DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER …...Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja a postgraduate student in the Department...

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ISUWA YAKUBU KPANJA PG/MED/12/61485

PG/M.ED/11/58795

ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS POSSESSED BY AUTO TECHNOLOGY SELF EMPLOYED GRADUATES IN

NASARAWA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Fred Attah

Digitally signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre

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ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS POSSESSED BY AUTO TECHNOLOGY

SELF EMPLOYED GRADUATES IN NASARAWA STATE

BY

ISUWA YAKUBU KPANJA

PG/MED/12/61485


(INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION)

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

OCTOBER, 2015

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TITLE PAGE

ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS POSSESSED BY AUTO TECHNOLOGY SELF

EMPLOYED GRADUATES IN NASARAWA STATE

BY

ISUWA YAKUBU KPANJA

PG/MED/12/61485

A PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

DEGREE OF MASTERS IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR: PROF. E.O. EDE

OCTOBER, 2015

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APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the Department of Vocational Teacher Education

(Industrial Technical Education), University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

………………………. ……………………………

Prof. E.O. Ede Internal Examination

Supervisor

……………………….. …………………………….

External Examiner Prof. C.A. Igbo

Head of Department

…………………………

Prof. Uju Umo

Dean, Faculty of Education

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CERTIFICATION

Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja a postgraduate student in the Department of Vocational Teacher

Education, with registration number PG/Med/12/61485 has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the Degree of Masters in Industrial Technical Education. The work

embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other

diploma or degree of this or any other University.

_______________________ ____________________

Prof. E.O. Ede Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja

Supervisor Student

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty God our Lord Jesus Christ.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher would like to thank his supervisor, Prof. E. O. Ede, for the support and

benefit of the vast knowledge and experience through his style of supervision.

The researcher also wishes to extend his gratitude’s to Professors S.C.O.A. Ezeji, E.E.

Agomuo, E.U. Anyakoha, E.C. Osinem and C.A. Obi and Drs. F.M. Onu, T.C. Ogbuanya,

and J.A. Okonze all in the Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of

Nigeria, Nsukka for their moral support and constructive criticisms which helped to raise the

standard of this work. Special gratitude also goes to Drs, E.A.O. Anele and M.N. Eze for

their constructive criticism towards the work during proposal. I will not forget my dear sister

Mrs. Serah Ajah and all the members of my family.

Above all, the researcher is grateful to God Almighty for his protection, providence and

especially for sparing his life. Glory is to God for without him this study would not have

been successful.

Isuwa Y.K.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ i

APPROVAL PAGE -------------------------------------------------------------------- ii

CERTIFICATION ---------------------------------------------------------------------- iii

DEDICATION ------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ------------------------------------------------------------- v

TABLE OF CONTENTS -------------------------------------------------------------- vi

LIST OF TABLES ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ix

LIST OF FIGURES --------------------------------------------------------------------- x

ABSTRACT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------- 1

Background of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Statement of the Problem---------------------------------------------- ---------------- 6

Purpose of the Study -------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

Significance of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------- 8

Research Questions --------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

Hypotheses ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10

Delimitation of the Study -------------------------------------------------------------- 11

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ------------- 12

Conceptual Framework -------------------------------------------------------------- 13

Concept of Entrepreneurship ------------------------------------------------ 13

Concept of Vocational and Technical College ---------------------------- 16

Technical College Education ----------------------------------------------- 17

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Auto Technology in Technical Colleges ----------------------------------- 17

Concept of Skills --------------------------------------------------------------- 25

Entrepreneurial Skills---------------------------------------------------33

Theoretical Framework -------------------------------------------------------------- 63

Leadership Path-Goal Theory ----------------------------------------------- 63

Socio-Cultural Theory -------------------------------------------------------- 65

Model of Economic Development ------------------------------------------ 66

Related Empirical Studies ----------------------------------------------------------- 67

Summary of Review of Related Literature -------------------------------------- 71

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ---------------------------------------- 73

Design of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------------- 73

Area of the Study ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 73

Population for the Study --------------------------------------------------------------- 74

Instrument for Data Collection ------------------------------------------------------ 74

Validation of the Instrument ---------------------------------------------------------- 75

Reliability of the Instrument --------------------------------------------------------- 76

Method of Data Collection ----------------------------------------------------------- 76

Method of Data Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------- 76

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA -- --- 77

Research Question 1--- ----------------------------------------------------------------- 77

Research Question 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------- 79



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Hypothesis 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83

Hypothesis 2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85

Hypothesis 3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86

Hypothesis 4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87

Hypothesis 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88

Findings of the Study ------------------------------------------------------------------- 89

Hypothesis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93

Discussion of the Findings ------------------------------------------------------------ 95

