Din. Cult. Org. y Cambio (Mc Carthy 1998)!!

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7/29/2019 Din. Cult. Org. y Cambio (Mc Carthy 1998)!! http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/din-cult-org-y-cambio-mc-carthy-1998 1/30 AI & Soc (1998) 12:155-184 9 1998 Springer-Verlag London Limited AI ~t SOCI I~'r~ The Dynamics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change Eunice McCarthy Social and Organisational Psychology Research Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Abstract: The interface between cultural anthropology, cross-cultural psychology, cultural psychology and indigenous psychology provides a rich context for examining recent developments within the field of organisational culture, both from a societal (national) and a cross-cultural perspective. It is argued in this paper that cultural patterns in society impact deeply on cultural patterns in organisations. In other words, organisational culture reflects the way in which the societal context shapes the organisational context, which in turn moulds the beliefs, attitudes and behaviour of its members - individuals and groups. It is further posited that organisational culture and societal culture recursively mirror one another. The complexity of the interdependence between societal culture and organisational culture will be traced, drawing on the evolving nature of the construct culture within the traditions of anthropology, cross-cultural psychology, indigenous psychology and organisational psychology. The hidden source of cultural elements embedded in the organisational domain will be examined from the perspective of an appreciation of diversity and a recognition of the need to support and encourage the variations that add to our creativity as well asto- system/organisational effectiveness. Keywords: Cultural metaphors; Culture and change; Diagnosing culture; Dynamics of culture; Emic and etic; National culture; Organisational culture 1. Introduction Diversity has become one of the most important new ideas of research in psychology (Triandis, 1994). Diversity draws attention to an appreciation of the basic value of differences between people. Psychologists who investigated phenomena that were unique to certain cultures and alien to our own remained on the periphery of general psychology, social psychology and cross-cultural psychology. As observed by recent theorists in this field (Harr6, 1992; Benson, 1993), a paradigm change is occurring. The new orientation is reflected in the rise of cross-cultural psychologists and indigenous psychologists, who are challenging the traditional positivist paradigm

Transcript of Din. Cult. Org. y Cambio (Mc Carthy 1998)!!

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A I & Soc (1998) 12:155-1849 1998 Springer-Ver lag London Limi ted A I ~ t S O C I I ~ ' r ~

T h e D y n a m i c s o f C u l t u r e , O r g a n i s a t io n a l C u l tu r e

a n d C h a n g e

Eunice M cCarthySocial and Organisational Psychology Research Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Abstract: T h e i n t e r fa c e b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y , c u l t u r a l

p s y c h o l o g y a n d i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g y p r o v i d e s a r ic h c o n t e x t f o r e x a m i n i n g r e c e n t

d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e , b o t h f r o m a s o c i e t a l ( n a ti o n a l ) a n d

a c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e . I t is a r g u e d i n t h is p a p e r t h a t c u l t u r a l p a t te r n s i n s o c i e t y i m p a c t

d e e p l y o n c u l t u r a l p a tt e r n s i n o r g a n i s a t io n s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u re r e f l e c t s

t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e s o c i e t a l c o n t e x t s h a p e s t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c o n t e x t , w h i c h i n t u r n

m o u l d s t h e b e l i e f s , a tt i tu d e s a n d b e h a v i o u r o f i ts m e m b e r s - i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s . I t i s

f u r t h e r p o s i t e d t h a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e r e c u r s i v e l y m i r r o r o n e a n o t h e r .

T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u lt u r e

w i l l b e t r a c e d , d r a w i n g o n t h e e v o l v i n g n a t u r e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t c u l t u r e w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t io n s

o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y , i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g y a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

p s y c h o l o g y . T h e h i d d e n s o u r c e o f c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s e m b e d d e d i n th e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l d o m a i n

w i l l b e e x a m i n e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f d iv e r s i t y a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n o f

t h e n e e d t o s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e v a r i a t i o n s th a t a d d t o o u r c r e a t i v i t y a s w e l l a s t o -s y s t e m / o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t iv e n e s s .

Keywords: C u l t u r a l m e t a p h o r s ; C u l t u r e a n d c h a n g e ; D i a g n o s i n g c u l t u r e ; D y n a m i c s o f c u l tu r e ;

E m i c a n d e t i c; N a t i o n a l c u l t u r e; O r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e

1. Introduction

D i v e r s i t y h a s b e c o m e o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t n e w i d e a s o f r e s e a r c h in p s y c h o l o g y

( T r i a n d i s , 1 9 9 4 ). D i v e r s i t y d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c v a l u e o f

d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n p e o p l e . P s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o i n v e s t i g a t e d p h e n o m e n a t h at w e r e

u n i q u e t o c e r t a i n c u l t u r e s a n d a l i e n to o u r o w n r e m a i n e d o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f g e n e r a l

p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g y . A s o b s e r v e d b y r e c e n t

t h e o r i s t s in th i s f i e l d (H a r r 6 , 1 9 9 2 ; B e n s o n , 1 9 9 3 ), a p a r a d i g m c h a n g e i s o c c u r r i n g .

T h e n e w o r i e n t a t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e r i s e o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d

i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i s t s , w h o a r e c h a l l e n g i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p o s i t i v i s t p a r a d i g m

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156 E. M cCarthy

w h i c h f a i le d t o e m b r a c e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f th e c u l t u ra l c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e

e s p o u s e d ' c u l t u r e -f r e e ' t h e o ri e s o f m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o l o g y e v o l v e d .

T h e l i m i t a ti o n s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d w h i c h g r e a t l y i n f lu e n c e d g e n e r a l

p s y c h o l o g y w a s c l e a r l y a r t ic u l a t e d b y W u n d t ( s in c e 1 8 79 ) , w h o r e c o g n i s e d t w ot r a d i t i o n s i n p s y c h o l o g y : t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s t r a d i t i o n (Na turwi ssenscha f t en ) a n d

t h e c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s t r a d i t i o n (Gei s t eswi ssenscha f t en ) ( v a n H o o r n a n d V e r h a v e ,

1 9 8 0 ) . W u n d t ( 1 9 1 6 ) regardedVi i l kerpsycho log ie a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b r a n c h o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , w h i c h w a s d e s t i n e d t o e c l i p s e e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y . I n

h is l a t e r y e a r s W u n d t d e v o t e d h i m s e l f p r i m a r i l y t o e x a m i n i n g s o c i o cu l t u ra l i n f l u e n c e s

i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ( D a n z i g e r, 1 9 83 ). T h e i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i e s a p p r o a c h ,

w h i c h h a s b e e n g a i n i n g a s c e n d a n c e i n re c e n t y e a r s , w a n t s t o k n o w w h a t is n a t iv e t o ,

o r r o o t e d i n s p e c i f i c s o c i e t i e s o r c u l t u r e s . A s s u c h t h e i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i e s

a p p r o a c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s a d i r e c t d e s c e n d e n t o f W u n d t ' s Geis t eswi ssenscha f t en

t r a d it i o n ( K i m a n d B e r r y , 1 9 9 3) .

S i x f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s t h a t a r e s h a r e d i n t h e

i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i e s a p p r o a c h a n d t h a t a r e p e r t i n e n t to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

d y n a m i c s o f c u lt u r e i n c lu d e t h e f o ll o w i n g :

9 u n d e r s t a n d i n g r o o t e d in e c o l o g i c a l c o n te x t ;

9 a f f i r m th e n e e d f o r e a c h c u l t u r e to d e v e l o p i t s o w n i n d i g e n o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ;

9 w i t h i n a p a r ti c u l a r s o c i e t y a m u l t i tu d e o f p e r s p e c t i v e s n o t s h a r e d b y a l l g r o u p s :

s o c i e ti e s c a n e m b r a c e b o t h ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' a n d ' m o d e r n / w e s t e r n i s e d ' s e c t o rs ;

9 a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e in d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i e s a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t a f f i r m o r p r e c l u d et h e u s e o f a p a r t ic u l a r m e t h o d ;

9 c r o s s - i n d i g e n o u s c o m p a r i s o n s m a y s e r v e a s m i r r o r s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n e ' s o w n

c u l t u r e ( K l e i n m a n , 1 9 8 0 ) ;

9 t h e i n d i g e n o u s p s y c h o l o g i e s a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t a s s u m e a p r i o r i t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n i v e r s a ls , b u t i t d o e s s e e k a s o n e o f i ts g o a l s t h e d i s c o v e r y o f

u n i v e r s a l f a c ts , p r i n c ip l e s a n d l a w s . T h i s a p p r o a c h a d v o c a t e s t h e u s e o f c r o s s -

c u l t u r a l ( B e r r y a n d K i m , 1 9 9 3 ) a n d c r o s s - i n d i g e n o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( E n r i q u e z ,

1 9 9 3; K i m a n d B e r r y , 1 9 9 3) .

2 . C u l t u r e a n d S o c ie t y

T h e c u l t u r e c o n c e p t h a s b e e n t h e t o u c h s t o n e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . K r o e b e r a n d

K l u c k h o h n ( 1 95 2 ) c o m p i l e d a n d a n a l y s e d m a n y d e f i n it io n s o f c u l tu r e w h i c h

d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c u lt u r e m a y b e d e f i n e d in v a r i o u s w a y s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p u r p o s e

o f th e a n a l y s i s a n d t h e p r o b l e m . T h e u n i f y i n g i n t e r e st o f a n t h r o p o l o g y a s a w h o l e i s

i n th e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f social cu l ture ( ins t i tu t ions and r i tua l ) , materia l cu l ture ( a r t e f ac t s

a n d s k i l l s ) a n d men ta l cu l ture ( m e n t i f a c t s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s ) f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o

a n o t h e r ( s e e P o s n e r, 1 9 8 9, a n d F ig . 1 ). T h e m e c h a n i s m s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n a r e k n o w n

a s ' t r a d i t i o n ' ( e . g . M e a d , 1 9 1 2 ; L o t m a n e t a l. 1 9 7 5 ) .

T h e d i v i s i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g y i n t o t h e t h r e e b r a n c h e s o u t l i n e d h e r e e m p h a s i s e s

t h e q u e s t io n o f h o w s o c ia l , m a t e r i a l a n d m e n t a l c u l t u r e s a r e t ra n s m i t te d f r o m o n e

g e n e r a t io n t o th e n e x t . P s y c h o l o g i s t s w o r k i n g w i t h th e c o n c e p t o f c u lt u r e h a v e d r a w n

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The Dynamics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 157

Fig. 1. Tripartite classification of culture in the field of anthropology.

extensively on both the conceptual and empirical work of anthropologists and have

been influenced by the use of the concept in its widest sense, embracing the whole

of mental, material and social culture (Stigler et al., 1990).

For Kluckhohn (1954) conceptural models of culture are of positive use to

psychologis ts in that they specify for psychologist s the behaviour (including ideational

behaviour) which is traditional or expected in a given group or subgroup reflecting

this approach. Spindler (1955) also drew attention to the behavioural componen ts of

culture. He identified culture as those patterns o f behaviour, both explicit (verbalised)

and implicit (usually not verbalised but inferable from behaviour), which are shared

by a group of people and transmitted to new members. This definition draws our

attention to both explicit and implicit patterns of behaviour and their transmission to

new members - the next generation.

The importance of implicit as well as explicit culture was highlighed by Herskovitz

(1955: 153), who states that:

Culture may be thought of a kind of psychological ceberg of whose totality only but a small proportionappears above the level of consciousness.

Culture can thus be viewed as represented in (though never identical with) the cog-

nitive maps, motivations, perceptual structuring, affective controls and ego defences

of individuals.

Kluckhohn (1954) in his landmark article 'Culture and Behaviour' argues that the

laws of social psych olo gy must be transformed into laws which take account, where

necessary, of cultural factors and highlights the need for research in social psychol ogy

to deal with those cultures produced by psychosocial mechanisms. In other words,

he sho wed that social psych olo gy had failed to explain cultural forms: to derive

specific cultural effects from specific psychic or social causes. Some 40 years onwards

social psychologist Harry Triandis (1994) addresses these issues in his recent book

Culture and Social Behavior. Triandis, a foremost contributor to research and theory

in the field of cross-cultural psy chol ogy in the latter half o f the twentieth century,

details how cultural processes create psychological products. He gives us a real sense

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158 E. McCarthy

of how diversity is one of the most important new areas of research, and of the neglect

of diversity in classical social psychology, while arguing for the need to integrate

cross-cultural psyc holog y into the mainstream of social and general psycholog y

(this approach has also been argued by Harr6, 1986, 1992, and Benson, 1993).In their recent comprehensive review article on 'Culture and " Basic" Psychological

Princ iples ', (Markus et al., 1996) observe that developing a culturally grounded social

psychology has become a goal o f increasing urgency in the past decade. They further

argue that culture is a necessary, constituting aspect of psychology at each of the

following levels of analysis: the biological, cognitive, personal, motivational, intergroup

and group/cultural.

Triandis, who has conducted a series of cross-cultural studies, very simply observes

that culture is to society what memory is to individuals. Culture involves traditions

that tell 'what has worked in the past'. It also encompasses the way people have

learnt to look at their environment and themselves, and their unstated assumptions

about the way the world is and the way people should act (Triandis, 1994).

Influenced by the work of Herskovitz (1955), Tilandis goes on to distinguish

between o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t s of culture (TVs, roads, radio stations) from s u b j e c t i v e

aspects (categorisations, assumptions, norms, roles and values).

The tendency to study cultural influences as they act on the individual was the

focus of Triandis's (1972) work on subjective culture: T h e A n a l y s i s o f S u b j e c ti v e

C u l t u r e . For Triandis the subjective culture of each individual is strongly influenced

by the degree o f contact she/he has with people and institutions that see the world in

terms of their own subcultural perspectives or stories. How smiles constitute subjectiveculture is further teased out by Howard (1991). For example, narrative or story-

telling psychologists such as Mair (1988: 127) observe:

Stories are habitations, we live in and through stories ... We are lived by the stories of our race and place.It is the enveloping and constituting function of stories that is especially important to sense more fully.We are, each of us, locations where the stories of our place and time become partially tellable.

When we analyse subjective culture, we learn how people perceive, categorise, believe

and value entities in their environment. In short, we discover the unique ways in

which people in different cultures view their social environment (Triandis, 1994: 2).

From this perspective the elements of subjective culture are organised into patterns.

While these patterns have unique configurations in each culture, general scheme as

that apply to all cultures have also been isolated. These are called c u l t u r a l s y n d r o m e s .

A cultural syndrome s a pattern of beliefs, attitudes, self definitions, norms and values that are organisedaround some theme that can be identified in a society. (Triandis, 1994)

Four core cultural syndromes which have been isolated by Triandis (1994: 2) and

which resonate with core characteristics of organisational culture include the fol lowing:

9 C o m p l e x i t y : Some cultures are more complex than others.

9 I n d i v i d u a l i s m : Some cultures structure social experience around autonomous

individuals.9 C o l l e c t i v i s m : Some cultures organise their subjective cultures around one or more

collectives, such as the family, the tribe, the religious group or the country.

9 T i g h t n e s s : Some cultures impose many norms, rules and constraints on social

behaviour, while others are rather loose in imposing such constraints.

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The D yna m ic s o f C u l tu r e, O r ga n i sa t i ona l C u l tu r e a nd C ha nge 159

E x p l o r i n g t h e s e c u l t u r a l s y n d r o m e s a c r o s s w o r k o r g a n i s a t i o n s a n d s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e

h a s f u r t h e r g u i d e d c o m p r e h e n s i v e c r o s s -c u l t u ra l p r o g r a m m e s o f re s e a r c h i n t he

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l f i e l d ( H o f s t e d e , 1 9 8 4 ) .

M a r g a r e t M e a d ( 1 9 5 4 ) i n h e r s e m i n a l w o r k Cultural Patterns and TechnicalChange s p o k e o f c u l tu r e a s a ' s y s t e m a t i c a n d i n te r g r a t e d w h o l e ' . F r o m h e r p e r s p e c t i v e

c u l t u r e ' c o v e r s n o t o n l y t h e a rt s a n d s c i e n c e s , r e li g i o n s a n d p h i l o s o p h i e s , t o w h i c h

t h e w o r d ' c u l t u r e ' h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y a p p l i e d , b u t a ls o t o t h e s y s t e m o f t e c h n o l o g y , t h e

po l i t i c a l p r ac t i c e s , t he s m a l l in t i m a t e hab i t s o f da i l y l i f e ' ( M ead , 1954 : 12 ). Th e wh o l e -

n e s s o f a c u l tu r e a l l o w s f o r d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f i n t e g r a ti o n . T h u s w h i l e s o m e c u l t u r e s

m i g h t b e d e s c r i b e d a s f l e x i b l e o r l o o s e l y i n te g r a t ed , w h i c h m a k e s i t e a s i e r to i n t r o d u c e

p a r t i c u l a r c h a n g e s w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e w h o l e w a y o f l if e , o th e r s a r e s o t i g h t l y

i n t e g r a te d t h a t c h a n g e c a n t h r e a te n t h e w h o l e . T h e s y s t e m i c a n d i n t e g r a te d n a t u re o f

c u l t u r e a s h i g h l i g h t e d b y M e a d ( 1 9 5 4 ) d r a w s o u r a t t e n t io n t o c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s

o f c u l t u r e s u c h a s t h e p a t t e r n e d q u a l i t y o f c u l t u r e , t h e d e g r e e o f i n t e g r a t i o n p r e s e n t

i n a c u l t u r e ( ti g h t ly c o u p l e d s y s t e m s o r l o o s e l y c o u p l e d s y s t em s ) , t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e

b e t w e e n c u l t u r e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m i n d , c u l t u r e a n d

t e c h n o l o g y ( s e e a ls o M c C a r t h y , 1 9 96 ).

