Development of thinking and Reasoning Piaget (1896-1980) Piagetian terminology Schema – an...
-
Upload
roland-sanders -
Category
Documents
-
view
219 -
download
2
Transcript of Development of thinking and Reasoning Piaget (1896-1980) Piagetian terminology Schema – an...
Development of thinking and Reasoning Piaget (1896-1980)
Piagetian terminology Schema – an organized mental
representation of the world, such as how to interact with objects in the world.
Grasping and sucking schema Assimilation - applying an old schema to
new material or information. Accommodation modifying an old schema
to fit the new material or information.
Baby with a new toy
Ball. Try to suck it like a bottle
assimilation of sucking schema Open mouth more to suck it
accommodation of sucking schema Grasp and shake it
assimilates ball to grasping schema accommodating it to fit the ball.
Piaget’s stages of intellectual development
Sensorimotor - birth to 2 years preoperational - 2 to 7 concrete-operations - 7 to 11 formal-operations - 12 on
The sensorimotor stage: Infancy (birth to 2 years) At this stage behavior consists
mostly of simple motor responses to sensory stimuli. They can grasp things, they can suck
things. Babies do not look for things they
cannot see Lack object permanence Lack cognitive abilities.
Preoperational stage (2-7 yrs)
Piaget called this the preoperational stage because he thought the child lacked operations. Operations are reversible mental
processes A boy with one brother, will say that his
brother does not have a brother. He is unable to apply the concept of
brother to himself.
The peoperational stage
Lack concept of conservation - too much milk in a tall skinny class,
becomes acceptable if poured into a short wide glass
The peoperational stage
Tend to be egocentric if asked to show you a book they
might tend to hold it facing themselves.
They think you see what they see. When asked to describe how a model
of three mountains looks to someone standing on the opposite side from them - they describe their own view
Can this boy report what the clown doll sees?
Egocentric Communication Communicate from their own
perspective Collective monologues
Frequently talk “at” rather than “with” people
John: “My dad is a fireman.” Mike: “So what, I’m 6 years old.” John: “He is a real hero.” Mike: “I had my birthday yesterday.”
Declines between ages of 4 & 7
Lack Theory of Mind When asked what was in a Band Aid box. Children said Band Aids
They were surprised to find pencils Researchers then asked what other
children would expect to find in the Box. 3 yr olds said pencils By age 4 to 5 children’s theory of mind had
increased. They were delighted to think that their friends would expect Band Aids
More Theory of Mind A child sat in front of a screen covering
four cups and watched as one adult hid a surprise under one of the cups.
Then, that adult and another (who had not been present initially) each pointed to one of the cups to signal where the surprise was hidden.
Many 4 year olds consistently followed the advice of the informed adult; 3 – year olds did not.
Using models of the real world
A 2 1/2 year old cannot use a model of a room to find an object in a large room.
At about 3 they can.
What if they are tested differently? Hide object in model of the room. Tell the child you are going to expand
the room. They hear noises (chunkata, chunkata,
chunkata). Now 2 1/2 year olds can find the object.
Seems they are unable to use a model to represent reality, unless they are tricked into it.
The concrete operations stage - later childhood (7-11 yrs old) The beginning of this stage is marked
by mastery of the principle of conservation.
they now think logically, and are no longer egocentric understand the principle of reversibility roll a ball of clay into a long sausage
shape understand that the ball can be reproduced
by reversing the action
Concrete operations continued
Limitations They are bound to the concrete,
physical reality of the world. They have difficulty understanding
questions of an abstract or hypothetical nature
If you could have a third eye anywhere on your body where would you put it?
The formal operations stage: adolescence to adulthood (12 yrs – adult)
Formal operations - Piaget’s term for the mental processes used to deal with abstract, hypothetical situations.
The pendulum problem What determines how fast a pendulum
swings? Length of string weight of the pendulum force at which the pendulum is pushed
Children in the concrete operations stage will approach this problem haphazardly. Change string length weight and force all at
the same time. People in the formal operations stage
approach this problem systematically - scientifically. They change one variable at a time and
examine the effects. They rule out competing possibilities
Infant abilities
Newborns can only make purposeful mouth and eye movements. That is why it is hard to study them.
Vision. Look at pictures of faces more than
other types of pictures An indication that they can see and can
discriminate between faces and nonfaces
Imitation
Newborns can imitate sticking out your tongue, or opening your mouth wide. Shows they can see Implies that imitation is reflexive?
Newborn Hearing. Measure sucking on a pacifier. First time an infant hears a sound they
will suck more. As they hear it more often they suck less
habituation. Play a new sound and infant starts sucking
faster dishabituation
Using this procedure, researchers have found newborns can discriminate between ba and pa.
At 4 weeks infants can process information across sensory modalities
Learning and memory of newborns Can learn to suck a pacifier at a
certain response rate to turn on a tape recording of the mother, at 3 days old. Learning
Prefer recording of mom over another female voice. memory perhaps from before birth?
Rovee-Collier
Trained infants to kick their leg to jiggle a mobile. String attached to leg went up to
mobile. Can remember this for several days.
Train task = press bar to make a train go around a track
Infants of the ages tested in the mobile and train tasks, from left to right, they are 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 months of age. Note the dramatic physical and behavioral differences between the younger and older infants.
The maximum duration of retention (in weeks) over the first 18 months of life. Independent groups of infants were studied in the mobile (2-6 months) and the train (6-18 months) tasks. Six-month-olds were trained and tested in both tasks.
