Descriptive Grammar of English Part 1: Phonetics and Phonology

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Descriptive Grammarof English

Part 1:Phonetics

and Phonology

dr Iwona Kokorniak

(with contribution from dr Jarosław Weckwerth)

20th December 2008

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Allophones: Examples to consider

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Allophonic processes

Different allophones of the same phonemeUsually within the word, but also across word boundaries

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Casual speech (fast speech) processes

= phonostylistic processesSpeakers tend to make their pronunciation easier and fasterOn the phonostylistic levelThis involves the change of phonemesDifferent phonemes as a result Not just different realizations of phonemes (=allophones)

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Casual speech processes

AssimilationPlace of articulation(Manner of articulation)(Voicing)

ElisionLiasion

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Surprises of connected speech: Polish

grat /græt/ grad /græd/

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t b

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t b

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t b

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Assimilation

A phoneme may be realised differently as a result of being close to some other phoneme belonging to a neighbouring word

Principle the same as in coarticulationBut results in phonemic change

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Assimilation

In Polish, mainly voicing assimilation

From right to left – regressive assimilation

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Regressive assimilation

regressive/ anticipatory assimilation - if Cf (consonant final) becomes more like Ci (consonant initial) then we have to do with progressive assimilation;The influence comes from Ci: Cf │< Ci

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Progressive assimilation

progressive/ perserverative – if Ci (consonant initial) becomes more like Cf (consonant final) then we have to do with progressive assimilation; influence comes from Cf │>Ci

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Assimilation

We distinguish assimilation of:

place of articulationmanner of articulationvoicing

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Assimilation: Polish

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English assimilation

Huge problem: English doesn’t have much voicing assimilation

It prefers place assimilation

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Polish English

t b

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Polish English

t b

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Polish English

t b

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Polish English

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Polish English

NO!

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t b

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t b

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t b

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t k


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t k


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t k


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d b


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d b


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d b


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d g

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d g

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d g

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d m

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d m

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d m

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n b

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n b

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n b

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Regressive = anticipatory (right to left)

Voicing and manner don’t change, only the place of articulation does

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Alveolar plosive and nasal sounds (t d n)

Change their place of articulation

To that of the following sound – velar or bilabial

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/t/ > /p/ before /p, b, m/e.g.:

that personsat boldlyfat mouse

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/t/ > /k/ before /k, g/e.g.:fat kingsmart girl

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/d/ > /b/ before /p, b, m/e.g.: bad personbad boybad mother

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/d/ > /g/ before /k, g/e.g.: bad king bad girl

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/n/ > /m/ before /p, b, m/e.g.: sun bed sun protector sun movement

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/n/ > /ŋ/ before /k, g/e.g.:run quicklyrun gracefully

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Danger

Different from Polish!

Polish changes voicing

English tolerates voiced + voiceless clusters

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Polish English

s b

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Polish English

s b

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Polish English

s b

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Polish English

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Polish English

NO!

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s b

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Nothing to do hereWhy?

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This is why

Is there a bilabial fricative in English?No.There’s nothing that the /s/ sound could change to here

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English assimilation: fricatives

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Alveolar fricatives /s z/ can change only to post-alveolar fricatives/s z/ >/ʃ ʒ/But no change in voicing!!!/s/ > /∫/ before /∫, t∫, d, j//z/ > /ʒ/ before /∫, t∫, d, j/

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/s/ > /∫/ before /∫, t∫, d , j /E.g. this church

/z/ > /ʒ/ before /∫, t∫, d ,j/ E.g. these churches

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It is an optional process in connected speech

More frequent in less formal situations

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Coalescence: A special case

would you?

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Coalescence

A radical process of assimilationAlveolar plosive /t d/ or fricative /s z/Followed by /j/1st step: post-alveolar affricate or fricative + /j/2nd step: /j/ disappears

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Coalescent assimilation

Frequent phrases with ‘you’:what you, could you, did you

But may also appear with other cases of /j/:this year, bad Europe, is young, what use, etc.

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Assimilation of manner of art.

Assimilation of mannerOnly in really fast speech

in the

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Assimilation of manner of art.