T r i a n d i s ( 1 9 9 4 ) f u r t h e r d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r e la t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n c u l t u r e a n d e c o l o g y . E c o l o g y r e fe r s to p l a c e , to w h e r e p e o p l e l i v e ; e c o l o g y

c o n s i st s o f t h e o b j e c ts , t h e r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e g e o g r a p h y o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t h e

w a y s o n e c a n m a k e a l iv i n g a n d s u r v i v e ( T r i a nd i s , 1 9 9 4 ) . E c o l o g y h a s b e e n h i g h l ig h t e d

b y c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n r e c e n t y e a r s . F o r e x a m p l e , G e o r g a s ( 1 9 9 3 ) h a s

a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r a m o r e s y s t e m a t i c m e a n s o f s e a r c h i n g f o r f u n c t i o n a lr e l a t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n e c o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l v a r ia b l e s a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s

t h a t e i th e r a r e c o m m o n t o e t h n i c g r o u p s o r d i f f e re n t i a te b e t w e e n t h e m ( s e e a ls o

T i e r n a n , 1 9 9 4 ) . B e r r y ( 1 9 7 9 ) a s s e r ts t h a t e c o l o g y s h a p e s th e c u l t u r e s th a t e m e r g e i n

i t, a n d i n t u r n c u l t u r e s h a p e s p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r ( s e e F i g . 2 ) .

A t a m e t a p e r s p e c t i v a l le v e l c u lt u r e p r o v i d e s m e a n i n g t o o n e ' s l if e , o n e ' s w a y o f

l i f e a n d p r o v i d e s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . M y t h s , n o r m s , s t o ri e s , v a l u e s a n d

c u s t o m s d e v e l o p w h i c h a l l o w p e o p l e t o m a k e s e n s e o f th e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t h e i r

Fig . 2 . The in te rdep enden ce of ecology, cu l ture and soc ia l behaviou r .

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160 E. McCarthy

place in it. As pointed out by Kluckhohn (1954), customs in many cases can be

substitutes for thought and can save time.

The cultural anthropologist Geertz (1973) speaks of culture as a 'pattern of

meanings' passed down over time. We can identify two types of meaning: simpleand complex. When we talk about signs and what they stand for we refer to simple

meanings which are 'embodied in symbols' (Geertz, 1973). To understand culture

we need to be able to unravel the tangled webs of complex meanings. The psychology

of culture looks for psychosocial-cultural meanings.

In defining culture Shiveder (1991) has argued that no social or cultural environment

exists independent of meaning and the way people take meanings and resources

from the environment. People have their subjectivity and consciousness shaped through

the processes of seizing meanings and resources from the environment and putting

them to work. Similarly Brunet (1993: 516) states that 'to enter culture is not to add

some element to one 's 'natural' repertory but to be transformed'. A focus or meaning

also includes an effort to determine key cultural ideas, values or ideals (Markus

et al., 1996).

3 . Em ic and Et i c a spec t s o f Cu l ture

Research on culture across different societies/countries has attempted to distinguish

etic and emic aspects o f culture. Etic aspects of culture deal with universal cultural

elements while emic aspects refer to local aspects of culture, i.e. culture-specific,unique elements. The emic or unique aspects ofculture have been described by cultural

anthropologiests who have focused on cultures for their own sake, while cross-

cultural psychologists have focused primarily on etic cultural elements when they

compare cultures, or seek to obtain 'world v iews'. Cultural psy chol ogy is another

name for mainstream psychology , which tends to ignore the issue o f comparability

(Kim and Berry, 1993). It draws on indigenous concepts that are relevant for

psychological enquiry. From this perspective the researcher will seek to know what

is native to, or rooted in, specific societies or cultures - indigenous psychology.

4 . Nat iona l Cul ture : D im ens iona l An a lyses

Cultural anthropologists and cross-cultural psychologists have distilled a small number

of factors or dimensions when comparing one society with another.

The first of these dimensional approaches was described by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck

(196l). They compared cultures across six dimensions which can be established by

the following questions:

9 What do members of a society assume about the nature of people - that is, are

people good, bad or a combination?9 What do members of society assume about the relationship between a person and

nature - that is, should we live in har mony with or subjugate nature?

9 What do members of a society assume about the relationship between people -

that is, should a person act in an individual manner or consider the group before

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The Dy nam ics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 161

t a k i n g a c t i o n ( i n d i v i d u a l i s m t o g r o u p i s m o r c o l l e c t i v i s m i n t e r m s o f s u c h i s s u e s

a s m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s , c o n f o r m i t y a n d s o f o r t h ) ?

9 W h a t i s t h e p r i m a r y m o d e o f a c t i v it y in a g i v e n s o c i e t y ? I s i t ' b e i n g ' o r a c c e p t i n g

t h e s t a tu s q u o , e n j o y i n g t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t io n a n d g o i n g w i t h t h e f l o w o f t h in g s ; o r

' d o i n g ' o r c h a n g i n g t h i n g s t o m a k e t h e m b e t t e r, s e t ti n g s p e c i f ic g o a ls , a c c o m p l i s h i n g

t h e m w i t h i n s p e c i f i c s c h e d u l e s, a n d s o f o r th ?

9 W h a t i s t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f s p a c e in a g i v e n s o c i e t y - t h a t is , is it c o n s i d e r e d

p r i v a t e i n t h a t m e e t i n g s a r e h e l d i n private, p e o p l e d o n o t g e t t o o c l o s e t o o n e

a n o t h e r p h y s i c a l l y , a n d s o o n ; o r public, h a v i n g e v e r y o n e p a t i c i p a te i n m e e t i n g s

a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , a l l o w i n g e m o t i o n s t o b e e x p r e s s e d p u b l i c l y , a n d h a v i n g

p e o p l e s t a n d i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o o n e a n o t h e r ?

9 W h a t i s t h e s o c i e t y ' s d o m i n a n t t e m p o r a l o r ie n t a ti o n : p a s t , p r e s e n t o r f u t u r e ?

K l u c k h o l n a n d S t r o d t b e c k ( 1 9 6 1 ) n o t e t h a t e a c h s o c i e t y h a s a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l

o r i e n t a t io n t h a t c a n b e d e s c r i b e d i n te r m s o f th e s e s i x d i m e n s i o n s , a l t h o u g h o t h e r ,

w e a k e r o r i e n t a t i o n s m a y e x i s t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s a n d

e t h n i c g r o u p s .

A n o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , E d w a r d J . H a l l , h a s s p e n t m o r e t h a n 4 0

y e a r s d e v e l o p i n g a s i m i l a r d i m e n s i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m ( H a l l a n d H a l l, 1 9 9 0) .

T h e s e a u t h o r s b a s i c a l l y f o c u s o n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e p a t t e rn s f o u n d w i t h in c u l t u r es ,

a n d e m p h a s i s e f o u r d i m e n s i o n s a l o n g w h i c h s o c i e ti e s c a n b e c o m p a r e d . T h e s e i n c l u d e

c o n t e x t , s p a c e , t im e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w :

9 c o n t e x t , o r th e a m o u n t o f in f o r m a t i o n t h a t m u s t b e e x p l i c it l y s t at e d i f a m e s s a g eo r c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s t o b e s u c c e s s f u l ;

9 s p a c e , o r t h e w a y s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h r o u g h s p e c i f i c h a n d l i n g o f p e r s o n a l s p a c e ;

f o r e x a m p l e , N o r t h A m e r i c a n s t e n d to k e e p m o r e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e m w h i l e

c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h a n d o S o u t h A m e r i c a n s ;

9 t i m e , w h i c h i s e i t h e r monochronic ( s c h e d u l i n g a n d c o m p l e t i n g o n e a c t i v i t y a t a

t i m e ) o r polychronic ( n o t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n a c t i v i t i e s a n d c o m p l e t i n g t h e m

s i m u l t a n e o u l s y ) ; a n d

9 i n f o r m a t i o n f lo w , w h i c h i s t h e s t ru c t u re a n d s p e e d o f m e s s a g e s b e t w e e n i n d i v id u a l s

o r o r g a n i s a t i o n s .

H a l l a n d H a l l ( 1 9 9 0 ) f u r t h e r g o o n t o a r r a y s o c i e t i e s a l o n g a n o v e r a r c h i n g h i g h -

c o n t e x t a n d l o w - c o n t e x t d i m e n s i o n . I n h i g h - c o n t e x t s o c i et i es t h e r e is a h e a v y

i n v e s t m e n t in s o c i a l is i n g m e m b e r s s o t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t n e e d t o b e e x p l i c it l y

s t at e d to b e u n d e r s t o o d ( f o r e x a m p l e , J a p a n , A r a b c o u n t ri e s ). T h e l o w - c o n t e x t s o c i e t y

c a t e g o r i s a t i o n w o u l d i n c lu d e t h e U S A a n d G e r m a n y . I n l o w - c o n t e x t s o c i et i e s

i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t ru l e s a n d p e r m i s s i b l e b e h a v i o u r a r e e x p l i c t ly s ta t e d .

G e e r t H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4) , i n h is c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f n a ti o n a l c u l tu r e , t a p s

t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . H e d e f i n e s c u l t u r e

a s th e ' c o l l e c ti v e m e n t a l p r o g r a m m i n g o f th e p e o p l e o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t ' . C u l t u r e is

n o t a c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f i n d iv i d u a l s ; i t e n c o m p a s s e s a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e

c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e s a m e e d u c a t i o n a n d l i f e e x p e r ie n c e . E v e r y p e r s o n ' s m e n t a l

p r o g r a m m i n g i s p a r t l y u n iq u e , p a r t l y s h a r e d w i t h o th e r s .

C u l t u r e i n t h is s e n s e i s v i e w e d a s e x i s ti n g i n t h e m i n d s o f th e p e o p l e i n a s o c i e t y

o r n a t i o n , a s w e l l a s b e i n g c r y s t a l l i s e d i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s p e o p l e h a v e b u i l t : t h e i r

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162 E. M cCarthy

# eve Z

# Universal

Fig. 3. Three levels of uniqueness in hum an mental programm ing(Hofstede, 1984 :15 16).

f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s , e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w o r k o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,

f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t , l a w a n d l i t e ra t u re . A l l o f t h e s e r e f le c t c o m m o n b e l i e f s t h a t

d e r i v e f r o m t h e c o m m o n c u l t u r e . F i g u r e 3 g r a p h i c a l l y p r e s e n t s t h r ee l e v e l s o f

u n i q u e n es s i n m e n t a l p r o g r a m m e s i s o la t ed b y H o s t e d e ( 1 98 4 ).

T h e m o s t b a s i c is t h e un i v e r s a l l e v e l o f m e n t a l p r o g r a m m i n g w h i c h i s s h a r ed b y a ll o r

a l m o s t a ll p e o p l e ( e .g . th e b i o l o g i c a l ' o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m ' , e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r s u c h a s

l a u g h in g , w e e p i n g , a g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r ).

T h e co l l e c t i v e l e v e l o f m e n t a l p r o g r a m m i n g i s s h a re d w i t h s o m e b u t n o t w i t h a l l

p e o p l e ; i t i s c o m m o n t o p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g t o a c e r t ai n g r o u p o r c a t e g o r y , b u t d i f f e r e n t

a m o n g p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r g r o u p s o r c a t e g o r ie s . T h e w h o l e a r e a o f s u b j e c t iv e

c u l t u r e b e l o n g s t o t h i s l e v e l .

T h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l o f h u m a n p r o g r a m m i n g i s t h e t r u ly u n i q u e p a r t - - t h is i s t h e

l e v e l o f in d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y a n d i t p r o v i d e s f o r a w i d e r a n g e o f a l t e rn a t i v e b e h a v i o u r s

w i t h i n t h e s a m e c o l l e c t i v e c u l tu r e .

H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d i n a n e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s t r e t c h i n g

o v e r t w o d e c a d e s o n n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e. F o r a s e t o f 4 0 i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s h e a t t e m p t e d

t o d e t e r m i n e e m p i r i c a l l y th e m a i n c r i t e ri a b y w h i c h t h e s e n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e s d i f f e re d .H i s r e s e a rc h i s b a s e d o n a l a rg e q u e s t io n n a i re s u r v e y o f I B M e m p l o y e e s a n d m a n a g e r s

w o r k i n g i n 4 0 d i f f e re n t c o u n t ri e s . H o f s t e d e ' s w o r k i s e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i fi c a n t b e c a u s e

t h e t y p e o f o r g a n i s a t i o n i s h e l d c o n s t a n t a n d i t i s o n e o f t h e f e w l a r g e - s c a l e c r o s s -

c u l t u ra l s t u d i e s i n w h i c h t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a l l w o r k e d f o r a m u l t i n a t io n a l c o r p o r a t i o n

t h a t h a d u n i f o r m p e r s o n n e l p o l i c i e s . H e i s o l a t e d e m p i r i c a l p r o f i l e s f o r t h e s e 4 0

c o u n t r i e s a c r o s s f o u r c r i t er i a, w h i c h h e l a b e l l e d d i m e n s i o n s o f b a s i c c u l tu r a l v a l u e s .

T h e s e f o u r d i m e n s i o n s a r e :

9 P o w e r D i s t a n c e :

9 U n c e r t a in t y A v o i d a n c e ;9 I n d i v i d u a l i s m - C o l l e c t i v i s m ; a n d

9 M a s c u l i n i t y - F e m i n i t y .

H o f s t e d e c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t ia t e d b e t w e e n c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f a n a ti o n a l c u l t u r e a n d

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( p e r s o n a l i t y ) . C h a r a c t e r i s i n g a n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e d o e s

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The Dyn amics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 163

n o t m e a n t h a t e v e r y p e r s o n i n t h e n a t i o n h a s a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s c r i b e d t o a

c u lt u re . N a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s r e f e r t o th e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s o r n o r m s w i t h in e a c h n a t i o n ;

t h e s e d o n o t d e s c r i b e i n d i v i d u a l s .

5. Un derstand ing Cu ltural M etaphors

T h e d i m e n s i o n a l a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d b y K l u c k h o h n a n d S t r o d t b e c k ( 1 9 6 1 ) , H a l l

a n d H a l l ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n f lu e n t i a l a n d , a t t h e

s a m e ti m e , c o n t r o v e r s i a l. A s p o i n t e d o u t b y G a n n o n ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 1 ) , w h i l e t h e s e th e o r i st s

r e l y o n a s m a l l n u m b e r o f d im e n s i o n s s o th a t p r o f i le s o f v a r i o u s s o c i e t ie s c a n b e

c o n s t r u c te d , b y n e c e s s i t y t h e y l e a v e o u t m a n y f e a t u r e s o f t h e c u l tu r a l m i n d s e t s t h a t

a r e a c t i v a e d i n d a i l y c u l t u r a l a c t i v i ti e s , a n d t h e y f u r t h e r n e g l e c t t h e i n s t i tu t i o n s m o u l d -i n g th e s e m i n d s e t s . G a n n o n ( 1 9 9 4 ) i n h i s b o o k Unders tan ing G loba l Cu l tures a d o p t s

a m e t a p h o r i c m e t h o d w h i c h i n h i s v i e w s u p p l e m e n t s a n d e n r i c h e s t h e d i m e n s i o n a l

a p p r o a c h e s a d o p t e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r s o u t l i n e d a b o v e .

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d c u l t u r a l m e t a p h o r s G a n n o n ( 1 9 9 4 ) d r a w s o n t h e

d i m e n s i o n a l a p p r o a c h o u t l i n e d a b o v e , b u t i n a d d i t i o n e m b r a c e s a w i d e r a n g e o f

s o c i e t a l f e a t u r e s t h a t w o u l d r e f l e c t th e c o m p l e x i t y o f c u lt u re . T h e s e i n c l u d e r e l ig i o n ,

s m a l l g r o u p b e h a v i o u r , r a t e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l c h a n g e , p o l i t ic a l s t r u c t u re

o f a s o c ie t y , th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m o f a s o c i e ty , l a n g u a g e - - b o t h o r a l a n d w r i t t e n

c o m m u n i c a t i o n - - a n d o t h er c a t eg o r i e s t h at w e r e d e e m e d a p p r o p ri a te .

