first raised questions about the historicity of Hippolytus of Rome.

Pierre Nautin, Hippolyte et Josipe: Contribution à l’histoire de la litérature chrétienne dutroisième siècle (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1947).

21 Allen Brent, Hippolytus and the Roman Church of the Third Century: Communities inTension before the Emergence of a Monarch-Bishop, Texts and Studies of Early Christian Lifeand Language Series, Vol. XXXI, Den Boeft, et al., ed. (New York: E.J. Brill, 1995).

18

C. Thomas McCoullough and “Book of Daniel” by Francis E. Gigot.22 They note how the

Jewish Maccabean period preceding the early church produced and nourished works that

provided Christianity with a theology of persecution. In the early church, Christian readers of

Daniel saw the Jews in Babylon as models of suffering, and they even understood themselves to

be God’s new people in a new Babylon.23 Reinhard Bodenmann evidences that the most popular

use of Daniel in Christian writings during the first two centuries was concentrated on the

eschatological visions of the stone (Dan. 2) and the judge (Dan. 7) that overcame the kingdoms

of the world who persecuted God’s people.24 This theme’s prominence in the literary works of

the early church fathers has been the focus of much scholarly attention that this dissertation will

consider.

Scholars have rightfully devoted attention to antiquity’s understanding of martyrdom and

its historical importance. The theme of martyrdom was prevalent in the Zeitgeist of the early

church, which developed a popular theology of persecution. In a way that has not been done, I

will examine how the influential martyrological events preceding the commentary shaped its

composition. Likewise, I must consider the theology of martyrdom that Hippolytus would have

inherited from his immediate predecessors and the generations of persecuted Jews and

Christians. The classic study capturing the importance of martyrdom in Christian antiquity is W.

22 C. Thomas McCoullough, “Daniel” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Everett

Ferguson, editor (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990); Francis E. Gigot, “Book of Daniel” inNew Advent’s On-Line Catholic Encyclopedia (http://newadvent.org/-cathen/04621b.htm).There is no thorough work devoted exclusively to Daniel’s influence on theologies of martyrdomand persecution.

23 As early as in 1 Peter 5:13, Christians recognized Rome as “Babylon.”24 He reports how the most extensive citations in the second century CE are found in

Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho, where Daniel 2:34 and 7:9-28 are interpreted as prophecies ofChrist. Reinhard Bodenmann, Naissance d’une exégèse:Daniel dans l’eglise ancienne de troispremiers siècles, Beiträge zur Geschichte der biblischen Exegese 28 (Tübingen: Mohr, 1986).

19

H. C. Frend’s Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church.25 Frend provides a

comprehensive survey of the martyrs in the early church, analyzing the political and social

factors that prompted them as well as the religious results that followed. He sees the function of

martyrdom as atonement for sin and vindication through forgiveness present in the Western

church.26 Concerning Hippolytus, Frend says, “The martyrs represented a continuance in the

church of the righteous examples of the Old Testament.”27 For example, in Persecution in the

Early Church Herbert Workman scrutinizes the conflict between the church and the empire in a

way that explains the logic of Roman persecution. He remarks, “Severus, alarmed by the rapid

rate of the new religion, and the increasing menace of its tone, possibly resenting also certain

indiscretions in the army, found it necessary to take active measures against Christianity.” 28 G.

W. Bowersock in Martyrdom and Rome justifies the martyrdom motif in ancient works like this

commentary. He states, “Suffering and death at the hands of persecuting magistrates so elevated

the status and presumably future prospects of martyrs that, by the late second century, there were

many Christians who actively courted their own deaths as martyrs.” 29 He identifies the

importance of martyrdom in this hostile era “when Rome still had its empire and empowered its

far-flung bureaucracy to process recalcitrant Christians within the legal system of the age.”30

25 W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a

Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus (New York: New York University Press, 1967.)26 However, he says that positive New Testament ideas of witnessing to truth and

imitation of Christ’s passion are absent. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution, 150.27 Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution, 118.28 Herbert Workman, Persecution in the Early Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1980) 95. Unfortunately, there is no elaboration nor any evidence that might reveal any motiveof indiscretion.

29 G. W. Bowersock, Martyrdom and Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1995) 2. He adds that it is impossible to postulate the exact number of the martyrs during thisera.

