Design of Nature Reserves

Environment 121: Conservation of BiodiversityProfessor Victoria Sork

16 May 2009

I. Designing reserves

• SLOSS debate– =single large or several small

• oversimplifies choices• depends on how much land you are trying to optimize (e.g.

10,000 acres v 100,000 acres)• advantages of large reserves:

– Contiguous areas - preserve intact communities of interdependent species.– Contiguous areas - maintain viable populations of species that require large

areas (e.g. large vertebrates).

• advantages of small reserves– Can sometimes preserve a broader range of species

Island biogeography & reserve design

• introduced in previous lectures• emphasizes species richness, not species composition• has led to the emphasize on size of reserve

Figure 7.6 Principles of reserve design that are based in part on theories of island biogeography (Part 1)

Figure 7.6 Principles of reserve design that are based in part on theories of island biogeography (Part 2)

Figure 7.7 Population studies show that large parks and protected areas in Africa contain larger populations of each species than small parks

Considerations of reserve design

1. Disturbance regime– Defn: any discrete event that

disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure

– equilibrium versus non-equilibrium

– small reserves are vulnerable to disturbances

2. Concerns in reserve development– Biological considerations– Anthropological or cultural effects– Political and economic constraints– Threats and opportunities

3. Goals of reserve (first three were proposed by Michael Soulé and Dan Simberloff, 1986)– Preservation of large and

functioning ecosystems (e.g. watersheds)

– Preserve biodiversity (e.g. Biodiversity hotspots, first proposed by Norman Myers)

– Protection of particular species or groups of species (e.g. California condors)

– Protection of ecological or evolutionary process

(e.g California evolutionary hotspot project)

Six critical issues for reserve design: 1. Reserve size

• species area curve• habitat quality?• How do we determine the appropriate size?

– Extinction-size relationships (recall island biogeography?)

• Population/single species approach– Home range requirements– Migration requirements– MVP– Ne and maintenance of genetic diversity

• Edge effects• Disturbance regime

Six critical issues for reserve design: 2. Heterogeneity and dynamics

1. Heterogeneous areas have higher diversity 2. Patch dynamics

• disturbance patterns • patch longevity • alpha (within patch) and beta (between patch) diversity • presence in a patch is a function of colonization and

extinction • metapopulation

Six critical issues for reserve design: 3. Landscape context

• What is the surrounding non-reserve matrix? – industrial, residential, agricultural

• edge – Administrative boundary is based on political not ecological considerations – false edge = more protection within than without – biotic vs. legal boundaries

• Area-perimeter ratio – Smaller ratio – more edge effect, fewer interior, undisturbed habitats – more management, more cost

• Buffers – influence land-use plans around reserve – Human intervention

• direct & indirect • legal & illegal

Figure 7.11 Traditional rural landscape near Tokyo, Japan, with an alternating pattern of villages (black), secondary forest (dark green), wet

rice fields (light green), and hay fields (beige)

Six critical issues for reserve design: 4. Connecting fragmented habitats

• Corridors • periodic movement • migration, seasonal

movements • immigration & emigration • metapopulation context

• Wildlife corridors • Fencerow scale • edge, metapopulation • Landscape mosaic scale • daily, seasonal movements • Regional scale

• MUMS= multiple use modules:

• central, well protected area surrounded by buffer zones.

• management to preserve core area

• What does a corridor look like?

• Line corridor • entirely edge • hedgerow, utility strip • Strip corridor • broader with interior habitat

and patch dynamics

Figure 7.10 (A) An overpass divided highway allows migration safely between two forested areas. (B) Individuals disperse between two large

protected areas using smaller protected areas.

Six critical issues for reserve design: 5. Natural and modified landscape elements

defn: relatively homogeneous ecological units 1. modified landscape elements: roads, fields,

industrial zones 2. Exclusion of modified landscape elements is

not possible 3. Use of landscape elements around natural

areas changes

Six critical issues for reserve design: 6. Buffer zones

1. zoning 2. model – reserve core – buffer zone (compatible with core goals) – transition zone (can link several reserve systems)

II. Designing Reserve Networks

1. Background – Where should reserves be located?– What are the criteria?– How do we incorporate socio-economic issues (e.g. costs, feasibility, degree of threat).

2. Formula for reserve networks– Created by linking protected areas of different kinds– Multiple organizations and multiple types of protected areas.– Once priorities are established, linkages can be identified

3. Minimum area problem – Usually species based– Goal: minimize number of sites, total area, costs– Does not take into account persistence of species

4. Maximal coverage problem – Maximize the representation of a natural feature (e.g. species, but could be other issues). – Goal: best coverage for a limited number of sites, costs, or area

Reserve Network Design: Methods

Gap Analysis: conservation planning process1. Date are compiled for a region, or conservation unit.2. Conservation goals are identified (e.g. area, species)3. Identify existing protected areas and gaps in coverage4. Identify areas to fill the gaps5. Additional areas are identified and conservation management

plan is developed6. Conservation areas are monitored to see if attaining goals

Geographic Information System 7. System of storing, analyzing, and mapping spatially explicit data.8. Key to Gap analysis and reserve design in general

Figure 7.5 Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a method for integrating a wide variety of data for analysis and display on maps

Case study 1: Sierra Nevada network evaluating multiple criteria (Davis et al 2006*)

Methods:1) Use GPS data that

include multiple layers for a region under consideration

2) Map region based on specific criteria

Results:1. Rare and endangered

species criteria(see figure)

*Davis, F. W., C. Costello, and D. M. Stoms. (2006). Efficient conservation in a utility-maximization framework. Ecology and Society 11:33. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art33/

Reserve network in Sierra Nevada, cont’d 2. Use existing reserves 3. Monetary considerations

Case 2: Preserve genetic diversity in valley oak

• Problem: Valley oak is most threatened oak species in California

• How do you decide where to preserve populations?