H i s m e t a p h o r i c a n a l y s i s w a s g u i d e d b y t h r e e i s s u e s t h a t w e r e p e r c e i v e d a s o fp a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . T h e s e i n c lu d e d :

1. t h e w o r l d v i e w t h a t a c l u s te r o f c o u n t r ie s m a y s h a re ,

2 . d i v e r s i t y i n t h e w o r k f o r c e , a n d

3 . s t e r e o t y p i n g .

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o i s o l a t e m e t a p h o r s c a p t u r i n g e a c h s o c i e t y , G a n n o n w a s a w a r e o f

t h e w o r k o f R o n e n a n d S h e n k a r ( 1 9 8 8 ), w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e a re e i g h t

c l u s te r s o f c o u n t ri e s t h a t h o l d c o m m o n w o r l d v i e w s ( e .g . A r a b c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t

o n e c l u s t e r ) . W i t h i n e a c h c l u s t e r , c o u n t r i e s a r e u n i t e d b y t h r e e m a j o r f a c t o r s : ( a ) ac o m m o n r e l i g i o n o r s i m i l a r r e l ig i o n s ; ( b ) la n g u a g e ; a n d ( c ) g e o g r a p h y o r l a n d a r e a .

T h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n w a s t h e A n g l o c l u s t e r , w h i c h h a s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d

c o u n t r i e s th r o u g h i m m i g r a t i o n b u t w h i c h h a s b e e n c u l t u r al l y u n i te d b y l a n g u a g e a n d

r e l ig i o n . W i t h i n - c l u s te r d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e a l s o b e e n r e c o g n i s e d e x p l i c it l y .

O t h e r s o u r c e s o f d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s o c i a l c la s s , e t h n i c i t y , r a c e , a g e a n d s e x . I n t e r -

a c t i o n s a m o n g t h e s e v a r i a b l e s a r e s h a p i n g n e w w o r k f o r c e s i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s .

A d i s ti n c ti o n b e t w e e n m e t a p h o r a n d s t e r e o t y p e is f u r th e r d r a w n b y G a n n o n ( 1 99 4 ).

W h i l e m e t a p h o r s a r e n o t s t e r e o t y p e s , t h e r e i s a d a n g e r t h a t m e t a p h o r s w i l l i n c l u d e

s o m e i n a c c u r a t e s t e r e o t y p i n g . C u l tu r a l m e t a p h o r s a s d e v e l o p e d b y G a n n o n h i g h l i g h t

p a t t e r n s o f th o u g h t , e m o t i o n a n d b e h a v i o u r t h a t a s o c i e t y m a n i f e s t s a n d t h a t a re c l e a r l y

a n d c o n c i s e ly p o r t r a y e d b y m e a n s o f a n e a si l y r e m e m b e r e d m e t a p h o r , w h i c h a c t s as

a g u i d e , a m a p a n d b e a c o n t o e n r i c h c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d i n t e ra c t io n s .

G a n n o n ( 1 9 9 4 ) g o e s o n t o d e s c r i b e 1 5 m e t a p h o r s a n d n a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e m , e .g . th e R u s s i a n b a l l e t ( R u s s i a ) ; F r e n c h w i n e ( F r a n c e ) ; t h e I t a l ia n o p e r a ( It a l y ) .

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164 E. M cCarthy

T h e s e c u l t ur a l m e t a p h o r h a v e b e e n i s o l at e d b e c a u s e t h e y r e p r e s en t a b r o a d a r r a y o f

c u l t u r a l m i n d s e t s t h a t h i g h l i g h t b o t h c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i ti e s . T h e c u l t u r a l

m e t a p h o r a d o p t e d t o d e s c r i b e I r e la n d i s Irish conversations. I r i s h h o s p it a l i ty , d e n o t e d

b y C 6 a d M i l e F a i l te , t ap s f r e e - f l o w i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n . R e f e r r i n g t o t he p o w e r o f t h ec o n v e r s a t i o n in I r i s h c u l t u r e G a n n o n ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 8 9 ) o b s e r v e s :

Conv ersations wi th the Irish are known to tak e strange turns, and one may end up discussing a subjectand not knowing how it arose ... it is not only wha t is said that is important, but also the mann er in w hichit is expressed ... [Ireland] is a 'being oriented' society in w hich the quality of life is given precedenceover m aterial rewards.

6 . H o f s t e d e ' s F o u r D i m e n s i o n s o f N a t i o n a l C u l t u r e

T h e t h e m e o f s h a r e d a n d c o l l e c t i v e l ea r n i n g w h i c h r e s o n a t e s t h r o u g h t h e d e f i n i ti o n so f c u l t u r e o u t l i n e d a b o v e r e fl e c t s K l u c k h o h n ' s ( 1 9 5 4 : 4 ) v i e w t h a t c u l t u r e is a ' s t o r e -

h o u s e o f p o o l e d b e h a v i o u r ' . H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) v i e w s v a l u e s a s th e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f

c u l tu r e . R o k e a c h ' s ( 1 9 7 3 ) d e f i n i t io n o f th e f u n c t i o n s o f v a lu e s i n t e rm s o f g u i d i n g

p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e s e lf , e v a l u a ti o n o f j u d g e m e n t s a n d r a t io n a l i s in g o u r o w n a c t io n s

p r o v i d e s u s w i t h a v i e w o f c u l t u r e a s a s t r u c t u r e w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to m a k e s e n s e o f

o u r o w n b e h a v i o u r a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h o s e a r o u n d u s .

H o f s t e d e ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) d i m e n s i o n a l f r a m e w o r k p r o v i d e d a f ir s t b r e a k t h r o u g h i n

d e l i n e a t i n g t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n s o c i e t a l / n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

T h e f o u r f o l d d i m e n s i o n a l f r a m e w o r k p r o v i d e s a s t r u c tu r e f o r id e n t i f y in g f u n d a m e n t a l

v a l u es w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t o n a ti o n a l c u l tu r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e . T h e f o u rd i m e n s i o n s o f n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e i s o l a te d b y H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) w i l l b e e x a m i n e d i n d e t a il

b e l o w a n d c o r e f i n d in g s f r o m h i s e m p i r i c a l w o r k w i ll a l s o b e d i s c us s e d .

6 .1 P o w e r D i s t a n c e

T h e f i r s t d i m e n s i o n o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i s c a l l e d Power Distance. I t i n d i c a t e s t h e

e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s o c i e t y a c c e p t s t h e f a c t t h a t p o w e r i n i n s ti t u t io n s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s

i s d i s t r i b u t e d u n e q u a l l y . I t is r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v a l u e s o f t h e l es s p o w e r f u l m e m b e r s o f

s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s i n t h o s e o f t h e m o r e p o w e r f u l o n e s .

6 . 2 U n c e r t a i n t y A v o i d a n c e

T h e s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n , Uncertainty Avoidance, i n d i c a te s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s o c i e t y

f e e l s t h r e a t e n e d b y u n c e r t a i n a n d a m b i g u o u s s i t u a t io n s a n d t r i es t o a v o i d t h e s e

s i t u a t io n s b y p r o v i d i n g g r e a t e r c a r e e r s t a b i l i ty , e s t a b l i s h i n g m o r e f o r m a l r u le s , n o t

t o l e r a t i n g d e v i a n t i d e a s a n d b e h a v i o u r s , a n d b e l i e v i n g i n a b s o l u t e t r u t h s a n d th e

a t t a i n m e n t o f e x p e r t is e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o c i e t i es i n w h i c h u n c e r t a i n t y a v o i d a n c e i s

s t r o n g a r e a ls o c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a n x i e t y a n d a g g r e s s i v e n e s s t h a t

c r e a t e s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a s t r o n g i n n e r u r g e i n p e o p l e t o w o r k h a r d .

6 . 3 I n d i v i d u a l i s m - C o l l e c t i v i s m

T h e th i r d d i m e n s i o n e n c o m p a s s e s Individualism a n d i t s o p p o s i t e , Collectivism. I n d i -

v i d u a l i s m i m p l i es a l o o s e l y k n i t so c i a l f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h p e o p l e a r e s u p p o s e d t o

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The D yna m ic s o f C u l tu r e , O r ga n i sa t i ona l C u l tu r e a nd C ha ng e 165

t a k e c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d o f t h e i r i m m e d i a t e f a m i l i e s o n l y , w h i l e c o l l e c t i v i s m

i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a ti g h t s o c i a l f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h p e o p l e d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

i n - g r o u p s a n d o u t - g r o u p s ; t h e y e x p e c t t h e ir i n - g r o u p ( r e l a t iv e s , c la n , o r g a n i s a t i o n s )

t o l o o k a f t e r th e m , a n d i n e x c h a n g e f o r t h a t th e y f e e l t h e y o w e a b s o l u t e l o y a l t y t o it.

6.4 Masculinity

T h e f o u r t h d i m e n s i o n i s c a l l e d Mascu l in i ty e v e n t h o u g h , i n c o n c e p t , it e n c o m p a s s e s

i ts o p p o s i t e p o l e , Femin in i ty . T h i s d i m e n s i o n r e f e r s t o t h e d o m i n a n t s e x ro l e p a t te r n s

o f m a l e a s s e r t i v e n e s s a n d f e m a l e n u rt u r a n ce . A c c o r d i n g t o C h e t w y n a n d H a r n e t t (1 9 7 8 )

t h e s e x / g e n d e r r o l e s y s t e m i s a t t h e c o r e o f o u r c u l t u ra l n o r m s . M e a s u r e m e n t s i n

t e r m s o f t h is d i m e n s i o n e x p r e s s t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e d o m i n a n t v a l u e s i n s o c i e t y

a r e ' m a s c u l i n e ' - t h a t i s, a s s e r ti v e n e s s , t h e a c q u i s it i o n o f m o n e y a n d t h i n g s , a n d n o t

c a r i n g f o r o t he r s , t h e q u a l it y o f li f e o r p e o p l e . T h e s e v a l u e s w e r e l a b e l l e d ' m a s c u l i n e '

b e c a u s e , w i t h i n n e a r l y a l l s o c ie t i e s , m e n s c o r e d h i g h e r i n te r m s o f t h e v a l u e s ' p o s i t i v e

s e n s e t h a n o f t h e i r n e g a t i v e s e n s e ( i n t e r m s o f a s s e rt i v e n e s s , f o r e x a m p l e , r a t h e r th a n

i ts l ac k ) - e v e n t h o u g h t h e s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e m i g h t v e e r t o w a r d t h e ' f e m i n i n e ' p o l e .

T a b l e 1 p r e s e n t s a s u m m a r y p r o f i l e o f r e s p o n s e s o f m a n a g e r s i n f iv e c o u n t ri e s a s

i d e n t i f i e d o n H o f s t e d e ' s f o u r - d i m e n s i o n a l s c a l e .

I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t p o w e r d i s t a n c e p r e s e n t s a s r e la t i v e l y s m a l l i n E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g

c o u n t r i e s ( I r e l a n d , U K , U S A ) a n d i n N o r d i c c o u n t r i e s ( S w e d e n ) , w h i l e i t i s s i g n i f -

i c a n t l y la r g e in J a p a n . W e a k u n c e r t a i n t y a v o i d a n c e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s a p o t e n t i a l f o r

r i s k t a k i n g , n o v e l t y a n d a h i g h t o l e r a n c e f o r a m b i g u i t y , o p e r a t e s i n I r e l a n d a n d i nS w e d e n . I n d i v i d u a l i s m i s v e r y h ig h i n th e U S A a n d t h e U K a n d h i g h in I r e la n d a n d

S w e d e n . I n c o n t r a s t , J a p a n d i s p l a y s a c o l l e c t i v i s t o r i e n t a t i o n w h i c h r e f l e c t s t h e

J a p a n e s e a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e g r o u p .

T h e individuality v e r s u s g roup f a c t o r h a s b e e n f o u n d u s e f u l i n a c o m p a r i s o n o f

E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n t y p e o r g a n i s a t io n s . F o r e x a m p l e , E a s t e r n s o c i e t i es ( e . g. J a p a n )

h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s h i g h o n g r o u p f a c t o r s ( g r o u p i d e n t i ty , g r o u p s h a r i n g , g r o u p

d e c i s i o n m a k i n g e t c .) , w h i l e W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s ( U K , U S A ) h a v e b e e n i s o l a t e d as

b e i n g o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s a n i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h

a s it h a s e v o l v e d i n th e U S A e m p h a s i s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e j o b a n d s e l f -

m o t i v a t i o n , w h i c h i n t u rn d o e s n o t e n h a n c e t h e c o l le c t i v e s e lf , s u c h a s t h e f o r m a t i o n

T a b l e 1. Na t ion a l cu l ture : index scores ac ross four d imens ions , for f ive countr ie s .

I nde x I r e la nd U K S w e de n Ja pa n U S A S c o r ed im e ns ions r a nge

Pow er 32 ( smal l ) 32 ( smal l ) 31 ( smal l ) 93 ( la rge ) 43 ( smal l ) 11-9 4

D is t a nc e ( m e d ia n 44 )

U nc e r t a in ty 28 ( w e a k ) 34 ( w e a k ) 27 ( w e a k ) 53 40 ( w e a k ) 8 - 12a vo ida nc e ( r e la t i ve ly ( m e d ia n 56

s t rong)

Indiv id ua l ism 71 (h igh) 87 (h igh) 71 (h igh) 46 90 (h igh) 12-91

( m e d ium ) ( m e d ia n 50 )

M a sc u l in i t y 71 ( h igh ) 68 ( h igh ) 8 ( l ow ) 95 ( ve r y 63 ( h igh ) 5 - 95

f e m in in i ty h igh ) ( m e d ia n 50 )

S ou r c e : A da p te d f r om : H of s t e de ( 1984 ).

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166 E. M cCarthy

o f g r o u p i d e n t i t y a n d s o c i a l s u p p o r t . I n c o n t ra s t , n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s (i n

p a r t i c u l a r , N o r d i c c o u n t r i e s ) h a v e a d o p t e d m o d e l s o f a u t o n o m o u s g r o u p s , w h i l e

i n J a p a n g r o u p n e t w o r k s h a v e t a k e n t h e f o r m o f q u a l i t y c ir c l e s . W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s ,

i n c l u d i n g I r e l a n d , h a v e t e n d e d t o g r a f t o n t o t h e i r m a n a g e m e n t s t r u c t u r e s m e c h a n -i s m s t h a t h a v e p r o v e n s u c c e s s f u l in o t h e r s o c i e t ie s ( e .g . t h e J a p a n e s e q u a l i t y c i r c l e s

a p p r o a c h ) , w i t h o u t s e e k i n g t o r e s o n a t e w i t h fe a t u r e s o f th e i r o w n c u l t u r e s .

I r e l a n d , t h e U K a n d U S A d e m o n s t r a t e a m o d e r a t e l y h i g h d e g r e e o f masculinity,

w i t h J a p a n s h o w i n g t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e . I n c o n t r a s t , S w e d e n e x h i b i t s a l o w s c o r e i n

m a s c u l i n i t y , w h i c h c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s a s t r o n g o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s a f e m i n i n e

a p p r o a c h - e x p r e s s i n g g r e a t e r to l e r a n c e f o r g e n d e r e q u a l i t y , p o w e r s h a r i n g a n d

v a l u i n g n u r t u r i n g . I r e l a n d e x h i b i t s a s tr o n g m a s c u l i n i s t o r i e n t a t io n , a c u l t u r a l m o d e

w h i c h h a s b e e n h i g h l i g h t e d b y a n u m b e r o f re c e n t s t u d ie s ( s e e M c C a r t h y , 1 9 88 ;

Report of the Second Commission on the Status of Women, 1 9 9 3 ) . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h

e v i d e n c e w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t c u l t u r a l v a l u e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e a t t i tu d e s ,

p e r c e p t i o n s a n d b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y M c C a r t h y

a n d W i n t e r s ( 1 9 9 5 ) a n d W i n t e r s ( 1 9 9 6 ) . I n t h i s r e s e a r c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

c u l t u r a l v a lu e s a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f I r is h a n d R u s s i a n m a n a g e r s w o r k -

i n g t o g e t h e r i n a j o i n t v e n t u r e o r g a n i s a ti o n i n M o s c o w w a s e x a m i n e d , A d o p t i n g

H o f s t e d e ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) s c a le a n d a R e p e r t o r y G r i d m e t h o d o l o g y ( K e l l y , 1 9 5 5 ), i t w a s

c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t I r i s h m a n a g e r s t e n d t o a d v o c a t e m a s c u l i n e v a l u e s o f i n d i -

v i d u a l t iy , a d v a n c e m e n t e t c. , t h u s s u p p o r t i n g th e f in d i n g s o f H o f s t e d e (1 9 8 4 ) a n d

M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 4 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , R u s s i a n m a n a g e r s p l a c e d a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s

o n p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d l o y a l t y , q u a l i t i e s i n d i c a t i v e o f a ' f e m i n i n e ' c u l t u r e( A r m s t r o n g , 1 9 6 5 ; H o f s t e d e , 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e e m e r g e n t m o d e f o r I r i s h m a n a g e r s c o n f l i c ts

w i t h d e e p n e e d s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o e q u a l i t y , w h i c h h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y i n

t h e I ri s h c o n t e x t a n d w h i c h a r e s e e k i n g n e w f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d a c t i o n i n

t o d a y ' s w o r k a n d s o c i e t a l s y s te m s .