30 Bowersock, Martyrdom and Rome, 25.

20

The modern debates about the authorship and provenance of the Book of Daniel will be

incidental to the way in which Hippolytus understood and used the scriptural text. Consequently,

I will consider only briefly how the early church understood and implemented this book of

scripture. Additionally, this project will require familiarity with the content of Daniel and the

analysis that scholarly commentaries offer. Commentaries on Daniel abound, but the works of

John Collins and John Goldingay will be considered for their detailed remarks on the text and

their attention to the historical interpretation among the fathers.31 Allen MacRae’s work

analyzes how the church considered Daniel 2, 7, and 9 to be prophetic of Christ.32

Hippolytus’ method of biblical exegesis must also be established in order to understand

his exegetical work. Scholars think he relied strongly on rabbinical methods of biblical

interpretation, as he seems readily familiar with Judaism, its methods, and its biblical

scholarship. Many writings attributed to him derive their themes from Judaism, including

Benedictions of the Patriarchs, On the Passover, On Song of Songs, On Daniel, and On the

Antichrist. W. H. C. Frend suggests that his complex discussions about the dating and

computation of Easter are reminiscent of Jewish dialogue over the celebration of Jubilees: “They

breathe a Jewish environment.”33 Matthew Black has argued that Hippolytus even possessed

detailed knowledge of the Essenes.34

31 John J. Collins, Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel (Minneapolis: Fortress

Press, 1993); John E. Goldingay Word Biblical Commentary: Daniel, Word Books Series, Vol.30, David A. Hubbard and Glenn W. Barker, eds. (Dallas: Word Books, 1989).

32 Allan A. MacRae, The Prophecies of Daniel (Singapore: Christian Life Publishers,1991).

33 W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984) 341.34 Matthew Black, “The Account of the Essenes, in Hippolytus and Josephus” in The

Background of the New Testament and Its Eschatology, W. D. Davies and David Daube, eds.(Cambridge: The University Press, 1956).

21

Hippolytus depends heavily on the biblical text in his commentary, often filling his

remarks with lengthy quotes from Daniel and other biblical passages. Like other church fathers,

scripture possesses a place of authority for Hippolytus, housing definite truths that back his case

for exhortation.35 Trakatellis notes that scriptural authority was “a basis not merely presupposed

and applied, but uncompromisingly advocated as a condition sine qua non for any responsible

theological debate.”36 One can see this high view of scripture displayed in the commentary’s

exhortations to church leaders, whose neglect of its study can send them astray and cause others

to do so: “These things happen to people who are uneducated and unintelligent, who do not pay

serious attention to the scriptures, but rather follow human traditions, and their own errors, and

their own dreams and mythologies and silly words.”37 Although James Alexander fails to

include Hippolytus in his survey of biblical interpreters, he calls this father’s exegetical

ambiance a time of “authority-development in the West” as seen in Irenaeus and Tertullian.

There is a distinct spirit here that claims theological and ecclesiastical authority against heresies

such as Gnosticism in their biblical interpretation.38

Concerning the sense of scripture, Hippolytus begins with the literal sense and

maintained this position with rare exception. Gustave Bardy distinguished three methods for

Hippolytus’ interpretation: the historical, the moral aspect, and the allegorical sense of the text.39

Most of his allegorical activities focus on the Susanna story. Sten Hidal narrates a sample in

which Hippolytus allegorizes a persecution episode of scripture:

35 Commentary on Daniel I.29.2, I.30.1, II.28.6, III.12.1-4, IV.1.2, IV.6.2, IV.22.2,

IV.41.1.36 Trakatellis, 531.37 Daniel, IV.20.1.38 Alexander, 274-75.