Newborns and object permanence
Peak-a-boo. Piaget thought infants lacked object
permanence. Won’t reach for things that were there
and now are hidden.
The possible vs. impossible experiments.
The car and box experiment 6 - 8 months - watch car roll down ramp
impossible event a box blocked the cars path. A screen was lowered the car went through anyway.
Possible event the box did not block the cars path.
Screen was lowered the car went through
Infants stared longer at impossible event. What does this say about object permanence?
Do infants (5 months) have a concept of number? - Wynn, 1992
Possible = (1+1 =2) or (2-1 =1) impossible = (1+1 = 1) or (2-1
=2).
Sense of self?
At about 1 1/2 infants will touch a spot placed on them if allowed to look in a mirror.
The development of moral reasoning
Kohlberg believed that humans develop different reasons for what is right and wrong. Children tend to equate wrong with
punishment Adults realize that something can be
wrong, even if you are not punished for it
According to Kohlberg there are no moral or immoral decisions, just moral and immoral reasons for making decisions
He devised moral dilemma’s - problems that pit one moral value against another, to examine people’s moral reasoning
Overview of stages
Level 1 - Preconventional morality 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
Rules are obeyed simply to avoid punishment If I keep the money I could get spanked
2. Naïve egotism and instrumental orientation
Rules are obeyed simply to earn rewards If I keep the money I may get to keep some of it.
Level 2 - Conventional morality 3. Good boy/girl orientation
Rules are conformed to in order to avoid disapproval and gain approval
I’m a good boy because I returned the money
4. Authority-maintaining orientation Social conventions blindly accepted to avoid
criticism from those in authority. You shouldn’t keep the money because it is
against the rules and you will get in trouble if you are caught.
Level 3 – Postconventional morality 5. Contractual- legalistic orientation
Morality is based on agreement with others to serve the common good and protect the rights of individuals
I should return the money – if everyone kept things that don’t belong to them it would lead to anarchy.
6. Universal Ethical Principal Orientation Morality is a reflection of internalized standards Rules are obeyed to avoid self condemnation Right is what is universally ethical and respects
human worth, individuality, and other similar abstract concepts.
Keeping the money is wrong – period. In order to maintain respect for myself and humanity – I cannot keep something that does not belong to me.
Limitations of Kohlberg James Rest (1983) divided moral
reasoning into four components 1. Interpret the situation 2. Decide on the morally correct thing to do 3. Decide what you will actually do
may not be the morally correct thing 4. Actually do what you decided to do
Kohlberg’s stages only relate to the first two things on this list
criminals can do well in the abstract, but still do immoral things
Gilligan
Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg only presented one type of moral reasoning “justice” orientation -- focuses on rights
and duties. She thought that there was another
aspect to morality The “caring” orientation -- focuses on
helping oneself and others.
Gilligan’s stages
Preconventional - what is helpful or harmful to myself
conventional - what is helpful or harmful to others
postconventional - what is helpful or harmful to myself and others
Vietnam - a group of soldiers is ordered to shoot unarmed civilians One soldier’s refusal to shoot would rank high
on Kohlberg’s list if he did so because he thought it was wrong to kill when unprovoked.
The civilians would still get shot by the other soldiers
It would not rank high for Gilligan. For Gilligan saving the civilians would be a more caring approach
Attachment
A long-term feeling of closeness between people, such as a child and a caregiver comes from satisfaction of biological
needs, but also emotional needs such as social attention.
Harlow (1958)
Studied attachment in Rhesus Monkeys
He had tried to raise baby monkeys in isolated bare wire cages. Even though they were well fed they did
not survive. He found that if a scrap of terry cloth was
in the cage with them, that they did survive.
Harlow inferred that the terry cloth provided some measure of security
He attempted to discover whether infant monkeys had an inborn desire for love or warmth Contact comfort
He raised baby monkeys with “surrogate” mothers.
A wire figure covered in terry cloth A wire figure with no terry cloth.
Both figures could be fitted with bottles of milk.
In some cases the wire mother provided milk, in other cases the terry cloth mother provided milk.
Which do you think the babies preferred? Do you think the monkey’s grew up to be
normal?
Harlow’s Monkeys Did not have normal social and sexual
behavior Females, became very poor mothers,
that ignored their babies. Later Harlow found that if he took
babies reared by artificial mothers and integrated them into a social group of younger monkeys they turned out normal.
The message from the Harlow study, is that even for nonhumans, more is needed than just food and water from care givers.
For Infants to develop normally, they need comfort and support, as well as social signals.
How do we measure Attachment in humans? Ainsworth (1979) - The Strange
Situation A mother and an infant (12-18 months)
come into a room with many toys. A stranger enters The mother leaves, then returns both the stranger and the mother leave the stranger returns the mother returns
A researcher watches the infant through a one-way mirror
Four categories of infant responses. 1) Securely attached –
Infant uses the mother as base of exploration
shows mother toys. Shows some distress when mother leaves, but
cries only a little if at all. Baby greets mother with delight when she
returns.
2) Anxiously Attached
Infant clings to mother Cries profusely when she leaves,
as if worried she won’t come back. Clings to mother when she returns.
3) Anxious and avoidant
Infant does not interact with mother when she is present.
The infant cries when she leaves, but does not go to her when she returns
4) Disorganized
The infant pays little attention to the mother
Doesn’t seem to notice when she leaves, or when she returns. An anxious and avoidant child can
grow up normally, but research shows that a disorganized child is likely to be troubled
deviant aggressive behavior by age 5.