7 . C u l t u r e a n d O r g a n i s a t io n s

O r g a n i s a t i o n s o p e r a t e w i t h i n a n d a c r o s s c u l t u r e s a n d t h e y a l s o g e n e r a t e c u l t u r e s o f

t h e i r o w n . O r g a n i s a t io n a l m e m b e r s ( m a n a g e r s a n d w o r k e r s ) c r e a te a n d r e c e i v e sh a r e dm e an i ngs em bod i ed i n f o r m s t ha t m ay f ac i l i t a te o r obs t r uc t t he o r gan i s a t i on ' s a c t i v it i e s.

W e c a n t h i n k o f t h is e x c h a n g e o f m e a n i n g s a s o p e r a t i n g a t th r e e l e v e l s : th e m i c r o

i n d i v i d u a l o r s m a l l g r o u p l e v e l , th e l e v e l o f t h e l a rg e g r o u p ( e .g . m a n a g e r s , w o m e n

w o r k e r s ) a n d a t t h e o v e r a l l o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e v e l ( G r i s w o l d , 1 9 9 4 ) .

T h e c r o s s - c u lt u r a l p r o g r a m m e o f H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s c h a n n e l l e d i n t e re s t in

t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e f o r o r g a n i s a ti o n a l c u l tu r e , a n d h a s a l so f o c u s e d

a t t e n t i o n o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e , o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . R e c e n t r e v i e w e r s o f r e s e a r c h d e s i g n e d t o ta p t h e n a t u r e

o f t h e r e la t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t

c u l t u r e i m p a c t s o r g a n i s a ti o n s d i f f e r e n t ly a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e o r g a n i s a ti o n .

A l d e r e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 ) o b s e r v e t h a t w h i l e o r g a n i s a t i o n s a r e b e c o m i n g m o r e s i m i l a r i n

t e r m s o f st r u c t u re a n d t e c h n o l o g y , p e o p l e ' s b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n o r g a n i s a ti o n s c o n t i n u e s

t o m a n i f e s t c u l t u r a l l y b a s e d d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s . F u r t h e r , i t h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t

s i n g l e - c u l tu r e s t u d ie s w h i c h a t t e m p t to d o c u m e n t a s p e c t s o f o r g a n i s a ti o n a l b e h a v i o u r

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The Dy nam ics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 167

i n m a n y c o m p a n i e s c o n s t i t u t e a l m o s t h a l f o f th e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d ( A d l e r e t a l. 1 9 8 7) .

O n t h e w h o l e t h e s e s t u d ie s a r e n o t d e s i g n e d t o id e n t i f y s i m i l a r i ti e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s

a c r o s s s o c i e t i e s .

M o r e r e c e n t l y O n g e l a n d S m i t h ( 1 99 4 ) , w h o r e v i e w e d 2 5 y e a r s o f a r ti c le s ( s u b m i t t e dto t he Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology), h a v e i d e n t i f i e d 1 3 g e n e r a l a r e a s o f

r e s e a r c h . I t i s o f i n t e r e s t th a t s o m e 5 7 % o f t h e a r t i c l e s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s s o c i a l ( s o c i a l

p e r c e p t i o n p r i m a r i l y ) , w h i l e p e r s o n a l i t y , m e t h o d o l o g y a n d c o g n i t i o n c o n s t i t u t e 3 0 .3 %

o f th e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s. T h u s , t h i s r e v i e w d e m o n s t r a t e d a p r e d o m i n a n c e o f s t u d ie s

o n s o c i a l i s s u e s a n d d e c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n b e i n g g i v e n t o s t u d i e s o n d e v e l o p m e n t a l /

p e r c e p t u a l c o n c e r n s . O n g e l a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 9 4 ) f u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t e d a g r o s s l a c k o f

s t a n d a r d i s a ti o n i n t e r m s o f t h e m e t h o d s a d o p t e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r s .

T h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e i n th e f i e ld o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u re h a v e c l e a r l y b e e n s h a p e d

b y t h e w o r k o f c u lt u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d c r o s s - c u l tu r a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s ( e .g . S c h e i n ,

1 9 8 5, 1 9 9 0) . S c h e i n ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r e s e n t s o n e o f t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e

v i e w s o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e - h i s re p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o r g a n i s a ti o n c u l t u r e c l o s e l y

m i r r o r s t h a t o u t l in e d b y H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

8 . O r g a n i s a t i o n a l C u l t u r e

O r g a n i s a t i o n c u l t u r e h a s it s f o u n d a t i o n i n t h e c o n c e p t s o f g r o u p n o r m s a n d o r g a n -

i s a ti o n a l c l i m a t e a n d h a s b e c o m e a d r i v in g f o r c e i n a t t e m p t s t o m o v e a n o r g a n i s a t i o n

t o w a r d c h a n g e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .T h e i n n e r c o n t e x t o f a n o r g a n i s a ti o n a s e x p e r i e n c e d b y i ts m e m b e r s h a s b e e n c o n -

c e p t u a l i s e d b y M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 9 7 ) a t t w o l e v e l s: o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c l im a t e a n d o r g a n i s a t io n a l

c u l tu r e . T h e c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c l i m a t e p i o n e e r e d a f o c u s o n th e p s y c h o s o c i a l

s t r u c t u r a l in n e r e n v i r o n m e n t o f a n o r g a n i s a t i o n . I t g r e w o u t o f a t r a d i ti o n i n o r g a n i s a -

t i o n al p s y c h o l o g y o f id e n t i f y in g a n d d i a g n o s i n g a s w e l l as m e a s u r i n g c o r e d i m e n s i o n s

o f a n o r g a n i sa t io n a s e x p e r ie n c e d a n d p e r c e i v e d b y i ts m e m b e r s . T h e w o r k o f s o c ia l

p s y c h o l o g i s t K u r t L e w i n ( s e e L e w i n e t a l. , 1 9 39 ) p i o n e e r e d e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t c li m a t e s . T h e i s s u e s o f d e fi n i ti o n s , m e a s u r e m e n t a n d

c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c l i m a t e g a v e r is e t o n u m e r o u s r e v i e w s d u r i n g

t h e 1 9 6 0 s , 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s ( s e e T a g u i r i , 1 9 6 8 ; S c h n e i d e r , 1 9 7 2 ; J a m e s a n d J o n e s ,1 9 74 ) . J a m e s a n d J o n e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n psychological climate, w h i c h

i s r e g a r d e d a s a n i n d i v i d u a l a t t r i b u t e , a n d organisation climate, w h i c h i s r e g a r d e d a s

a n organisationaI a t tr i b u te . D i s ti l li n g f r o m t h e m a j o r c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s o f c li m a t e ,

9 h e i d e a d e v e l o p e d t h a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c l i m a t e i s in t e r p r e t e d b y m e m b e r s t o h a v e

c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d q u a l i t y t o w h i c h t h e y a r e s e n s i t i v e a n d w h i c h i n t u r n

s h a p e s m e m b e r s ' a t ti tu d e s , m o t i v a t i o n a n d b e h a v i o u r . I t w a s f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

t h e p e r c e p t u a l r e s p o n s e s s o u g h t i n m e a s u r i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c l i m a t e a r e p r i m a r i l y

d e s c r i p t i v e r a t h e r t h a t e v a l u a t i v e . S i n c e t h e 1 9 8 0 s i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e c o n c e p t o f

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e b u r s t i n t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n c h a n g e

l a n d s c a p e a n d w a s e x p e c t e d t o r e s o l v e o r cl a r if y a m u l t it u d e o f f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s

a n d i s s u e s ( B e t e , 1 9 9 0 ) .

T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e r e s e a r c h b u i l t o n th e f i n d i n g s o f th e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c l i m a t e r e s e a r c h a n d s o u g h t f u r t h e r t o p e n e t r a t e t h e d e e p e r v a l u e s , n o r m s , a s s u m p t i o n s

a n d l a n g u a g e e m b e d d e d i n a n o rg a n i s a ti o n s y s t e m .

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168 E. Mc Carthy

S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n h is c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l tu r e o b s e r v e s

t h a t w e n e e d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n c l i m a t e a n d n o r m s a n d t h a t it i s th i s n e e d

t h a t n a t u r a l l y d r i v e s u s to s e e k ' d e e p e r ' c o n c e p t s s u c h a s c u l t u r e . S c h e i n d e f i n e s

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u lt u r e a s c o m p r i s i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s o f a s e l f - d e f i n e dg r o u p . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y h e s t a t e s t h a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e is :

(a) a pattern o f basic assum ptions, (b) invented, discovered or developed b y a given group, (c) as it learnsto cope with its problems o f external adaptation and internal integration, (d) that has wo rked well enoughto be considered valid and, therefore, (e) is to be taught to new members as (f) the correct way toperceive, think and feet in relation to those problems (Schein, 1990:111)

T h e c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e h a s a t i ts r o o t a s y s t e m o f c o r e v a l u e s a n d

b e l i e fs a b o u t p e o p l e a n d w o r k w h i c h a r e s h a re d a n d a r e h y p o t h e s i s e d t o g u i d e a n d

s h a p e m a n a g e r i a l a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r . T h e c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c l i m a t e

a l s o t a p s i n to c o r e b e l i e f s a n d n o r m s a n d th u s b o t h c o n s t r u c t s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

s h a r i n g an o v e r l a p p i n g c o m m o n g r o u n d c o m p r i s i n g c e n t ra l b e li e f s a n d v a l u e s .

S i m i l a r to s o c i e t a l cu l tu r e , a m y r i a d o f d e f i n i ti o n s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d i n a n a t t e m p t

t o d e s c r i b e a n d c l a r i fy th e c o n s t r u c t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u lt u re . F o l l o w i n g a r e l i s t e d s o m e

d e f i n i t i o n s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , i s o l a t e d b y o t h e r i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r s i n t h e f i e l d .

9 C u l t u r e r e f e r s t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g v a l u e s , b e l i e f s a n d p r i n c i p l e s t h a t s e r v e a s a

f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m a s w e l l as t h e se t o f

m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s a n d b e h a v i o u r s t h a t b o t h e x e m p l i f y a n d re i n f o r c e th o s e

b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s ( D e n i s o n , 1 9 9 0 ).

9 C u l t u r e c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h e s h a r e d p h i l o s o p h i e s , id e o l o g i e s , v a l u e s , a s s u m p t i o n s ,

b e l i e f s , e x p e c t a t i o n s , a t t i tu d e s a n d n o r m s t h a t k n i t a c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r ( K i l m a n n

e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ) .

9 A g e n e r a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f b e l i e f s , m o r e s , v a l u e s , s y s t e m s , b e h a v i o u r a l n o r m s a n d

w a y s o f c h a n g i n g b u s i n e s s t h a t a r e u n i q u e t o e a c h c o r p o r a t i o n ( T u r n s t a l l , 1 9 8 3 ) .

9 T h e w a y w e d o t h in g s a r o u n d h e r e ( D e a l a n d K e n n e d y , 1 9 82 ) .

W h i l e t h e r e i s n o c o n s e n s u s o n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i n u s e , m o s t

a u t h or s w o u l d p r o b a b l y a g r e e o n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e c o n s t r u c t :

9 h o l i s t i c ;

9 h i s t o r i c a l ly d e t e r m i n e d ;

9 r e l a t i n g t o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s ;

9 s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d ;

9 s o f t ; a n d

9 d i f f i c u l t t o c h a n g e .

A c c o r d i n g t o S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) , a g i v e n s e t o f p e o p l e h a v e t o h a v e e n o u g h s t a b i l i t y

a n d c o m m o n h i s t o r y t o a l l o w a c u lt u r e to f o rm . T h i s m e a n s t h a t s o m e o r g a n i s a t i o n s

w i l l h a v e n o o v e r a r c h i n g c u l t u re b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n o c o m m o n h i s t o r y o r h a v e

f r e q u e n t tu r n o v e r o f m e m b e r s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o t h e r o r g a n i s a t io n s c a n b e p r e s u m e d

t o h a v e ' s t r o n g ' c u l t u r e s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e a l o n g s h a r e d h i s t o r y ( e .g . a r e l i g i o u s

c o m m u n i t y ) 'o r b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e s h a r e d i m p o r t a n t i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e s ( as i n a

c o m b a t u n it ) . A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t t h at o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e h a s c o m m o n p r o p e r t i e s

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The Dyn amics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 169

o r s h a r e d m e a n i n g s d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t th e r e c a n n o t b e s u b c u l t u r e s w i t h i n

a n y g i v e n o v e r a l l c u l t u r e . M o s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a v e b o t h a n o v e r a r c h i n g c u l t u r e a n d

n u m e r o u s s e ts o f su b c u l t u re s . F r o m R o b b i n s ' ( 1 9 8 9 ) p e r s p e c t i v e a d o m i n a n t c u l tu r e

e x p r e s s e s t h e c o r e v a l u e s t h a t a re s h a r e d b y a m a j o r i t y o f th e o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s m e m b e r s .T y p i c a l l y , w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t a n o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s c u l t u r e w e a r e r e fe r r i n g to i ts d o m i n a n t

c u l tu r e . S u b c u l t u r e s t e n d t o d e v e l o p i n l a r g e o r g a n i s a t io n s t o r e fl e c t c o m m o n p r o b l e m s ,

s i tu a t i o n s o r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f w o r k t h a t m e m b e r s f a c e . T h e s e s u b c u l t u r e s

c a n f o r m v e r t i c a l ly o r h o r i z o n t a l l y o r b o t h .

F o r e x a m p l e , o n e p r o d u c t d i v i s i o n m a y h a v e a c u l t u re u n i q u e f r o m t h a t o f o th e r

d i v i s i o n s o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . I n th i s s i t u a t io n a v e r t i c a l s u b c u l t u r e e x i s t s . W h e n a

s p e c i f i c s e t o f f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s s u c h a s a c c o u n t a n t s , s a l e s p e o p l e e tc . h a v e a

c o m m o n s e t o f s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a h o r i z o n t a l s u b c u l t u r e i s f o r m e d . F o r t h e

m o s t p a r t, h o w e v e r , s u b c u l t u r e s t e n d t o b e d e f i n e d b y d e p a r t m e n t a l d e s i g n a t i o n s o r

g e o g r a p h i c a l s e p a r a t i o n s . S u b c u l t u r e s c a n a l s o b e d e s i g n a t e d b y c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p le ~

e .g . m e n a n d w o m e n . R e c e n t r e s e ar c h h a s h i g h li g h te d t he d o m i n a n c e o f g e n d e re d

c u l tu r e s i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s . G e n d e r e d c u l t u re s r e f e r t o d i f f e re n t s u b c u l t u r e s o p e r a t i n g

f o r w o m e n c o m p a r e d w i t h m e n i n o r g an i s a ti o n s a n d m a y b e c h a r a c te r i se d b y s te r e o-

t y p i c b e l ie f s a n d v a l u e s a r o u n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e s r e l a ti n g t o t he w o r k r o l e s o f

w o m e n c o m p a r e d w i th m e n ( M a d d o x a n d P e rk i n , 1 9 9 3; M c C a r t h y , 1 9 94 ).

W h e t h e r e a c h g r o u p i n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e a s i m i l a r d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e

i s a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n p o s e d b y r e s e a r c h e r s i n r e c e n t y e a r s ( K i l m a n n e t a l. , 1 9 8 5 ,

1 9 8 6) . A f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s to t h e p r e s s u r e t h a t a c u l t u re e x e r t s o n m e m b e r s o f

t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f th e d i r e c t i o n ( e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ) w i t h r e f e r e n c et o th e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l g o a l s . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a ' s t r o n g ' c u l t u r e t h a t c h a n n e l s

m e m b e r s ' b e h a v i o u r a g a i n s t t h e o r g a n i s a t io n ' s f o r m a l g o a ls a n d o b j e c t iv e s c a n b e

t h r e a t e n i n g . C o n v e r s e l y , e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a c u l t u r e t h a t c a p t u r e s t h e g r o u p ' s

e n e r g y a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a n d m o v e s a c t i v i t y i n t h e d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n w i l l f a c i l i t a t e

t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n t o a c c o m p l i s h i t s g o a ls a n d m o b i l i s e it t o w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n

e f f e c t i v e o r g a n i s a t i o n .

T h e p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f o r g a n is a t io n a l c u l t u r e h a s b e e n h i g h l i g h te d b y m a n y a n a ly s t s.