22

The two old men trying to seduce Susanna are seen as typoi for those who aim atdestroying God’s people. That there were two is not without significance: “The Church is in factharassed and brought into agony not only by the Jews, but also by the Gentiles and by those whopretend to be Christians but are not. Seeing her wisdom and stability they exert themselves todestroy her.” (I.21). He offers a comprehensive allegorical interpretation, in which Susanna is atype for the church, her husband Joachim typifies Christ. The garden represents the communityof saints. Babylon is the world, and the two men symbolize the Jewish and Gentile enemies ofthe church (I.14). The bath into which Susanna descends is a symbol for baptism (I.16).40

Hippolytus engages mostly in typological work in understanding the prophecies of the Book of

Daniel. He supposes that this Old Testament book looks beyond itself for interpretation, as the

texts were written with a specific view to the future: Christ himself and his church. For example,

concerning the vision of the four beasts in Daniel 7, Hippolytus says, “The beasts show in a type

and in an image of the kingdoms that rose up in this world like wild beasts destroying

humanity.”41 Sten Hidal says that he takes a “paranaetic-typological view of the book of

Daniel.”42 Scholars’ conclusions on all of these issues, as well as the peculiarity of his choice of

the Jewish Daniel for a Christian commentary, will be addressed. Based on scholars’ works and

my observations, I will conclude that his exegetical method is primarily literal, authoritatively

derived, and based on a presupposition that revelation relevant to martyrdom is contained in the

text.

The eschatological works of Hippolytus will be of particular concern to this dissertation,

as the apocalyptic genre in the Book of Daniel strongly complements the martyrdom motif.

39 Gustave Bardy, “Introduction” in Commentaire sur Daniel, Sources Chrétiennes

Series, Vol. 14, Maurice Lefèvre, trans., Introduction by Gustave Bardy (Paris: Éditions du Cerf,1947) 19-54.

40 Sten Hidal, “Apocalypse, Persecution and Exegesis” in In the Last Days: On Jewishand Christian Apocalyptic and its Period (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1994) 50-1.

41 Daniel, IV.2.1. Evvn tu,pw| kai. eivko,ni dei,knusin ta.j e,n tw/| ko,smw| tou,tw|evpanasta,saj basilei,aj, w[sper qhri,a diafqei,ronta th.n avnqrwpo,thta.

42 Hidal, 50.

23

Many of the church martyrs gladly surrendered their lives because they anticipated great eternal

reward for their sacrifice, as well as an imminent judgment on their inimical persecutors—classic

characteristics of apocalyptic literature. Scholars generally agree that Hippolytus of Rome wrote

the works The Treatise on the Christ and the Antichrist, On the End of the World, Commentary

on Matthew, fragments of Commentary on the Apocalypse, and Against Caius.43 These writings

will provide a complete understanding of his system of eschatology. A 1979 dissertation thesis

by David Dunbar will be beneficial in establishing the eschatological position of Hippolytus.

This project entitled “The Eschatology of Hippolytus” is the most comprehensive work on the

topic and treats the collection of eschatological treatises with respect to authorship and themes.

In particular, the author weighs the Commentary on Daniel in relationship to Hippolytus’ other

eschatological works. Concerning the commentary, Dunbar is confident that Hippolytus saw the

suffering in the Book of Daniel as a typus of some future persecution.44

Christian eschatology has its roots in the apocalyptic literature and of the Old Testament

and Maccabean periods. Hippolytus’ system must be understood in the context of Jewish

apocalypses. Authors such as John J. Collins in Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to

Jewish Apocalyptic Literature and David Russell in Method and Message will provide this

apocalyptic foundation that expanded into Christian theology. 45 Brian Daley’s book The Hope

of the Early Church: A Handbook of Patristic Eschatology is the best survey of patristic

eschatology, and presents well the cumulative scope of the early church’s understanding of last

43 Hamill’s patrology reports the most recent opinions among scholars concerning

authorship. Patrick J. Hamill, Handbook of Patrology: A Concise, Authoritative Guide to the Lifeand Works of the Fathers of the Church (New York: Alba House, 1968).

44 Dunbar, “Hippolytus and the Eschatological Exegesis” 338.45 John J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic

Literature, 2nd Edition (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998); D. S. Russell, The Method and Messageof Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C.-A.D. 100 (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964).

24

things. His analysis of Hippolytus is particularly valuable because he emphasizes this father’s

resemblance to Montanism and Irenaeus while demonstrating his sharp contrast to these

predecessors. These works also verify my proposition that the traditional literary function of

apocalyptic, namely to offer hope and encouragement, is prominent in the writings of Hippolytus

and especially in the Commentary on Daniel.