Method:• Use Maximum coverage

approach (Sork et al 2007)Sork, V.L. , F.W. Davis, D. Grivet. 2007. Incorporating genetic

information into conservation planning for California valley oak. In press in : Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: California's Oaks: Today's Challenges, Tomorrow's Opportunities. 2006 October 9-12; Santa Rosa, CA. Gen.

Map of valley oak coverage (white areas) and sampling locations for valley oak genotypes

Valley oak case: selection of reserve sites, cont’d

Criteria 1: Base decisions on unique chloroplast DNA haplotypes

Criteria 2: Maximum coverage of cp and nuclear DNA markers

Conclusion: Preserve coastal populations Conclusion: Preserve populations in Sierras and southern California

But, think about what this pattern of site location gives you. What do we learn when we look at patterns of cp versus

nuclear genetic variation?

III. Protected areas as part of reserve design

A. What is a protected area?– "an area of land and/or sea dedicated to the protection and

maintenance of biological diversity and managed through legal and other effective means" (IUCN 1994)

B. Approaches to preserving biological communities of protected areas– Creating networks of protected areas– Effective management– Implementation of conservation measures outside protected

areas– Restoration of biological communities in degraded habitats.

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature*

What is IUCN?“IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find

pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. It supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world and brings governments, non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies and local communities together to develop and implement policy, laws and best practice.”

IUCN’s vision and mission“Our vision is a just world that values and conserves nature. Our mission is to

influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.”

* http://www.iucn.org/

IUCN cat 1: Strict nature reserves or wilderness areas

• Protected areas managed primarily for biological diversity

• Includes natures reserves established for scientific study, education, environmental monitoring, and maintenance of biodiversity

• Wilderness areas are maintained for recreation, for subsistence economic activities, and to protect natural processes.

IUCN 2: National parks

• large areas of outstanding scenic and natural beauty

• maintained for scientific, educational and recreational use

• usually not for commercial extraction of resources

• E.g. Yosemite, Lassen, Yellowstone National Parks Bryce National Park, USA

http://www2.nature.nps.gov

IUCN 3. National monuments and landmarks

• smaller areas• unique national interest

E.g., Dinosaur National Monument, Denver, Colorado, http://www.nps.gov/dino/

IUCN 4. Managed wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves

• requires human management

IUCN 5. Protected landscapes and seascapes

• areas of land, coastline, and/ or seas with a distinct esthetic, ecological, and/or cultural value.

Southwest Protected Landscape, UK, http://www.southwestlandscapes.org.uk/

IUCN 6. Managed-resource protected areas

• water, grazing, ecotourism, timber, fishing

• preserves some aspects of biodiversity

US Forest Service and logging; photo from http://www.nativeforest.org

Existing Marine Protected Areas

• The official federal definition of an MPA in Executive Order 13158 is: “any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein.”

• National Marine Protected Areas Center (http://mpa.gov/)

• two characteristics in the Classification System (out of five characteristics) – Conservation Focus– Level of Protection

Madagascar Marine protected area

Figure 7.15 On Apo Island in the Philippines, large reef fish had been overharvested to the point where they were rarely seen

Existing Terrestrial Protected Areas

Thailand: 8% includes parks and sanctuaries – 88% of resident bird

species– other protected areas

adds 5% of total land cover

Orangutan, Leuser National Park, Thailand

Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica

• due in large part to Dan Janzen

• 0.2% of area of Costa Rica

• Includes Guanacaste National Park, 82,500 acres

• 90% of Sphinctid moth species of Costa Rica

Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica www.tropicalexpeditions.com/ a1.htm

IV. Creating new protected areas

A. Identifying priorities• Distinctiveness (or Irreplaceability)• Endangerment, or vulnerability• UtilityB. Approaches

1. Species approaches – Focal species: rare species, endangered species, keystone species– Indicator species: e.g. spotted owl

• associated with an endangered biological community– Flagship species: "charismatic megafaunta"; protect whole communities and ecosystem

processes– Umbrella species: protection of these species protects others species and the

communities (e.g. Project Tiger)– IUCN- takes a species approach

Approaches to selecting areas to protect, cont’d

2. Centers of Biodiversity – Conservation International and Biodiversity Hotspots– Peaks of species richness

3. Community and ecosystem approach – Can protect many species and ecosystem services at same time– helps identify underprotected areas– Worldwide, underprotected areas include:

• temperate grasslands• Mediterranean forests• tropical dry forests