P h e y s e y ( 1 9 9 3 ) t r a c e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e s t o o r g a n -

i s a t io n a l d e s i g n , j o b d e s i g n , m o t i v a t i o n , d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , c o n t r o l, g r o u p b e h a v i o u r ,

l e a d e r sh i p a n d o r g a n i s a t io n a l c h a n g e . H e r f r a m e w o r k m a p s o u t t h e s a li e n c e o f c u l tu r ef o r a n a l y s i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r . F u r t h e r, t h is f r a m e w o r k e m p h a s i s e s t h e c e n t r a l-

i t y o f v a l u e s a n d b e l i e f s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o r e f a c e t s o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s y s t e m

a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l l i f e.

9 . Leve l s o f Or gan i sa t iona l Cu l ture

I n h i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) p r o p o s e s a

u s e f u l t h r e e - le v e l f r a m e w o r k w h i c h c a n b e a d o p t e d i n a n a l y s i n g t h e c u l tu r e o f ap a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o r o r g a n i s a t i o n . T h e t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l s a t w h i c h o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c u l t u re m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f a r e a s f o l lo w s :

9 o b s e r v a b l e a rt e f a c ts ;

9 v a l u e s ; a n d

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1 7 0 E . M c C a r t h y

9 b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s .

T h e a r t e f a c t s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s e v e r y t h i n g f r o m t h e p h y s i c a l l a y o u t , d r e s s c o d e ,

t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h p e o p l e a d d r e s s e a c h o t h e r , th e s m e l l a n d f e e l o f t h e p l a c e ,

i ts e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a . P h y s i c a l a r t e f a c t s s u c h a s r e s e r v e d

p a r k i n g p l ac e s , a n d o p e n d o o r s a t m a n a g e m e n t ' s o f f i c e a s o p p o s e d t o g u a r d in g

r e c e p t i o n i s t s , a l s o s y m b o l i s e s t a t u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o p e n n e s s a n d s e c r e c y . A r t e f a c t s

a l s o e m b r a c e p e r m a n e n t a r c h i v a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s s u c h a s c o m p a n y r e c o r d s , p r o -

d u c t s , s t a t e m e n t s o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d a n n u a l r e p o r t s . A r t e f a c t s c a n a l s o t a k e t h e f o r m

o f s y m b o l s i n l e s s t a n g i b l e w a y s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f l a n g u a g e , o f s t o r y t e l l i n g , o f

m y t h a n d o f re l a t i n g c r it i c a l i n c i d e n t s . W h i l e a r t e fa c t s c a n b e o b s e r v e d a n d t h e y a r e

p a l p a b l e , n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e y p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T o w h a t e x t e n t t h e y

a r e a r e l i a b l e in d i c a t i o n o f h o w m e m b e r s o f th e o r g a n i s a t i o n f e e l a n d r e a c t is a n

o n g o i n g c h a l le n g e .T h e v a l u e s e m b e d d e d i n p a r ti c u la r c u l tu r e s m a y b e e s p o u s e d o r h id d e n ( a s su m p -

t io n s ). E s p o u s e d v a l u e s a r e g e n e r a l l y id e n t i f ia b l e b y v a r i o u s m e a n s , i n c l u d i n g m i s s i o n

s t a t e m e n t s , s l o g a n s a n d g r o u p m i s s i o n s , w h i l e h i d d e n v a l u e s a r e l e s s v i s i b l e a n d i n

s o m e c a s e s s a c r e d . A c u l t u r e ' s e s p o u s e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d V a lu e s, n o r m s , i d e o l o g i e s ,

c h a r t e rs a n d p h i l o s o p h i e s c a n b e f u r t h e r p r o b e d t h r o u g h i n t e r v i e w s , f o c u s e d

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a n d s u r v e y in s t r u m e n t s . H o w e v e r , i t i s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t d e e p e r p r o b i n g

i s r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o d e c i p h e r t h e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d , u n d e r l y i n g a n d u s u a l l y

u n c o n s c i o u s a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t i m p a c t o n a n d s h a p e p e r c e p ti o n s , t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s ,

f e e li n g s , la n g u a g e a n d b e h a v i o u r . T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g o f c u lt u r e h a s b e e n

i d e n t if i e d b y S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0 : 1 1 2 ) a s f o l lo w s : ' o n c e o n e u n d e r s t a n d s s o m e o f t h e s ea s s u m p t i o n s i t b e c o m e s m u c h e a s i e r t o d e c i p h e r t h e m e a n i n g s i m p l i c i t i n th e v a r i o u s

b e h a v i o u r a l a n d a r t i f a c t u a l p h e n o m e n a o n e o b s e r v e s ' . F u r t h e r , i t h a s b e e n a r g u e d

t h a t o n c e o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e u n d e r l y i n g t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d a s s u m p t i o n s , o n e c a n

b e t t e r u n d e r st a n d h o w c u l tu r e s c a n s e e m t o b e a m b i g u o u s o r e v e n s e l f - c o n t r a d ic t o r y .

F o r e x a m p l e , i t ha s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d i n th e I r i sh c o n t e x t th a t w h i le t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s

s t a te d a n d e s p o u s e d v a l u e m a y b e d i r e c t e d a t th e r e a l i s a ti o n o f t h e l e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l

a n d c o m m i t m e n t o f a ll it s m e m b e r s , a t t h e s a m e t im e w o m e n w o r k e r s ' a c c e s s t o

t r a i n in g a n d l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s m a y b e s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d a n d e v e n n o n - e x i s t e n t

c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e ir m a l e c o m p a r a t i v e g r o u p ( M c C a r th y , 1 9 8 8) .

Fu r t he r , r e sea r ch condu c t ed by t h is au t ho r ( McC ar t hy , 1997) tr a ced t he r e la t i onsh i ps

b e t w e e n s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e / c l i m a t e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f

g e n d e r e d c u l t u re s . R e c e n t t h e o r is t s h a v e r e c o g n i s e d t h e c o m p l e x i t y in m a p p i n g c u l tu r a l

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r ie r s f o r w o m e n a t w o r k a n d t h e d i f f i c u lt y in d e s c r i b i n g a n d

a n a l y s i n g t h e s e b a r r i e rs . T h i s v i e w i s r e i n f o r c e d b y M a r s h a l l , w h o o b s e r v e s :

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m e m b e r s a l s o ty p i c a l l y f a il t o r e c o g n i s e t h e p o te n t i a l ly g e n d e r e d n a t u r e o f b a s i c c u l t u r a l

a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e s e s e l d o m b e c o m e a c c e s s i b l e to a w a r e n e s s o r o p e n t o d e b a te , a n d s o a r e h i g h l y r e s is t a n t

t o c h a n g e . M o s t e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s e f f o r t s le a v e t h e s e f o u n d a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e u n c h a n g e d . ( M a r s h a l l ,

1 9 9 3 : 3 1 5 - 3 1 6 )

F o l l o w i n g a la r g e - s ca l e q u a l it a ti v e in t e r v ie w i n g p r o g r a m m e w i th w o m e n w o r k e r s i nt h r e e l a r g e s e r v i c e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 7 7 ) c o n c e p t u a l i s e d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c u l tu r e f o r w o m e n a r o u n d s ix c o r e d i m e n s i o n s :

9 a u t o n o m y f o r w o m e n w o r k e rs ;

9 s u p p o r t , c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d w a r m t h ;

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The Dyn amics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 171

9 p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ;

9 e x p e c t a t i o n s r e l a t i n g to th e p o t e n t i a l o f w o m e n ; a n d

9 c h a n g e f o r w o m e n w o r k e r s .

I t w a s d e m o n s t r a te d t h a t w o m e n w o r k e r s ' p e r c e p t io n s o f w o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d w o m e n ' s r o l e in s o c i e t y w e r e s t r o n g e s t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g

a s s o ci a ti o n s : w h e r e a s o c i e ta l p e r c e p t io n o f ' b e l i e f b y m e n i n w o m e n ' s c o m p e t e n c e '

w a s p o s i t i v e , s ig n i f i c a n t p o s i t iv e r e la t i o n s h i p s w e r e e s t a b l is h e d f o r w o m e n ' s e x p e r -

i e n c e s o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u re , i .e . a u t o n o m y , o r g a n i s a t i o n a l r e w a r d s a n d s u p p o r t

a n d c o n s i d e r a ti o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e r e a ' b e l i e f i n e q u a l i t y f o r w o m e n ' w a s

p e r c e i v e d a s l o w a t t h e s o c ie t a l le v e l , n e g a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s e m e r g e d f o r c o r e o rg a n -

i s a ti o n a l c u l t u re d i m e n s i o n s , i . e. e x p e c t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g w o m e n ' s p o t e n t ia l , s t r a t e g ic

c h a n g e f o r w o m e n a t w o r k , a s w e l l a s s u p p o rt f o r w o m e n w o r k e r s .

T h e s e d a t a s u g g e s t a s e n s i t iv e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n s o c i e ta l a tt it u d e s t o w a r d s

w o m e n a n d o r g a n i s a ti o n a l g e n d e r e d c u lt u re s .

F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s ( M c C a r t h y , 1 9 9 7 ) c le a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d a s tr o n g a s s o c i a t i o n ( a t

t h e p < 0 .0 0 1 l e v e l o f s ig n i f i c a n c e ) b e t w e e n s i x o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e d i m e n s i o n s

a n d ' p e r c e p t i o n o f e q u a l i ty o f o p p o r t u n i ty f o r w o m e n i n m a n a g e m e n t ' . T h e s e f i n d in g s

s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p a t te r n o f d o m i n a n t a s s u m p t i o n s a n d v a l u e s e m b o d i e d i n th e c u l tu r a l

c o n t e x t o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n s a r e m a n i f e s t e d in d e c i s io n s a n d a c t i o n s w h i c h i m p a c t o n

w o m e n ' s i n t e g ra t i o n i n to m a n a g e m e n t . T h u s , w h e r e t h e o r g a n is a t i o n a l c u l tu r e e m b o d i e s

n e g a t i v e b e l i e f s a n d e v a l u a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g w o m e n ' s r o l e s a n d c o m p e t e n c e t h i s i n

t u r n i s r e f l e c t e d i n n e g a t i v e b e l i e f s a b o u t w o m e n ' s p o t e n t i a l a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o

m a n a g e m e n t a n d o r g a n i s at i o n a l e f f ec t iv e n e s s .

G e n e r a l l y , t h e a s s u m p t i o n s h e l d b y o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m e m b e r s a r e r o o t e d i n t h e

o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s h i s t o r y , p o s s i b l y d e f i n i n g a s t r a te g y t h a t w o r k e d o n c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r

t i m e a n d s o c i e t a l c o n te x t . O u t d a t e d a n d l i m i t i n g v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s h e l d w i t h i n

t h e d o m i n a n t s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i m p a c t o n l a r g e c a t e g o r i e s a n d

g r o u p s o f w o r k e r s c a n s e r i o u s l y i n h ib i t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d l i m i t

i n n o v a t i o n a n d g r o w t h .

1 0. M a n i f e s t a ti o n s o f C u l tu r e

F o r S c h e i n ( 1 9 8 5 ) , i n o r d e r t o d e c i p h e r a c u l t u r e t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r

( s c i e n ti s t /p r a c t it i o n e r ) t o d i s c o v e r a p a tt e r n o f i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t h e l p m a k e

s e n s e o f th e c u l t u r a l m a n i f e s t a t io n s .

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o e x a m i n e m a n i f e s t a ti o n s o f c u l tu r e w i t h i n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n J o h n s o n

( 1 9 9 0 ) s p e a k s o f t h e c u l tu r a l w e b o f o r g a n i s a t i o n . T h e c u l t u r a l w e b e m b o d i e s a c o h e r -

e n t s e t o f b e l i e fs a n d a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t b i n d s a g r o u p o f p e o p l e t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o l l e c t i v e

v i e w o f th e w o r l d . T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e m a n i f e s t e d in t h e f o r m o f s to r ie s a n d m y t h s ,

r i tu a l s , s y m b o l i c b e h a v i o u r , t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h p o w e r a n d

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s tr u ct u re s .

Stories and myths a r e i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f c u lt u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n ( H o w a r d , 1 9 8 8;

M o r g a n , 1 9 8 9) . T h e y a r e n a r r a t iv e s , b a s e d o n ' t r u e ' e v e n t s t h a t a re fr e q u e n t l y s h a r e d

a m o n g e m p l o y e e s . S t o r i e s s e r v e t o e s t a b l i s h a h e r i t a g e a n d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y f o r

t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n .

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172 E. M cCarthy

R i t u a l s a r e r o u t i n e w a y s o f l if e e m b e d d e d i n a g r o u p ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . S o m e r i tu a l s

a r e i n f o r m a l a n d p r i v a t e - k n o w n o n l y to m e m b e r s o f th e o r g a n is a t i o n . C e r e m o n i e s

a n d r it u a ls h o l d a n d b i n d a g r o u p t o g e t h e r b y g i v i n g a s e n s e o f c o n ti n u i t y a n d

s t a b i l i t y . I n f o r m a l r i t u a l s g u i d e b e h a v i o u r a n d s e t s t a n d a r d s o f a p p r o p r i a t e p r a c -t i ce ( e .g . p l a y , c o f f e e b r e a k s ) . B e h i n d e a c h r i t u a l is a m y t h t h a t s y m b o l i s e s a

b e l i e f c e n t r a l to t h e c u l t u re o f th e g r o u p . M o r e f o r m a l r it u a ls t a k e t h e f o r m o f

c e r e m o n i e s w h i c h o c c u r w h e n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n r e a c h e s p a r t i c u l a r m i l e s t o n e s ( e . g .

o p e n d a y s , g r a d u a t i o n ) .

S y m b o l i s m i n c l u d e s s l o g a n s a n d l a n g u a g e p l a y s a l a r g e r o l e i n t h e e n f o r c e m e n t

o f id e a s o r i m p r e s s i o n s . S l o g a n s a r e u s e d t o d i st i n g u is h a n o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s e f f o r ts

f r o m t h o s e o f it s c o m p e t i t o r s . O n e c a n s e e e v i d e n c e o f t h is i n t h e c o n s i s t e n t b a t t le

b e t w e e n C o c a C o l a a n d P e p s i a s t h e y t r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h e a c h o t h e r ' s p r o d u c t . I n

I r e l a n d , D u n n e ' s S t o r e s ' f a m o u s s l o g a n B e t t e r v a l u e b e a t s t h e m a l l ! h a s b e c o m e

a h o u s e h o l d e c h o .

L a n g u a g e i n t h e f o r m o f s t o ri e s, m y t h s , m e t a p h o r s a n d l e g e n d s i s o n e o f th e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f cu l tu r e . L a n g u a g e i s l i n k e d t o ' d e e p e r ' l a y e r s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c u l t u re a c t in g a s b o t h a n i n d i c a t o r o f c u lt u r a l e s s e n c e a n d a l s o a s a n a g e n t o f tr a n s f e r

( H o f s t e d e , 1 9 9 1 ) .

T h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t : p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n

o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s c u l t u r e a n d l if e . T h i s a s p e c t o f c u l tu r e h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e

' l a n g u a g e o f s p a c e ' b y M o r g a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e d e s i g n o f c o r p o r a t e b u i ld i n g s a n d t h e

t y p e , s i z e , s h a p e a n d l o c a t i o n o f th e f u r n i t u r e w i t h i n i t c a n b o t h a f f e c t a n d a t t h e

s a m e t i m e r e f l e c t c u l tu r e ( s e e D a v i s , 1 9 8 4) .P o w e r a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e f l e c t d e e p v a l u e s o f th e o r g a n i s a t i o n r e l a t in g t o

e q u a l i t y , p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a n d q u a l it y . T h e y i m p a c t o n l e v e l s o f p a r t i c i p a t io n a n d

e m p o w e r m e n t i n a n o r ga n i sa t io n .

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e t i c ( c r o s s - c u l t u r a l , u n i v e r s a l ) a n d e m i c ( c u l t u r e - b o u n d ,

s o c i et a l) p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a l y s i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d t h e

s o c i e t a l c u lt u r e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t i s e m b e d d e d .

T h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n s o c i e t al c u lt u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e i s p r e se n t e d

h e r e a s a f r u i tf u l m o d e l f o r d e e p e n i n g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e i n t e r fa c e b e t w e e n

n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

W i t h i n a g i v e n s o c i e t y ( e .g . Ir e l a n d ) o r g a n i s a t i o n A m a y e x h i b i t c u l tu r a l s y n d r o m e ss i m i l a r t o o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e I r i s h c o n t e x t a s w e l l a s c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s t h a t

a r e u n i q u e t o o r g a n i s a t i o n A . F r o m t h e e t i c - e m i c p e r s p e c t i v e t h e c o m m o n c r o s s -

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e fe a t u r e s w o u l d r e f l e c t sa l i e n t s o c i e t a l c u l t u r a l s y n d r o m e s w h i l e

u n i q u e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l o r e m i c f e a t u r e s w o u l d c h a r a c t e r i s e c o r e c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s

p e c u l i a r to o r g a n i s a t i o n A . T h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d o n a b o v e b y M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 9 7 )

w h i c h t a p p e d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e e x p e r i e n c e d b y w o m e n w o r k e r s i n t h r e e

s e r v i c e o rg a n i s a t i o n s y i e l d e d a p r o f i l e w h i c h c l e a r l y s u g g e s t e d c r o s s - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

s i m i la r it i es . T h u s , i t w a s s h o w n t h a t w o m e n i n e a c h o r g a n i s a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d t h e ir

o r g a n i sa t io n s a s p r o v i d i n g r e la i v e l y l o w r e w a r d s c o m p a r e d w i t h m e n . F u r t h e r, w o m e n

p e r c e i v e d t he i r o r g a n is a t io n s a n d m a n a g e m e n t a s h a v i n g ' m o r e c o n f i d e n c e i n m e n

t h an i n w o m e n ' , a n d ' g i v e m o r e e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o m e n t h a n t o w o m e n i n t he ir w o r k ' .