V. The Procedure

My investigation of this underestimated martyrdom motif will consider how Hippolytus

interpreted passages in Daniel on persecution, eschatology, scripture, and shepherding in the

commentary in order to promote a spirit of resolve among persecuted Christians. My procedure

will be to examine each individual component of the Commentary’s provenance in a way that

satisfies the issues already noted in the problem. First, I will identify the person and milieu of

Hippolytus of Rome in order to establish the historical subject of our literary endeavor.

Hippolytus was a significant leader of an illegal religion in a hostile empire’s capital during a

time of intense imperial persecution. This church leader appears to us as sober and unwavering,

exhorting Christians to withstand suffering for the sake of Christ. This background material is

crucial to understanding the author of the Commentary on Daniel, so the dissertation will

establish Hippolytus as a product of his time. Exploring the religious heritage of orthodoxy,

suffering, spirituality, and persecution will provide insights into the martyrdom appeal that fills

the commentary. Exploring the conflicts of his ecclesiastical life will reveal the passion for rigor

that characterizes his exhortations to suffering given in the commentary.

Next, I will examine the historical milieu of Roman rule and the increased persecution

against the church under Septimus Severus. This involves examining the problems confronting a

25

persecuted church, as well as the specific third century setting around Rome where he crafted his

Commentary on Daniel. Discerning this milieu will provide the content and strategy of the

commentary.

Then I will set forth an overview of Hippolytus’ Commentary on Daniel. This will

require work in the original Greek text with the aid of the French and German translations. After

briefly summarizing each of the four books of the commentary, I will fit their individual

contributions into the larger themes and goals of the work. The matyriological motif of the text

will receive the most attention in an effort to establish the dissertation’s thesis. I will dissect

each of these passages in particular detail.

This analysis of the martyrological passages will involve in-depth, critical research by

consulting lexicological and translation materials to understand the use of several key terms.

The force of these passages with their themes such as faithfulness, heroism, suffering, endurance,

persecution, and sovereignty will be captured to consider how they contribute to the overall

martyrdom motif. The close analysis of each of these passages involves another specific aspect

of Hippolytus’ thought—his exegetical method. Research of this important topic includes how

Hippolytus’ interpretation parallels the systems of Christian and Jewish exegesis that he

inherited. The methods of Old Testament writers, the early post-exilic rabbis, and the early

Christian writers will be weighed. My analysis will present his use of scripture, the way he

interprets it, and his insistence on the authority of scripture. Additionally, the eschatological

components of his commentary must be incorporated into his understanding of the text of Daniel.

The apocalyptic overtones of the text complement the martyrdom motif with their otherworldly

solutions to Christian suffering.

26

This dissertation will climax by refining the intended purpose of the martyrdom motif. I

will review how Hippolytus exhorted his Christian congregation suffering Roman persecution.

His method will be related, as he offered theological explanation to the disasters, contextualizing

the events into a larger paradigm of world history in which God is in control. He intended to

encourage Christians to remain faithful despite the suffering and persecution that they would

experience. By endowing his exegetical activities with a positive interpretation of martyrdom,

Hippolytus of Rome offered hope and possibility to an oppressed and beleaguered church.

VI. The Probable Contents

This doctoral dissertation will consist of five chapters in approximately 205 pages.

27

Chapter 1: Life and Controversy of Hippolytus. Hippolytus is one of the most mysterious

figures of the ancient church. Although an esteemed and prolific writer, as well as a pioneer

exegete and orthodox champion, Hippolytus’ biography is shrouded in historical uncertainty.

This chapter of approximately 35 pages will consider the historical problems surrounding his

life, particularly how the issues of his ecclesiastical conflict are synonymous with a figure

rigorously exhorting Christians to martyrdom. His personal opposition to Bishop Callistus of

Rome for his leniency toward those lapsed in faith under persecution, as well as his exile,

pardon, and sainthood denote a figure passionately committed to Christianity. This chapter will

consider how the political conflict in Hippolytus’ life as a supposed schismatic reveals a rigorist

with a passion for Christian suffering. It will also examine the assortment of primary works by

Hippolytus and the questions that scholars have raised about the Hippolytian corpus. This

bibliographical section will elaborate on many of the primary works contained in section IV,

“Review of Related Literature.”

