The Design of Nature Reserves

Goals

• Maintenance of MVP’s for targeted species

• Maintenance of intact communities

• Minimization of disease

Considerations of reserve

design1. Disturbance regime

– Fire

– Insect outbreaks

– Floods

– Small reserves are vulnerable to disturbances

2. Concerns in reserve development

– Biological considerations

– Anthropological or cultural effects

– Political and economic constraints

– Threats and opportunities

3. Goals of reserve (first three were proposed by Michael Soulé and Dan Simberloff, 1986)

– Preservation of large and functioning ecosystems (e.g. watersheds)

– Preserve biodiversity (e.g. Biodiversity hotspots, first proposed by Norman Myers)

– Protection of particular species or groups of species (e.g. California condors)

– Protection of ecological or evolutionary process

(e.g California evolutionary hotspot project)

Disturbance Regimes: Fire

Rim Fire – 28 Aug 2013

Rim Fire – August 26,2013

255,858 acres burned

Rim Fire – September 2, 2013

Due to warmer temperatures, mountain pine beetles are devastating whitebark pine trees in the Northern

Rockies. Whitebark pine is a keystone species, its seeds are a critical food source for grizzly bears in the

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), and the disappearance of whitebark pine from the GYE will have

catastrophic consequences for GYE grizzlies.

Disturbance Regimes: Insect Outbreaks

Concerns in Reserve Development: Cultural Considerations

Cultural Considerations: Tiger Reserves in India

The reserve is 1100 square kilometers including the buffer zone.

The core area is 460 square kilometers.

Goals of the Reserve: Preserve Large

Functioning Ecosystems Such as Watersheds

Biodiversity Hotspots

Goal of The Reserves: Protect Biodiversity

34 Biodiversity Hotspots comprise only 2.3 % of the earths surface

Over 50 percent of the world’s plant species and 42 percent of all

terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the 34 biodiversity

hotspots

Goals of the Reserve: Preserve Biodiversity

Biodiversity Hotspots

• By preserving and financially supporting 34

biodiversity hotspots (2.3% of the earth’s

surface) we can protect half of the world’s

vascular plant species and 42 percent of the

worlds mammal, bird, reptile, and

amphibian species.

• Cost to manage them would be $500

million/year. (Less than 1% of the funds the

U.S. paid out for the “Troubled Asset Relief

Program – TARP” to stabilize banks.)

The value of protected areas in maintaining biodiversity is obvious in tropical countries. Inside

the park there are trees and animal life. Outside the park the land has been cleared, fires are

common, and few animals are seen.

10,000 km2

Only 3.5% of the

national parks in the

world are larger than

10,000 km2. Even

reserves of this size

are too small to

maintain a minimal

viable population of

the largest carnivores.

Therefore, active

management is

necessary to maintain

genetic diversity.

Protection of ecological or evolutionary process requires large reserves.

Population studies show that large parks and protected areas in

Africa contain larger populations of each species than small parks

SLOSS

Single Large or

Several Small?

Area to Perimeter Ratio (A/P)

Low A/P Ratio High A/P Ratio

High Exposure Low Exposure

Average distance from any interior

point to nearest edge is small

Average distance from any interior

point to edge is increased

Location of Reserves

• Research migration patterns of animals

• Presence of riparian areas or other habitats

characterized by exceptional species

diversity.

• Areas with a high degree on endemism or

keystone species.

• Potential edge effects

Metapopulations

Corridors can

potentially

transform an

isolated reserve

into a linked

network within

which

populations can

interact as a

metapopulation

Metapopulations: Grizzly

• Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

– At the present time this is an isolated populations

• Greater Cascades Ecosystem

– North Cascades grizzly is a “deme”. It “fits” the land

differently than a Yellowstone grizzly. Its genes

provide some defense against local pests and

pathogens

• Canada

Corridors between these populations could transform the GYE from

an isolated reserve into a linked network within which grizzly

Populations could interact as a metapopulation.

Kaziranga: A Conservation Success Story

Species Estimated Number

(2010 Census)

Greater One Horned Rhinoceros 2,290

Asian Elephant 1,165

Asiatic Wild Buffalo 1,937

Bengal Tiger 106

Barasingha (Eastern Swamp Deer) 1168

Hog Deer 9,000

Kaziranga also has sambar deer, sloth bears, and leopards.

There were fewer than 200 rhinos in Assam a century ago.

488 bird species – 25 of which are globally threatened.

• Classified by the IUCN

Redlist as Vulnerable to

extinction. Threats

include:

– Poaching

– Disease spread by

domestic livestock

– Conflicts with humans

(They are agricultural

pests in tea plantations)

– Illegal grazing

– Inbreeding

Kaziranga Has a High Tiger Density

Highway 37

Kaziranga is a hub in a network of migration corridors

that supports a crucial breeding population of tigers.

An overpass (wildlife corridor) divided highway in Canada

allows migration safely between two forested areas.

Corridors

• Corridors can facilitate

movement of pest

species

• The risk of predation

is greater along

corridors

Reserve Network Design:

MethodsGap Analysis: conservation planning process

1. Data are compiled for a region, or conservation unit.

2. Conservation goals are identified (e.g. area, species)

3. Identify existing protected areas and gaps in coverage

4. Identify areas to fill the gaps

5. Additional areas are identified and conservation management plan is developed

6. Conservation areas are monitored to see if attaining goals

Geographic Information System 1. System of storing, analyzing, and mapping spatially

explicit data.

2. Key to Gap analysis and reserve design in general

Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a method for

integrating a wide variety of data for analysis and display on maps

Biosphere Reserves

In 1971 UNESCO embarked on a program to

identify, recognize, and promote the

conservation o representative examples of

the world's major ecosystems.

Biosphere Reserves

Conservation in situ of

natural and semi-natural

ecosystems and landscapes

Conservation Sustainable

use

Logistic

support

Biosphere reserves perform

three main roles:

Demonstration areas for ecologically

and socio-culturally sustainable use; and

Logistic support for research, monitoring,

education, training and information exchange

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves - How are they organized?

These functions are associated through

a zonation system including:

This schema can be adapted to various ecological,

socio-cultural and legal contexts

R Research station

or experimental

research site

M Monitoring

E Education/training

T Tourism

R

R

M

E

T

T

Core area(s)

Buffer zone(s)

Transition area(s)

Core Area: Pristine

Strictly Protected

Ecological Monitoring

Buffer Zone: Human Settlement

Areas of Traditional Use

Degraded Areas to be Rehabilitated

Tourism

Biosphere Reserves - How are they organized?

These functions are associated through

a zonation system including:

This schema can be adapted to various ecological,

socio-cultural and legal contexts

R Research station

or experimental

research site

M Monitoring

E Education/training

T Tourism

R

R

M

E

T

T

Core area(s)

Buffer zone(s)

Transition area(s)

Transition Zone: A dymanic, ever-expanding cooperation

zone where the work of the biosphere

reserve is applied directly to the needs

of the local people.

Lacks definite borders.

Conservation pursued through cooperation

with local people.

The Most Successful Protected Areas

Have Community Involvement

SLOSS

Ecosystems Have Thee

Primary Attributes

• Composition

– Species abundance (gene pool abundance)

• Structure

– An ecosystem dominated by old growth trees

has a different structure than one comprised of

short quaking aspens

• Function

– Decomposition by micro-organisms

– Fire to reset successional clock

– Mychorrhizal fungi