T h e s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f w o m e n a c r o s s th e t h r e e l a r g e -s c a l e s e r v i c e o r g a n i s a ti o n s

t a p s a c o m m o n c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s w o m e n , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t s t r o n g

s o c i e t a l e t ic g e n d e r p a t t e r n s ( h i g h m a s c u l i n i t y , l o w f e m i n i n i t y , a s i d e n t i f i e d b y

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The Dy nam ics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 173

H o f s t e d e , 1 9 8 4, a n d M c C a r t h y , 1 9 8 8) a r e a l so p r e s e n t a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e v e ls . T h u s ,

s u b c u l t u r es w i t h i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s m a y d i f f e r s i g n i fi c a n t ly f r o m o n e a n o t h e r - y i e l d in g

i n t r a - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . F u r t h e r , d o m i n a n t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s m a y m i r r o r

t r a d it i o n a l s o c i e t a l c u lt u r e a n d a s s u c h m a y v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t ly f r o m o t h e r s a l i e n t w i th i n -o r g a n i s a t i o n s u b c u l t u r e s t h a t a r e d r i v e n p r i m a r i l y b y t h e p o s t - m o d e r n v a l u e s o f

d i v e r s i ty , c o m p l e x i t y a n d e q u a l i ty .

T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u lt u re d e s i r e d b y w o m e n w o r k e r s d r a w s o n t h e p o s t - m o d e r n

p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d d i f f e r s s ig n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e t r a d it i o n a l g e n d e r e d c u l t u r e e n t r e n c h e d

i n th e d o m i n a n t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

R e s e a r c h o n w o m e n a n d e q u a l i t y in w o r k p l a c e s h a s s o u g h t to e x p l a i n h o w c u l t u re

i n f l u e n c e s s t r u c t u r e a n d h o w s t r u c t u r e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d t h r o u g h c u l t u r e s . I t h a s s h o w n

t h a t s o c i a l c h a n g e s o f g e n d e r , c l a s s a n d e t h n i c i t y a r e o f t e n r e p r o d u c e d i n w o r k s e t ti n g s

( M c C a r t h y , 1 9 9 7; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 93 ; U n i t e d N a t i o n s , 1 9 9 1) . M u l t i p l e m e a n i n g s a n d

c u l t u r a l l y b a s e d n u a n c e s a r e c a r r i e d o v e r f r o m s o c i e t a l c u l t u r e t o o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e s a n d s u b c u l t u r e s .

1 1. D i a g n o s i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n a l C u l t u r e

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o i d e n t i fy c o r e d i m e n s i o n s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u re s o m e t h e o r i s ts

a n d p r a c t i ti o n e r s a d o p t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s a m o d e l . W i t h i n t h is p e r s p e c t i v e c u l t u re i s

t o a n o r g a n i s a t i o n w h a t p e r s o n a l i t y is to a n i n d i v i d u a l . T h u s c u l t u r e is v i e w e d a s t h a t

d i s t i n c t i v e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f b e l i e f s , v a l u e s , w o r k s t y l e s a n d r e l a t io n s h i p s t h a t d i s ti n -g u i s h o n e o r g a n i s a ti o n f r o m a n o th e r. T h e m o d e l d e v e l o p e d b y H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s

( 1 9 9 2 ) , w h o c o n c e p t u a l i s e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a l o n g f o u r c o r e d i m e n s i o n s , h a s

i n f l u e n c e d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l t h in k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o v e r 2 0 y e a r s . In e s s e n c e t h e y s o u g h t

t o e x p l o r e h o w p e o p l e t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r , w h a t v a l u e s t h e y l i v e b y , h o w p e o p l e a r e

m o t i v a t e d to p r o d u c e a n d h o w p e o p l e u s e p o w e r i n th e o r g a n is a ti o n . T h e y a r g u e t h at

e a c h o r g a n i s a t i o n h a s f o u r b a s i c o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e s /s u b c u l t u r e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e

t h e f o l l o w i n g :

9 p o w e r - o r i e n t e d c u lt u r e;

9 r o l e c u l t u r e ;9 a c h i e v e m e n t c u l tu r e ; a n d a

9 s u p p o r t a n d p e r s o n - o r i e n t e d c u l tu r e .

T h e s e t h e o r i s t s p r o p o s e d t h a t e a c h s u b c u l t u r e e v o k e s d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r s a n d i s

b a s e d o n d i f f e r e n t h u m a n v a l u e s . T h e c o r e v a l u e s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e m b e d d e d i n

e a c h s u b c u l t u r e a r e d e l i n e a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t io n s .

11.1 Power-Oriented Culture

T h e p o w e r - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a i o n i s b a s e d o n i n e q u a l it y o f a cc e s s t o re s o u r ce s . S y m b o l s

o f p o w e r i n b u s i n e ss i n c lu d e m o n e y , p r i v il e g e s , j o b s e c u ri ty , w o r k i n g c o n d i t io n s a n d

t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l o t h e r s ' a c c e s s t o t h e s e r e s o u r c e s .

P e o p l e i n p o w e r - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i sa t io n s a re m o t i v a t e d b y re w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t

a n d b y t h e w i s h t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t r o n g l e a d e r . I n t h e p o w e r o r g a n i s a t i o n a t

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174 E. McC arthy

i ts be s t , l e ade r s h i p i s ba s ed on s t reng t h , pa t e r na l i s ti c ben evo l enc e and ju s t i c e ( f a ir ne s s )

o n t h e p a r t o f th e l e a d e r. L e a d e r s e x e r c i s e p o w e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ir u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f

w h a t i s g o o d f o r t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d a l l i t s p e o p l e , i t r e s t s o n t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f

h i e r a r c h y a n d i n e q u a l i t y a s le g i t i m a t e b y a l l m e m b e r s o f t h e o r g a n i s a t io n .T h i s o r i e n t a ti o n t o w a r d s t h e u s e o f r e s p o n s i b le p o w e r s e e m s t o b e t y p i c a l o f

s o m e o f t h e b e s t A s i an a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a n o r g a n i sa t io n s . I n W e s t e r n i n d u s t ri a li s e d

s oc i e t ie s s uch a s t he USA t he r e is m uch l e s s a ccep t ance o f h i e r a r chy a s be i ng l eg i t im a t e

t han t he r e is in m or e t r ad it i ona l s oc i e ti e s - t he r e i s a m ov e aw ay f r om t he r e i n f o r cem en t

o f b e n e v o l e n t , p o w e r - o r i e n t e d l e ad e r s h ip .

A s t h e s i z e a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e b u s in e s s i n c r e a s e , t h e d e m a n d s o n t h e l e a d e r sh i p

o f a p o w e r - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n m u l t i p l y e x p o n e n t i a l l y . It i s a r g u e d b y H a r r i s o n

a n d S t o k e s ( 1 9 9 2 ) t h a t w h e n p o w e r - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n s e x p a n d t h e y o f t e n r u n

s h o r t o f le a d e r s h ip t a le n t, b e c a u s e f o l lo w e r s h a v e b e e n c o n d i t i o n e d t o b e d e p e n d e n t .

1 1 .2 T h e R o l e O r i e n ta t i o n

T h e r o l e c u l t u r e s u b s ti t u te s a s y s t e m o f st r u c t u r e a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r th e n a k e d

pow er o f l e ade r s. Th e va l ue s o f the r o l e o r i en t a t i on a r e o r de r , depen dab i l i t y , ra t i ona l i t y

a n d c o n s i s t e n c y . T h i s m a t c h e s w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f t h e i d e a l b u r e a u c r a c y a s

d e l in e a t ed b y M a x W e b e r ( 1 9 3 0 ). A s m a p p e d o u t b y T a n n e n b a u m ( 1 9 73 ) , th e b u r e a u -

c r a t i c s y s t e m o f o r g a n i s a t i o n i s u n d e r p i n n e d b y s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s , r a t h e r

t h a n b e i n g p e r s o n a l l y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e le a d e r . T h i s e n a b l e d w o r k t o b e r e l i a b l y

d i r e c t e d a t a d i s t a n c e , s o t h a t l a r g e , c o m p l e x o r g a n i s a t i o n s c o u l d b e c r e a t e d a n dm a n a g e d . A u t h o r i t y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ar e d e l e g a t e d d o w n w a r d s . A t i ts b e s t t h e r o l e

o r g a n i s a t i o n p r o v i d e s s t a b i l it y , j u s t i c e a n d e f f i c i e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . M o s t l a r g e o r g a n -

i s a ti o n s o f t o d a y h a v e s t r o n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e r o l e s t r u c tu r e - - i t p r o v i d e s o r d e r ,

s t a b i l i t y a n d p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . T h e r o l e c u l t u r e i s b e s t a d a p t e d t o t h e s t a b l e c o m b i n a -

t io n s o f t e c h n o l o g y , s u p p l i e s a n d m a r k e t s . T h e w e a k n e s s o f r o l e o r g a n i s a t i o n i s it s

i m p e r s o n a l i t y . I t d o e s n o t g i v e a u t o n o m y o r d i s c r e t i o n t o m e m b e r s a t l o w e r l e v e l s .

T h i s s y s t e m , w h i c h i s a ls o h i g h o n c o n t r o l , k e e p s p e o p l e f r o m b e i n g i n n o v a t i v e .

W i t h i n t h i s f r a m e w o r k i t is d i f f i c u l t i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f r a t i o n a l i t y a n d o r d e r t o c h a n g e

o r b e n d t h e r u le s a n d i t u s u a l l y t a k e s a l o n g t i m e t o m a k e n e e d e d c h a n g e s .

1 1 .3 T h e A c h i e v e m e n t O r ie n t a ti o n

T h e m o t i v a t i o n a l b a s i s u n d e r l y i n g t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t

u n d e r g i r d i n g b o t h t h e p o w e r - o r i e n t e d a n d r o l e - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a ti o n a I c u l t u r e s. I n

t h e l a tt e r , e x t e r n a l re w a r d s a n d p t m i s h m e n t s a r e a d o p t e d t o m o t i v a t e p e o p l e . T h e o r y

X ( M c G r e g o r , 1 9 6 0 ) a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t th e i n d i v id u a l p e r v a d e s s u c h a n o r g a n i s a t io n a l

s y s t e m , i . e. t h e p e r s o n i s a s s u m e d t o b e l a r g e l y u n i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g o r in t a k i n g

r e s p o n s i b i l i ty a n d i s p e r c e i v e d to b e d r i v e n b y e c o n o m i c in c e n t i v e s . I n c o n t r a s t , th e

a c h i e v e m e n t c u l tu r e a s s u m e s t h a t p e o p l e li k e t h e ir w o r k a n d w a n t t o m a k e a w o r t h w h i l e

c o n t r i b u t i o n b o t h t o th e i r w o r k a n d t o s o c i e t y . T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s m a t c h t h o s e o f th e

T h e o r y Y ( M c G r e g o r , 1 9 6 0 ) a p p r o a c h to m a n a g e m e n t , w h i c h a s su m e s t h a t i n d iv i d u a l

w o r k e r s h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l t o g r o w , t o l e a r n a n d t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r w o r k

a n d t h e i r d e c i s i o n s . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t c u l t u r e r e c o g n i s e s t h e n e e d t o d e s i g n w o r k

s y s t em s w h i c h e m b o d y q u a l i t a ti v e i n tr in s ic r e w a r d s . T h u s , t h e c o n t e x t o f w o r k i n

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The Dyn amics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 175

a c h i e v e m e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n s i s d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e i n t ri n s ic s a t i sf a c t io n s u c h a s r e c o g -

n i t io n , o n g o i n g c h a l l e n g e a n d l e a r n i n g . I n s o m e w o r k s i tu a t i o n s i n tr i n s ic s a t i s f a c t i o n s

a r i s e n a t u r a l l y ( e . g . n u r s i n g , t e a c h i n g ) , w h i l e o t h e r s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y b u i l t i n t o t h e

j o b a n d t h e w o r k c l i m a t e ( e . g . p r i s o n w o r k , o f f i c e w o r k ) . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t c u l tu r e i se q u a t e d w i t h h i g h - e n e r g y w o r k s i t u a ti o n s w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e d e e p p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c ti o n

a n d e v o k e p e r s o n a l c o m m i t m e n t o f a h ig h o r de r. O u t c o m e s o f s u ch w o r k e x p e r i en c e s

h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y p a r t i c ip a n t s a s f o l l o w s :

9 P e o p l e s u p e r v i s e t h e m s e l v e s , s e e k i n g o u t w h a t n e e d s t o b e d o n e w i t h o u t d i r e c t io n

f r o m a b o v e - s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t a n d l e a de r s h ip .

9 T h e w o r k s i t u a t io n e n g a g e s t h e to t a l p e r s o n .

9 T h e r e i s a c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d m i s s i o n t h a t is a c t i v a t e d a t t h e h i g h e r l e v e l o f

t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n .

T h e a c h i e v e m e n t - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n u s e s t h e m i s s i o n t o a t t r a c t a n d r e l e a s e t h e

p e r s o n a l e n g e r y o f i ts m e m b e r s i n th e p u r s u i t o f c o m m o n g o a l s . A s s u c h i t a l ig n s

p e o p l e b e h i n d a c o m m o n v i s io n o r p u r p o s e . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t o r g a n i s a ti o n i s f re q u e n t ly

u n d e r - o r g a n i s e d : i t r e l ie s o n h i g h m o t i v a t i o n t o o v e r c o m e d e f i c i e n c ie s i n s t r u c tu r e s ,

s y s t e m s a n d p l a n n i n g ( s e e H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s , 1 9 9 2 ) .

1 1 .4 T h e S u p p o r t O r i e n t a t io n

T h e s u p p o r t c u l t u r e m a y b e d e f i n e d a s a n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e t h a t i s b a s e d o n

m u t u a l t r u s t b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . I n s u c h a n o r g a n i s a t i o n

p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e v a l u e d a s h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e y d o n o t p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s

a s c o g s i n a m a c h i n e ( a s c a n o c c u r i n b o t h th e p o w e r c u l t u r e a n d r o l e c u l tu r e ). T h e

s u p p o r t a m o n g c o - w o r k e r s i s w a r m a n d s t r o n g . P e o p l e l i k e t o c o m e t o w o r k i n t h e

m o r n i n g , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y l i k e t h e i r w o r k , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e y c a r e f o r t h e

p e o p l e w i t h w h o m t h e y w o r k . B e c a u s e t h e y f e e l c a r e d f o r , p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e m o r e

h u m a n i n th e i r in t e r a c ti o n s w i t h o t h er s - t h e i r c o - w o k e r s , c u s t o m e r s , s u p p l i e r s a n d

p u b l i c . T h e m o d e l o f H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n t e n d s t h a t th e s u p p o r t - o r i e n t e d

o r g a n i s a t i o n m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s f o l l o w s :

9 I n h i r i n g p e o p l e , t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n g i v e s s p e c i a l w e i g h t t o w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n i s

c a r i n g a n d c o - o p e r a t i v e a n d w i l l fi t i n.

9 P e o p l e c e l e b r a t e t o g e t h e r , t h e y l i k e s p e n d i n g t i m e t o g e t h e r , a n d t h e y o f t e n s e e

e a c h o t h e r o f f t h e j o b a s w e l l.

9 P e o p l e t r u s t , r e s p e c t a n d v a l u e e a c h o t h e r .

I n th e t y p i c a l W e s t e r n o r g a n i s a t i o n t h e s u p p o r t c u l tu r e i s v i e w e d a s th e l e a s t ty p i c a l

o f th e f o u r c u l t u r e s o u t l i n e d h e r e . H o w e v e r , i t c a n b e s e e n i n r e la t i v e l y s m a l l g r o u p s ,

e i t h e r i n t h e o f f i c e o r t h e f a c t o r y , w h e r e p e o p l e k n o w o n e a n o t h e r p e r s o n a l l y a n d

i n t e r a c t f a c e t o f a c e .