Chapter 2: Provenance and Overview of the Commentary. The purpose of this chapter is

to establish the crucial historical and social setting that prompted Hippolytus to endow his

exegesis with exhortation to martyrdom. It will endeavor to relate the Commentary on Daniel

with the persecution by the Roman Empire against the church. Approximately 50 pages in

length, this chapter will evaluate the theology of martyrdom that Hippolytus inherited, those

ideas similar to their Jewish ancestors but adopted into a Christian theological and apologetic

context. It will evaluate how the suffering and persecution witnessed in the Maccabean revolt,

the teaching of Christ, and the first and second century church created a special foundation for

the interpretation of martyrdom. Hippolytus’ contemporaries should also be consulted for a

complete understanding of these events within the church, such as the Montanists and Tertullian,

28

who also wrote on martyrdom.46 Methodologically, Hippolytus comments on passages of the

Book of Daniel, sometimes briefly but sometimes elaborately. His rhetorical style is loaded with

scriptural quotations that accompany his comments on the text, that demonstrate how scripture is

authoritative for Hippolytus, as well as being a custodian of mysteries of the future. Those

components that offer clues to Hippolytus’ personal biography or theological outlook will be

highlighted to complete the historical and theological milieu and his case for martyrdom.

Special attention will be paid to those specific sections that will be analyzed for their

martyrological nature.

Chapter 3: Analysis of the Martyrological Passages. This chapter will be divided into

three parts totaling 50 pages which consider the significant segments of the Daniel text that

Hippolytus employs for martyrological analysis and exhortation. The first third, approximately

20 pages, will investigate the martyrdom motif in Book 1 of the Commentary. Here, Hippolytus

displays the apocryphal heroine Susanna, who is harassed and wrongly accused by authorities,

while remaining faithful to God in purity and faith. Arguing that the text belongs among

Christian scriptures, this pastoral churchman declares that her loyalty to God amidst persecution

is a model for suffering third century CE Christians.

The second part, approximately 15 pages, will follow a similar line of investigation in

Books 2 and 3 of the commentary. Here, Daniel 1-4 is scrutinized for its heroic examples of

faithfulness under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar and its systematic revelation about God’s

sovereignty over history. From these stories of the maltreatment of God’s people, Hippolytus

can interpret the present church amidst Roman persecution to be their antitype. Although the

46 For example, Tertullian insists that Christians should expect martyrdom as an event

preceding full salvation. Frend, Rise, 419 #170; Tertullian, Against Marcion (“The Ante-NiceneFathers” Series, Vol. III. Reprinted. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1989) IV.39.4.

29

three youths in Daniel are delivered from the fiery furnace, they remain a model of would-be

martyrs, and the episode offers insight into God’s purpose for his followers.

The final part, approximately 15 pages, will investigate book four of the commentary,

where Hippolytus scrutinizes Daniel 10-12. This is an apocalyptic section endeavoring to detail

a mysterious future tyrant who blasphemes God and torments those faithful to God. This

passage is of particular interest to the early third century church because of its eschatological

overtones and its anticipation of a specific persecution against God’s people seen in the figure of

the Antichrist of the New Testament. Here, our exhorting presbyter offers an optimistic view of

the purpose of persecution and martyrdom to his commentary readers.

Chapter 4: Exegetical Method in the Commentary. This chapter of approximately 35

pages will clearly define the method of biblical exegesis employed by the commentary’s author.

Special attention will be paid to the Daniel tales and visions crucial to his understanding of

Christian persecution. It will examine the traditional rabbinical influences on Old Testament

interpretation, the high view of scripture held by Hippolytus, and his exhortations to readers of

scripture and his commentary. Hippolytus began with the literal sense and maintained this

position with some exceptions. His writing style contains numerous scriptural quotations that

accompany his comments on the text, demonstrating the importance of scripture as authoritative

to Hippolytus, as well as referring typologically to events in the future. This section will show

how highly Hippolytus regards and depends on the biblical text. It will also consider his

exegetical methodology and the thematic coherence of the four books of the commentary.