Usually affects /δ/ in unstressed words

An example of progressive/perserverative assimilation (left to right)

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Assimilation of voicing

Very rare in English

Only for a few fixed phrases

E.g. have to, of course

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Assimilation of voicing

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Elision

Another phonostylistic processSounds are elided = deleted

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Elision = deletion

Consider:

wszystko

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Elision

first cat

bold man

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Elision

Alveolar plosive /t d/ elision

The most frequent

Quite similar to Polish

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Alveolar plosive elision

An alveolar plosive may be deleted

At the end of a syllableAfter a consonant of the same voicing If another consonant follows (but

not /h/)

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In other words, elision is common:

a voiceless continuant + /t/ followed by a word with an initial consonant /st, ft, ∫t/ + consonant e.g.: ‘next day’, ‘just one’,

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a voiced continuant + /d/ followed by a word with an initial consonant/nd, ld, zd, ðd, vd/ + consonante.g.: ‘bend back’

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word final clusters voiceless stop/affricate +/t/: /pt, kt, t∫t/voiced stop/affricate +/d/: /bd, gd/ may lose the final alveolar stop when the following word has an initial consonant, e.g. ‘helped me’, lagged behind’, ‘judged fairly’

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sequence /-skt/ /k/ rather than /t/ is often elided e.g.’ risked prison’

>

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The only cue to the presence of elided stops in medial position the total duration of closure as there’s the lack of release of the stop

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Danger!

last night

locked door

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Why?

Consider: jabłko

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Elision + assimilation

is wrong!

Why?Polish doesn’t allow voiced + voiceless clustersAs opposed to English

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Elision + assimilation

Therefore,

Elision creates a context for assimilation

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Danger!

Consider:must be

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Danger!

Compare:las był

Mind: this is obligatory in Polish

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Polish English

WRONG!!!

English does not permit this kind of voicing assimilation

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/h/ elision

the loss of /h/ in pronominal weak forms

e.g. ‘him, his’ and other consonantal elisions typical of weak forms

auxiliary ‘have’: could have

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/h/ elision

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Elision of /ə/

weak vowels are dropped in casual speech, especially /ə/initial /ə/ is often elidedparticularly when followed by a continuant and preceded by a word-final consonante.g. ‘not alone’ [not `ləυn], ‘he was annoyed’

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Elision of /ə/

When final /ə/ occurs with following linking /r/ and word initial vowel, /ə/ may be elided, e.g.‘father and son’

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Elision of /ə/

When a weak vowel precedes /w, l, r/ then the vowel is deleted and the next consonant will become syllabic.am

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Connected speech

Assimilation and elision are phonostylistic processesBecause they depend on the style of speakingFormal vs. Informal(Remember: voicing assimilation is obligatory in Polish)

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Connected speech

But there are also other processes in connected speechE.g. linking and intrusive R (examples of liaison)And weak forms

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Rhoticity

Standard British English, Australian, New Zealand etc.are non-rhotic

/r/ pronouncedonly before a vowel

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All varieties

right /raɪt/pride /praɪd/bury /'beri/

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Non-rhotic varieties

car /kɑː/stored /stɔːd/word /wɜːd/

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Liaison – Linking R

British English – a non-rhotic varietyIt retains word-final post-vocalic /r/ as a linking form when the following word begins with a vowel and where ‘r’ occurs in the spellingThus, spelling justification needed for linking /r/

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Linking R

far out /fɑːr aʊt/4-8 /fɔːr eɪt/

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Intrusive RBy analogy to linking R......in non-rhotic varieties only/r/ may be pronounced if

/ɑː ɜː ɔː ə/

are followed by a vowel

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Intrusive R

there is no spelling justification for /r/ to appear

law and order /lɔːr ənd ɔːdə/

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Intrusive R

a spa in the UK /spɑːr ɪn/drawing /drɔːrɪŋ/

the idea is /aɪdɪər ɪz/

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Linking J

In vocalic junctures - where the first word ends in / i: ı eı aı oı/ another word starts with a vowela slight linking / j / may be heard between two vowels, e. g. my arms

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Linking J: Zoom

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Linking J

not sufficient to be equated with phonemic /j/, e.g. ‘my ears’ vs. my years

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Linking W

linking [ w ] may be heard between a final /u: υə aυ/ and a following vowele.g. ’two-eyed’, ’too wide’

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Casual speech processes

AssimilationRegressive vs. ProgressiveOf place of articulation vs. Manner or

art. Vs. voicing

ElisionLiaison

Descriptive Grammar of English Part 1: Phonetics and Phonology

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