R e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d c o n c e r n in o r g a n is a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a s u p p o r t - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t io n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e f o c u s o n q u a l i t y

a n d o n s e r v i c e . T h e b e n e f i t s o f a w a r m a n d a c a r in g o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e g e n e r a t e

a m i l i eu w h i c h e n h a n c e s q u a l i ty a n d i m p r o v e s s e r v ic e . I n t e a m s a n d c i r cl e s d e d i c a te d

t o q u a l it y , p e o p l e d e v e l o p b o t h a l o v e f o r q u a l i t y w o r k a n d c l o s e t ie s w i t h t h o s e w i t h

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176 E. M cCarthy

w h o m t h e y w o r k . H a r r i s o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) o u t l i n e s a s t r a te g y f o r r e l e a s i n g l o v e i n t h e

w o r k p l a c e . T h i s s t r a t e g y e x p l o r e s th e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n o r g a n i s a t i o n c u l t u r e a n d

q u a l i t y o f s e rv i c e . H e p r o p o s e s t h a t th e s u p p o r t o r i e n t a ti o n t o s e r v i c e c o m e s u l t i m a t e l y

f r o m t h e h e a r t, w h i l e i n c o n t r a s t h e v i e w s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a ti o n a s c o m i n gf r o m t h e w i ll . H e p e r c e i v e s A m e r i c a n s a s te n d i n g t o w a r d s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r o l e a n d

a c h i e v e m e n t , H e r e l a t e s t h a t t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n b e c o m e s v i s i b l e w h e n h e f l i e s f r o m

A m e r i c a t o E u r o p e a n d t h e n g o e s o n a E u r o p e a n a i r l i n e t o a f u r t h e r d e s t i n a t i o n -

t h e A m e r i c a n c a b i n a t t e n d a n t s a r e a t b e s t e ff i c ie n t , a t t ra c t i v e a n d f r i e n d l y . W h e n

h i s o n w a r d f l i g h t i s o n t h e I r i s h a i r l i n e A e r L i n g u s , h e e x p e r i e n c e d I r i s h c a b i n

a t t e n d a n t s a s r a d i a t i n g w a r m t h : ' i n m y e x p e r i e n c e t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h t h e m h a v e a

p e r s o n a l q u a l i t y w h i c h i s u n d e f i n a b l e b u t u n m i s t a k a b l e - a b l e n d , p e r h a p s o f b e i n g

p r e s e n t f o r t h e w e a r y t r a v e l l e r , a n d b e i n g g e n u i n e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n h i m o r h e r a s a

p e r s o n ' ( H a r r i s o n , 1 9 8 7 : 1 5 ). F o r H a r r i s o n t h e s e q u a l i t ie s o f th e I r i s h c a b i n a t t e n d -

a n t s a r e n o t s o m u c h a m a t t e r o f t r a i n i n g a s t h e s t y l e o f th e I r i s h n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

H i s o b s e r v a t i o n s l i n k a n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l s y n d r o m e ( b e i n g k n o w n ) w i t h t h e w a r m

i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e e m p l o y e e a n d t h e c u s t o m e r . T i l e c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

m a t c h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f th e p r o v i s i o n o f q u a l i ty s e r v i c e . A g e n u i n e f o c u s o n

h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t e m b o d i e s c a r i n g a n d k i n d n e s ~ a s w e l l a s e q u a l i t y r e l a t i o n s

w i l l b e a n e m i c r e q u i r e m e n t o f o rg a n i s a t i o n s i n to t h e f u tu r e . H e p e r c e i v e d a n e m i c

o r g a n i s t i o n a M e v e l c h a r a c t e r is t ic q u a l i ty s e r v i c e a s b e i n g p r i m a r i l y a n e t i c cha rac t e r i s t i c

o f t h e I r i s h c u l t u r e .

I n a ll , t h e s u p p o r t c u l t u re g i v e s r e c o g n i t i o n t o th e h u m a n a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i d e

o f e n t e r p r is e ; i t o f f e r s it s m e m b e r s s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t c o m e s f r o m r e l a t io n s h i p s : b e l o n g -i n g , c o n n e c t io n , m u t u a l i t y . A w e a k n e s s o f t h e s u p p o r t - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n i s t h a t

i t m a y s e e k to a v o i d c o n f l ic t . I n t h e in t e r e st o f h a r m o n y c o n s e n s u s m a n y b e o v e r v a l u e d ,

h a m p e r i n g t h e o r g a n i s a t io n i n f a c in g s e l f - r e f l e x i v e l y c o n t e x t u a l a n d o t h e r d e m a n d s

m a d e u p o n i t (s e e B i o n , 1 9 6 1) .

B o t h t h e p o w e r a n d a c h i e v e m e n t s u b c u l t u r e s i d e n t i f i e d b y H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s

( 1 9 9 2 ) e c h o t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s o f p o w e r a n d i n d i v i d u a l it y a s i s o l a t e d b y H o f s t e d e

( 1 9 8 4 ) i n h i s c r o s s - c u l tu r a l s t u d y , w h i l e t h e s u p p o r t s u b c u l t u r e ( o f H a r r i s o n a n d

S t o k e s , 1 9 9 2 ) r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , i . e . c o l l e c t i v i t y

( H o f s t e d e , 1 9 8 4 ). H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s ' ( 1 9 9 2 ) o r g a n i s a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n o f r o l e

c u l tu r e c o u l d b e v i e w e d a s m i r r o r i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f u n c e r t a i n ty a v o i d a n c e ( H o f s t e d e ,1 9 8 4 ) w h i c h s t r e s s e s s t r u c t u re , a n d d e f e n d i n g a g a i n s t u n c e r t a i n t y . D i f f e r e n t s o c ie t i e s

a d a p t t o u n c e r t a i n t y i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s - - s o m e a r e m o r e o p e n t o r i s k , v a r i e t y a n d

e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n t h a n o t h e r s .

12 . M easur ing O rgan i sa t iona l Cu l ture

O v e r th e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s a n d m o r e H a r r i s o n ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 5, 1 9 8 7 ) h a s b e e n a c t i v e l y

e n g a g e d i n d e v e l o p i n g a n d r e f i n i n g h i s c o n c e p t s r e l a t i n g t o o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

A s h i s v i s io n u n f o l d e d h e w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h b a l a n c i n g t h e p o w e r s o f i n t e ll e c t a n d

o f h u m a n w i l l i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s w i t h t h e p o w e r s o f i n t u i ti o n a n d o f lo v e . H e w a s

s h a p i n g h is p r a c t i c e a r o u n d t h e i d e a o f h o w t o d e v e l o p a h e l p i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d t o

o p e n p a t h s f o r m e m b e r s t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n c o m p a s s i o n a t e , c a r i n g s i d e . O v e r t h i s

t i m e h e d e v e l o p e d h is f r a m e w o r k o f f o u r o r g a n i s a t i o n c u l tu r e s . B u i l d i n g o n t h i s

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The Dyn amics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Change 177

f r a m e w o r k a s o u t l in e d a b o v e , h e d e v e l o p e d a n i n s t ru m e n t ( H a r r i s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) w h i c h

p e o p l e c o u l d u s e t o a s s e s s t h e ir o r g a n i s a t i o n c u l tu r e . T h e i n s t r u m e n t w a s d e v e l o p e d

t o h e l p o r g a n i s a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s t o c o m p a r e t h e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n a l v a l u e s

a n d t h e i r p e r s o n a l v a l u e s w i t h f o u r d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r es . T h e p r i m a r ya i m o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s to e n a b l e p a r t ic i p a n t s t o c l a r i f y w h e r e t h e i r o r g a n i s a t io n

s t an d s o n a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t v a l u e i s s u e s a n d t o i d e n t i f y d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n

o r g a n i s a t i o n s . L a t e r r e v i s i o n s y i e l d e d a n e w q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e s i g n e d t o t a p th e f o u r

c u l tu r e s : p o w e r c u l t u re , r o l e c u l tu r e , a c h i e v e m e n t c u l tu r e a n d s u p p o r t c u l tu r e .

E a c h o r i e n t a t i o n h a s i t s o w n s e t o f v a l u e s w h i c h g i v e s t h e c u l t u r e i ts i n t e g r it y .

T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e i n s t r u m e n t d e v e l o p e d b y H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s ( 1 9 9 2 ) b u i ld s

o n t h e e a r l ie r w o r k o f H a r r i s o n a n d i s d e s i g n e d t o h e l p o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m e m b e r s i d e n t i f y

a s p e c t s o f th e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s c u l t u r e . I t s e e k s t o m e a s u r e h o w p e o p l e t r e a t e a c h

o t h er , w h a t v a l u e s t h e y l iv e b y , h o w p e o p l e a r e m o t i v a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n d h o w p e o p l e

u s e p o w e r i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . I n H a r r i s o n a n d S t o k e s ' ( 1 9 9 2 ) m o d e l , t h e s e a r e a t

t h e c o r e o f w h a t m o s t p e o p l e m e a n w h e n t h e y s p e a k o f t h e ir o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n s 1 5 su b d i m e n s i o n s . T h e s e a r e p r e s e n t e d a s b e g i n n i n g s

o f s o m e a s p e c t o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g a n d d e s i g n . F o r e a c h c a t e g o r y t h e

existing culture a n d t h e pre ferred c u l t u r e c a n b e d e l i n e a t e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

f o u r c u l t u r e t y p e s .

H o f s t e d e ( 1 9 9 1 ) u s e s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f q u a l i ta t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a ti v e m e t h o d s t o

g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n to t h e c u l t u r e o f a n o r g a n is a t i o n . T a k i n g a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f o r g a n -

i s a ti o n s a c r o s s c u l t u r e s h e u s e d a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s u r v e y s a n d a t ti tu d e s c a l e s , g r o u p

d i s c u s s i o n a n d i n - d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s w i t h s t a f f a t a l l l e v e l s o f th e o r g a n i s a t i o n s s a m p l e d .S u c h r e s e a r c h c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a s h o r t ti m e s c a l e a n d c a n p r o v i d e a r ic h

s o u r c e o f i n s ig h t r e l a t i n g t o o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e .

13. Cu lture and O rganisat ional Change and Effect iveness

T h e a s s u m p t i o n u n d e r l y i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l tu r e is th a t i t c a n h a v e a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t

o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e o r g a n i s a ti o n . R e s e a r c h e r s s u c h a s H a r r i s o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) c o n t e n d

t h a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i n f l u e n c e s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s i n o r g a n i s a t i o n l i fe :

h o w d e c i si o n s a r e m a d e , h o w h u m a n r e s o u r c e s a r e u s e d a n d h o w p e o p l e r es p o n d t ot h e e n v i r o n m e n t .

I f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e p e r v a d e s o u r b e l i ef s , v a l u e s a n d b e h a v i o u r t h e n i t w i l l

g o v e r n t he d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g p r o c e s s es o f th e o r g a n i sa t io n . I t

w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e g o a ls , m e a n s a n d m a n n e r o f a c ti o n . A s o b s e r v e d b y W i l l ia m s e t

a l. ( 1 9 8 9 ) i t w i l l u n d e r l i e m u c h o f t h e h u m a n a c t i v i ty i n a n o r g a n i s a t io n .

M u c h o f t he r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s u p p o r t s t h e v i e w t h a t a

p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s ts b e t w e e n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e -

nes s . I n o the r words , o rga n i sa t i ona l e f f ec t i vene s s va r i e s by t y pe o f o rgan i sa t i ona l cu l t u r e

( s e e O u c h i , 1 9 8 1 ; D e a l a n d K e n n e d y , 1 9 8 2 ; D e n i s o n , 1 9 8 4 ; K i l m a n n e t a l ., 1 9 8 5 ).

A c c o r d i n g t o D e n i s o n ( 1 9 9 0 ), t h e i m p a c t o f o r g a n i s a t io n a l c u l t u r e o n o r g a u i s a t io n a l

e f f e c t i v e n e s s c a n b e e x a m i n e d f r o m t h r e e i n te r r e l a te d a s p e c t s : d i r e ct i o n , p e r v a s i v e n e s s

a n d s t r e n g t h .

T h e direct ion r e f e r s t o th e c o u r s e t h a t c u l tu r e i s c a u s i n g t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n t o f o l l o w .

T h i s c o u r s e c a n b e e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . F o r e x a m p l e , d o e s c u l t u r e i n f l u e n c e

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178 E. M cCarthy

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r s o t h a t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l g o a l s a r e r e a l i s e d , o r d o e s c u l t u r e

p u s h m e m b e r s t o b e h a v e i n w a y s t h a t a re c o u n t e r to t he f o r m a l m i s s i o n a n d g o a l s

o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ? A n o r g a n i s a t i o n m a y r e q u i r e i n n o v a t i o n t o a c h i e v e it s g o a ls ,

w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e th e d o m i n a n t c u l t u re s a y s ' d o n ' t r o c k t h e b o a t ' . W e s t ' s( 1 9 9 0 ) m o d e l o f g r o u p - l e v e l i n n o v a t i o n s u g g e s t s th a t w o r k g r o u p c l i m a t e c a n p r e d ic t

w o r k g r o u p i n n o v a ti o n s .

T h e p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f th e i m p a c t o f c u l tu r e i s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h c u l t u re i s

u n d e r s t o o d o r s h a r e d a m o n g m e m b e r s o f th e g r o u p a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n . T h i s r a is e s t h e

q u e s ti o n : t o w h a t e x t e n t i s c u l t u re p e r c e i v e d t h e s a m e w a y b y a m a j o r i t y o f m e m b e r s

o f t h e g r o u p / o r g a n i s a t i o u o r is i t s e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t ly b y d i f f e r e n t m e m e b e r s ? A s

p o i n t e d o u t e a r li e r , a n y d e f i n a b l e g r o u p w i t h a s h a r e d h i s t o r y c a n h a v e a n i d e n t i f i a b l e

c u l tu r e a n d w i th i n a n o r g a n i s a ti o n - - a c o m p l e x s y s t e m - - t h e re m a y b e m a n y s u b -

c u l tu r e s . I t is p o s s i b l e f o r c o e x i s t i n g s e c t io n s o f a l a r g e s y s t e m t o h a v e c u l tu r e s t h a t

a r e in d e p e n d e n t a n d e v e n i n c o n f l i c t w i th e a c h o t h e r ( e .g . m a r k e t i n g v e r s u s p r o d u c t i o n ) .

I n d e e d , w h e t h e r e a c h g r o u p i n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n p r e s e n t s t h e ' s a m e c u l t u r e ' i s a

q u e s t i o n r a i s e d b y r e s e a r c h e r s K i l m a n n e t al . ( 1 9 8 5) . O r g a n i s a t i o n s t h a t a d o p t a

t ra d i ti o n al a p p r o a c h t o m a n a g i n g p e o p l e ( M c G r e g o r ' s , 1 9 60 , T h e o r y X a p p r o a c h )

m a y p e r c e i v e o n e c u l t u r e e m a n a t i n g f r o m th e t o p m a n a g e m e n t a s th e s a l i e n t c u l tu r e .

O n t h e o th e r h an d , t h o s e m a n a g e r s w h o e n d o r s e a m o r e h u m a n i s t i c a p p r o a c h ( T h e o r y

Y a p p r o a c h ) c a n b e p e r c e i v e d a s c u l t u ra l d e v i a n t s w h e r e t h e i r a p p r o a c h c o n f l ic t s

w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y .

K i l m a n n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5) w e l c o m e t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a m o s a i c o f o r g a n i s a ti o n a l c u lt u re .

A s h i f t f r o m t r a d i t io n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s w h i c h a r e e m b e d d e d i n a s t a b le e n v i r o n m e n tt o a m o r e d i v e r s i f i e d a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n , f l e x i b l e e n o u g h t o c o p e w i t h

a l l t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f m o d e r n - d a y e n v i r o n m e n t s , i s n e e d e d i n to t h e f u tu r e .

T h e s t reng th o f c u l t u r a l i m p a c t i s t h e l e v e l o f p r e s s u r e t h a t c u l t u r e e x e r t s o n

m e m b e r s o f a n o r g a n i sa t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f d i re c t io n . D o m e m b e r s f e e l c o m p e l l e d to

f o l l o w t h e d i c t a t e s o f th e c u l t u r e o r d o t h e y f e e l t h at t h e c u l t u r e o n l y v a g u e l y d e f i n e s

a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r a n d p r a c t i c e ? I f t h e re i s w i d e s p r e a d a c c e p t a n c e , a d o p t i o n a n d

in t e rna l i s a t i on o f spec i f i c va lue s , the cu l t u r e o f t he o rgan i s a t i on i s r ega rded a s cohes iv e ,

s t ro n g a n d t h i c k . T h i n o r w e a k c u l t u r e s, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e m b o d y v a l u e s t h a t m a y

b e v i e w e d a s p e r ip h e r a l a n d a r e n o t c e n t r a l to t h e g r o u p .