His typological interpretation of Daniel reveals a church father who connected the

existing persecution of the saints as foreshadowing future and apocalyptic conflict. This chapter

will consider how Daniel’s apocalyptic genre complements the martyrdom motif with its

30

anticipation of the end of the world. Hippolytus inherited a notion of apocalyptic with an

expectation that God’s judgment was imminent on those who persecuted his people. From the

Exile through the consequential Maccabean revolt, the unfavorable political situations of the

Jews prompted urgent scriptural analyses offering meaningful solutions to their troubles.

Sections of the commentary are replete with eschatological material, such as the visions of

Daniel concerning the four beasts (7:1-28), the ram and the he-goat (8:1-27), the prophecy of the

seventy weeks (9:1-27), the vision of the last days (10:1-21), and the vision of history unfolding

(11:1-12:13). These passages provide a forum for Hippolytus to discuss eschatological issues

and to employ them in the exhortation of suffering Christians.

Chapter 5: Conclusive Pastoral Purpose of the Commentary. Having established the

presence of a martyrological theme in the commentary and a corresponding historical and

theological provenance flavored with eschatological tendencies, this final chapter of

approximately 35 pages will review and refine the dissertation’s thesis. It will tie together these

components into a compelling demonstration of the claim that the martyrological passages serve

a pastoral purpose for Hippolytus as he exhorts his Christian congregation to perseverance under

persecution. A final statement is in order demonstrating how my research substantiated the

initial claims of the dissertation concerning the pastoral purpose of the commentary.

Recognizing the large number of martyrs and how the horrific methods of persecution by the

Romans threatened the faith of the early church, Hippolytus offered encouragement by

explaining that Christians have a high calling in service of God’s purposes, sometimes even unto

martyrdom.

I propose a dissertation of approximately 205 pages outlined this way:

I. Chapter 1: Life and Controversy of Hippolytus. Approximately 35 pages.

31

A. Quest for the Historical Hippolytus

1. Establishing a Roman Bishopric

2. Establishing a Corpus of Works

3. Confirming His Authorship of the Commentary on Daniel

B. Parameters of the “Schism”

1. Evidence from the Historical Record

2. Theological Differences with Callistus

a. Trinity

b. Leniency

3. Insights into Martyrdom

II. Chapter 2: Provenance and Overview of the Commentary. Approximately 50 pages.

A. Defining the Historical Milieu

1. Christian Persecution in Prior Eras

2. Persecution under Septimus Severus

B. Defining the Theological Milieu

1. Inherited Notions of Apocalyptic

a. Jewish Writings

b. The Book of Revelation

2. Inherited Notions of Martyrdom

a. Maccabean Revolt

b. Teaching and Rejection of Christ

c. Christian Enhancements

C. Textual Grounds for a Martyrdom Motif

32

1. Style and Structure

2. Content and Themes

a. Book 1: Susanna

b. Book 2 and 3: Daniel and the 3 Youths

c. Book 4: Eschatological Visions

3. Reasons for a Martyrdom Motif

III. Chapter 3: Analysis of the Martyrological Passages. Approximately 50 pages.

A. Susanna as an Allegorical Heroine

1. Explanation of Suffering

2. Implicit Exhortations

B. Daniel and the 3 Youths as Typoi of Christian Suffering

1. Explanation of Suffering

2. Possibilities of Deliverance

C. Daniel’s Prophecy as Disclosure of Future Persecution

1. Referent in the Christian Eschatology

2. Antiochus Ephiphanes as a Typus of the Antichrist

3. Apocalyptic Notions Offering Hope

D. Hippolytus’ Exhortations to Endure Suffering and Martyrdom

IV. Chapter 4: Exegetical Method in the Commentary. Approximately 35 pages.

A. Method of Exegesis

1. Allegory: Representing the Forces of God and Satan

2. Literal: Typus of 3rd Century Persecuted Christianity

B. Authority of Scripture

33

V. Chapter 5: Conclusive Pastoral Purpose of the Commentary. Approximately 35 pages.

A. Summary of Martyrological Evidence

1. Historical and Theological Milieu as Background

2. Commentary’s Appeal to Martyrdom

B. Review and Result of Research

C. Hippolytus of Rome: Employing Exegesis to Encourage Martyrdom

VII. University Approvals

There will be no human subjects required in this research.