W h i l e re s e a r c h e rs s u c h a s G o r d o n a n d D i t o m a s o ( 1 9 92 ) a n d D e n i s o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n di -c a t e t h a t t h e s t r e n g th o f c u lt u r e i s p r e d i c t i v e o f s h o r t - t e r m p e r f o r m a n c e , S c h e i n ( 1 9 8 4 )

q u e s t i o n s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n s t r o n g c u l t u re s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

S t r o n g , d e e p l y e m b e d d e d v a l u e s y s t e m s c a n p o s e t h r e a t s t o t h e v i a b i l i t y o f a n

o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h e f a c e o f e x te r n a l t u r b u l e n c e a n d t h e n e e d f o r th e o r g a n i s a t io n

t o s u r v i v e ( s e e D e a l a n d K e n n e d y , 1 9 8 2 ) . W h e n t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t c h a n g e s ,

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f t e n r e m a i n s g u i d e d b y o l d v a l u e s w h i c h m a y n o l o n g e r

b e a p p r o p r i a t e a n d i n h i b i t t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s g r o w t h , s u c c e s s a n d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o

n e w l y e v o l v i n g v a l u e s ( e .g . e q u a l it y ) .

G e n d e r e d c u l tu r e s d e s c r i b e s o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s t h a t a r e e m b e d d e d i n a p a t r ia r -

c h a l v a l u e s y s t e m w h i c h i n h ib i ts t h e p r o m o t i o n o f g e n d e r e q u a l i t y a n d m a y d i s p l a y

r e s i s t a n c e t o e q u a l i t y p r o p o s a l s . M c C a r t h y ( 1 9 8 8 ) t r a c e d s a l i e n t b a r r i e r s t o g e n d e r

e q u a l i t y i n m a j o r I r is h c o m p a n i e s . T h e s e b a r r i e r s i n c l u d e d t r a d it i o n a li s t a t t i tu d e s

a n d p e r c e p t i o n s o f m a n a g e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y a n d i ts

o p e r a t i o n a li s a ti o n i n Ir i s h c o m p a n i e s . T h e d o m i n a n t v a l u e s y s t e m o f c o r p o r a t e

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The Dynamicsof Culture, OrganisationalCulture and Change 179

m a n a g e m e n t c o n f l i c t e d w i t h t h e e q u a l i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e w h i c h w o m e n

e m p l o y e e s s o u g h t t o c re a t e in a m a j o r i t y o f Ir i s h o r g a n i s a ti o n s . M a n a g e r s ' c o n c e p t s

a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f g e n d e r e q u a l i t y w e r e l i m i t e d a n d d i s p l a y e d

s e x s t e r e o t y p i c a n d s e x d i s c r i m i n a t o r y c h a r a c t e ri s t ic s .C o r p o r a t e c u l t u r e o f t e n s t i f l e s m o t i v a t i o n t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e i n v a l u e s a n d

b e h a v i o u r i n o r g a n i s a t i o n s t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e n e e d s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s o f b o t h

w o r k e r s a n d t h e m a r k e t ( e . g . g e n d e r e q u a l i t y c h a n g e , c h a n g e i n q u a l i t y b e h a v i o u r

a n d p e r f o r m a n c e a t w o r k ) .

Kan te r (1983) and O uch i (1981) fu r the r p rov ide va luab le suppor t fo r the v i ew tha t

p l i a b le o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s

a s t h e y h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l fo r a d a p t a t i o n , i n n o v a t i o n a n d f o r b e c o m i n g e g a l i ta r i a n .

1 4 . C h a n g e a n d C u l t u r e

T h e d y n a m i c s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s a r t ic l e i m p l i e s t h a t c u l tu r e

p e r p e t u a t e s a n d r e p r o d u c e s i t s e l f t h r o u g h t h e s o c i a l is a t i o n o f n e w m e m b e r s e n t e r in g

the g roup o r o rgan i sa t ion . Cu l tu re i s l e a rned ; i t i s soc ia l ly cons t ruc ted . Un de rs t and ing

c u l t u r e c h a n g e a s i n d i v i d u a l , g r o u p a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e a r n in g p r o v i d e s g u i d e s fo r

d e v e l o p in g a f r a m e w o r k f o r c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e f e a s i b i l it y o f c u l tu r e c h a n g e .

A c c o r d i n g t o S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0) , c u l t u r e e x i s t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n t h e t h r ee l e v e l s

o u t l i n e d b y h i m : a r t e f a c ts , v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s . F r o m t h is p e r s p e c t i v e c h a n g i n g

c u l t u r e i s a c o m p l e x a n d d i f f i c u l t p r o c e s s . W h i l e c u l t u r a l d y n a m i c s w a s n o t d i r e c tl yt h e f o c u s o f S c h e i n ' s ( 1 9 8 5 ) m o d e l , h e h a s , h o w e v e r , e x a m i n e d d y n a m i c s i n t e r m s

o f g r o u p l e a r n i n g . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s f o u n d e r ' s b e l i e f s a n d v a l u e s a r e

t a u g h t t o n e w m e m b e r s ( p r o c es s o f s o c i a li s a t io n ) a n d i f v a l i d a t e d b y s u c c e s s u n d e r g o

f u r t h e r c o g n i t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Hatch (1993) has deve lop ed a cul tura l dyn am ics perspec t ive by re form ula t ing Schein ' s

t h e o r y . S h e d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s a s p r o c e s s e s . I n

H a t c h ' s m o d e l ( 1 9 9 3) c u l t u r e i s c o n s t i tu t e d b y :

9 m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ( th e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s ) ;

9 r e a l i s a t i o n s ( t h e re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v a l u e s a n d a r t e fa c t s );

9 s y m b o l i s a t i o n ( t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n s y m b o l s a n d a r t e f a c t s) ; a n d

9 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s s u m p t i o n s a n d s y m b o l s ) .

Th i s cu l tu ral dynam ics pe r spec t ive reaches beyo nd Sch e in ' s mod e l , t o a mo re complex ,

p r o c e s s - b a s e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u lt u r e . E a c h p r o c e s s e m b o d i e s b o t h

a p r o s p e c t i v e a n d a r e t r o s p e c t i v e m o d e . T h e c u l t u r a l d y n a m i c s m o d e l o f H a t c h i s

c i rcu la r and recu rs ive ; i n o the r words , nu m erous in s t ances o f cu l tu ra l p rocesse s occu r

a n d r e c u r m o r e o r l e s s c o n t i n u o u s l y th r o u g h o u t t h e c u l tu r a l d o m a i n : a t y p e o f p a r a l le l

p r o c e s s i n g o c c u r s . A s s u c h , H a t c h ' s ( 1 9 93 ) r e f o r m u l a t i o n t h e o r y l o o k s a t t h e g a p s

re l a t ing to an ap prec ia t ion o f o rgan i sa t iona l cu l tu re as p rocesse s an d en r i ches Sch e in ' s

( 1 9 85 ) m o d e l f r o m a s y m b o l i c - i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p e rs p e c t iv e .

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d r e s i s t a n c e t o

c h a n g e i t is c r u c i a l f o r t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f c u l tu r e , h o w

c u l t u r e e v o l v e s , i s l e a r n e d a n d h o w i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f . F u r t h e r , a s s u g g e s t e d b y

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180 E. McC arthy

P e t t i g r e w ( 1 9 7 9 ) , g i v e n t h a t l e a d e r s a r e c r e a t o r s o f c u l t u r e a c h a n g e i n l e a d e r -

s h i p m a y a l s o p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c u l t u r e c h a n g e . I t s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d ,

h o w e v e r , a s c a u t i o n e d b y S c h e i n ( 1 9 9 0 ), t h a t a t te m p t i n g t o c r e a t e b e h a v i o u r c h a n g e

o f m e m b e r s w i t h o u t c u l t u re c h a n g e m a y n o t w o r k a t a ll, o r m a y w o r k a t a h ig h c o s tt o t h e o r g a n i s a t io n .

Z a l e z n i k ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a s e x p l o r e d th e m y t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f o r g a n i s a t io n s a n d i ts

i m p a c t . H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g y h a s t a u g h t u s th a t m y t h s a r e u s e d t o c o n f r o n t

a p r o b l e m a n d t o p r o v i d e o n e o r m o r e s o l u t i o n s t h a t a l l a y a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y

and l i nk t he i nd i v i dua l t o soc i e t y . A t t he o r gan i s a t i ona l l eve l , exp l an a t i ons a r e o f f e r ed

i n a r a t i o n a l m o d e w h i c h t e n d s t o b y p a s s t h e c a u s e s o f a n x i e t y .

I n c o m p e n s a t i o n , m o d e m c o r p o r a ti o n s h a v e d e v e l o p e d m y t h o l o g i e s w h i c h , h o w e v e r ,

f o s t e r a f a l s e s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y w h i l e d u l l i n g t h e c a p a c i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d c h a n g e s i n

t h e c o m p e t i t iv e e n v i r o n m e n t . A s w e l l a s t h e s t r a te g i c p r o b l e m s w i t h in t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n

b o t h i n t e rn a l a n d e x t e r n a l v is i o ns c a n b e c l o u d e d b y t h e m y t h o l o g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t

i s o b s e r v e d t ha t th e d o m i n a n t c o r p o r a t e m y t h o l o g y s p e a k s o n l y t o m e m b e r s o f th e

po w er e l i te , i nc l ud i ng t hose a sp i r i ng t o i t and p r o t ec t i ng i t f r om t he r avages o f s t re s s .

T h o s e w i t h l e ss e r s ta tu s a n d p o w e r a r e e x c lu d e d . W h e n o r g a n i s a ti o n s e n c o u n t e r

s e r i o u s t ro u b l e , t h o s e i n c l u d e d i n t h e m y t h o l o g y f in d i t h a r d t o b r e a k o u t o f t h e

s t e r eo t yp i ca l t h i nk i ng t ha t be l i e f i n t he m y t ho l o gy encour ages . Sh ap i ng t he r e l a t i onsh i p

b e t w e e n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s r e q u i r e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d s k i ll to

u n c o v e r th e h i d d e n c u l tu r a l a s s u m p t io n s , m y t h s a n d t a b o o s t h a t c l o u d t h i n k in g a n d

c o m p l i c a t e a c ti o n s ( Z a l e z n i k , 1 9 8 9 ) .

M o d e l s o f th e o r g a n i s a ti o n h a v e s h a p e d t h e o r is t s ' c o n c e r n w i t h c o n s c i o u s a n du n c o n s c i o u s o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . C h a n g e f r o m a p o s i t i v i s t t o a p o s t - p o s i t i v i s t

p a r a d i g m i n th e f i e ld o f o r g a n is a t io n a l p s y c h o l o g y h a s b e e n t r a c e d o u t b y M c C a r t h y

( 1 99 3 ) . T h e m e t a p h o r o f t h e o r g a n i s a ti o n a s a n o r g a n i s m t o o k r o o t i n t h e s y s t em s

t h e o r y p e r s p e c t i v e ( s e e K a t z a n d K a h n , 1 9 7 8 ; M o r g a n , 1 9 8 6 ) a n d c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

t he l inea r m ech an i s t i c m e t ap hor o f t he c la s s i ca l t heo r i s t s ( Webe r , 1930) . Th e b i o l og i ca l

m o d e l o f t h e o r g a n i s a t io n , h o w e v e r , h a s n o t b e e n s u f f i c ie n t l y s e n s i ti v e to t h e r e q u i r e -

m e n t s o f t h e h u m a n a n d s o c i a l d o m a i n o f o r g an i s a ti o n s . M a n y d i l e m m a s a t t h e

p e r s o n a l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d g r o u p / o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e v e l s n e e d n e w m e t a p h o r s , n e w

t heo r e t i c a l f r am ew or ks and new m e t ho do l og i e s . O ne t hem e cen t r a l t o the o r gan i s a t i ona l

d i l e m m a is t h e p h e n o m e n a o f c h a n g e . T h e p o s i ti v is t a p p r o a c h d i d n o t a d d r es s t h ec h a l l e n g e o f b o t h s t a b il it y a n d c h a n g e . T h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e e n r i c h e d b y n e w u n d e r -

s t an d i n g d r a w n f r o m t h e w o r k o f B o h m ( 1 9 8 0 ), w h o v i e w s f l u x a n d c h a n g e a s

f u n d a m e n t a l t o n a t u r e . F o r h i m t h e m o r e b a s i c r e a l i t y o f th e u n i v e r s e i s th e i m p l i c a t e

o r d e r . T h e i m p l i c a t e o r d e r i s v i e w e d a s a c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s w h i c h h a s e v e r y t h i n g

e n f o l d e d i n e v e r y t h i n g e ls e li k e a h o l o g r a m ( s e e M o r g a n , 1 9 8 6 ). F o r B o h m t h e w o r l d

u n f o l d s a n d e n f o l d s f r o m m o m e n t t o m o m e n t . T h e i m p l i c a t e o r d e r a s p r o p o s e d b y

B o h m a s th e d y n a m i c u n d e r l y i n g t h e fl u x o f c h a n g e i s a n a lo g o u s t o th e u n c o n s c i o u s

i n t h e t h e o r i e s o f F r e u d a n d J u n g . T h e i m p l i c a t e o r d e r a ls o r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e c o n c e p t

o f o r g a n i s a ti o n a l c u l tu r e , w h i c h a s w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n t h is p a p e r c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d

a s t h e c a r r i e r o f s h a r e d m e a n i n g s , s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d s h a r e d s e n s e m a k i n g

i n t h e o r g a n i s a t io n a l s e t t in g - - a n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l u n d e r w o r l d , s e l f - o r g a n i s i n g ,

u n f o ld i n g a n d e n f o ld i n g f r o m m o m e n t t o m o m e n t .

A n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h v i e w s t h e w o r l d a s b e i n g i n a s t at e o f c o n s t a n t

m o v e m e n t , c h a n g e a n d g r o w t h i s th a t o f c h a o s t h e o r y ( G l e ic k , 1 9 8 7) . L o o k i n g a t

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The Dynam ics of Culture, Organisational Culture and Chang e 181

o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c u l t u re a n d c h a n g e t h r o u g h t h e l e n s o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c h a o s a n d t h e

i m p l i c a t e o r d e r o ff e r s a f r a m e w o r k w i t h w h i c h t o e n c o u n t e r t h e h i d d e n , t h e u n c e r t a in ,

t h e u n e x p e c t e d a n d th e c r e a t i v e i n a c u l t u r a l s y s t e m ( M c C a r t h y , 1 9 9 3 ).

A c r e a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o c u l t u re a l l o w s a r e f r a m i n g a n d r e f o c u s i n g o f th e w a y i nw h i c h w e v i e w o r g a n i s a t i o n a l re a l i ty . It g u i d e s t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n t o w a r d s a n e n c o u n t e r

w i t h i t s e l f - a s e l f - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m i r r o r i n g . W h e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c h a n g e f a i l s t o

d e a l w i t h o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a n x i e t y , u n c e r t a i n ty a n d c u l t u r e ' s d e e p e r l a y e r s o f w h i c h

m e m b e r s a r e n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a w a r e , t h e r e s u l ta n t o u t c o m e c a n m e r e l y a g g r a v a t e

t h e e x p e r i e n c e d s i tu a t i o n re q u i r i n g c h a n g e a n d g e n e r a t e n e w a n x i e t ie s a n d a g g r e s s i o n .

F r o m a p s y c h o - a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e E r i c T r is t o b s e r v e d t h at th e ' i n t e rn a l s a b o t e u r '

o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y u n d e r m i n e s w h a t i s a t te m p t e d a t t h e c o n s c i o u s l e v e l (T r i st , 1 9 8 9) .

T o s u m u p , c u l t u re a s a c o l l e c t i v e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l m e m o r y p r o v i d e s a m e t a p h o r

w h i c h e n c a p s u l a t e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f o u r o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r e d e c e s s o r s ( a n c e s t o rs ) .

I t i s a c o l l e c t i v e c a u l d r o n w h i c h s t o re s a n d f o r g e s m e a n i n g s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n . C u l t u r e

c h a n g e t a p s i n t o th e d e e p c o m p l e x i t y o f a n o r g a n i s a t i o n - t h e r e is a n e e d f o r a

r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e f l u x a n d f l o w o f c h a n g e o n t h e p a r t o f a ll t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s

m e m b e r s a n d a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f h o w t h e se c h a n g e s c a n b e e n c o u r a g e d b y l e a d e rs h ip .

T h e e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e ' m a n a g e m e n t o f m e a n i n g ' a r e n o t e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d

a n d r e c o g n i se d b y m a n a g e r s . M a n a g e r s m a y a s s u m e t ha t th e y h a v e c h a n g e d t h e

c u l t u r e o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n w h e n t h e y h a v e m e r e l y s e t o u t to i m p ! e m e n t a s t ra t e g i c

d i r e c t i o n , e. g . i n t r o d u c e n e w w o r k m e t h o d s , s t r u c t u re s e t c . F u r t h e r , r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t -

i n g to c h a n g e c u l t u r e i t m a y b e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e in s o m e c a s e s t o a t te m p t to u t i l i s e

c r e a t i v e l y t he e x i s t i n g p o t e n t i a l o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u l t u re . U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he n e e dt o t a p h i d d e n r e p r e s s e d p a r t s o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s y s t e m i n a m a n n e r t h a t c e l e b r a t e s

t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e c u l tu r a l d o m a i n h a s y e t to u n f o l d .

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