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIO NS-99

Re-statement of the problem ---------------------------------------------------------- 99

Summary of procedures used ------------------------------------------------------- 100

Major findings ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 101

Implication of the study -------------------------------------------------------------- 102

Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103

Recommendations -------------------------------------------------------------------- 103

Suggestions for further study-------------------------------------------------------- 104

REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 105

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Request for Validation of Instrument --------------------------- 111

Appendix B: Introduction Letter to the Respondent --------------------------- 112

Appendix C: Questionnaire -------------------------------------------------------- 113

Appendix D: Result of the analysis using SPSS --------------------------------- 120

Appendix E: Population Distribution of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs

And Auto Technology Employees ----------------------------------145

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LIST OF TABLES Table Pages 1: Mean and standard deviation of responses of Auto technology entrepreneurs and

Auto technology employees on the Technical Skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates. --------------------------------------------- 77

2: Mean and standard deviation of responses of Auto technology entrepreneurs and

Auto technology employees on the Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates ------------------------------------------------- 79


Auto technology employees on the financial skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates ------------------------------------------------ 80


Auto technology employees on the marketing skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates. ----------------------------------------------- 81


Auto technology employees on the Communication skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates --------------------------------------------- 82

6: t-test analysis of the mean responses of Auto technology entrepreneurs and

Auto technology employees on the Technical Skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates-------------------------------------------- 83

7: t-test analysis of the mean responses of Auto technology entrepreneurs and Auto

technology employees on the Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology

Self Employed Graduates------------------------------------------- 85


technology employees on the financial skills Possessed by Auto Technology

Self Employed Graduates ----------------------------------------- 86


technology employees on the marketing skills Possessed by Auto Technology

Self Employed Graduates ------------------------------------------- 87


technology employees on the Communication skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates ------------------------------------- 88

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1 Sample Communication Model----------------------------- 52

2 Communication as a process-------------------------------------------------------- 55

3 Types of Communication-------------------------------------------------------- 56

4 Overview Communications Planning---------------------------------------------- 58

5 Johari Window of Communication Styles---------------------------------------- 60

6 Schema of Entrepreneurial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology

Self Employed Graduates ------------------------------------------------------ 62

7 Leadership Path-Goal Theory------------------------------------------------------- 63

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ABSTRACT

The study was designed to determine the skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates in Nasarawa state. Survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for the study was 110 respondents comprises of 30 auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees. There was no sampling because of manageable size of the population. A structured questionnaire was used as instrument for data collection. The instrument was trial-tested on 15 respondents who were not part of the population used for the study after being subjected to face validation by three 3 experts from the department of vocational teacher education, university of Nigeria, Nsukka. Cronbach Alpha reliability method was used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument and 0.984 reliability coefficient value was obtained. Five research questions and five null hypotheses were formulated for the study. Mean was used to analyze the data for research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses of no significant difference at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed 36 technical skills, 16 managerial skills, 11 financial management skills, 21 marketing skills and 16 communication skills possessed by graduates of auto technology for self-employment in Nasarawa state. There was no significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. The study recommended that all the skills identified in this study should be packaged and uses to retain the graduates of auto technology as prospective entrepreneurs in the country. It was also recommended that the entrepreneurial skills identified should be introduced as one of the compulsory subjects in all secondary schools in the country. Through this methods students who transcend into technical institutions to the university level, would have become conversant with the tenets of entrepreneurial demand.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The importance of entrepreneurial skills in the economy of developed and developing

countries have led and would continue to lead to a reconsideration of their roles in the

economy of nations. However, success for entrepreneurial ventures requires competent skills.

The extent to which graduates of auto technology possess entrepreneurial skills would finally

help them to be successful entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneur plays a dominant role in the development of business opportunities.

According to Ihekwoaba (2007) an entrepreneur is any person who uses skills to discover

hidden business opportunity and exploits it for a profit. Entrepreneur is a change agent, an

innovator and a risk taker, who exploits business opportunities within the environment by

utilizing the resources effectively to develop new technologies, produce new products and

services to maximize profit and contributing significantly to societal development. This

desire of an entrepreneur to maximize profit and contribute to economic and social well

being of the society shows the entrepreneur’s great ability to organize in business

organization. The activity or activities of the entrepreneur is called entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is a process of bringing together creative and innovative ideas,

combining them with management and organization skills in order to combine people, money

and resources to meet an identified need and thereby create wealth (Agomuo, 2002). It is the

willingness and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities, establish and

run an enterprise successfully. According to Ademiluyi (2007) entrepreneurship skills are

simply business skills which individuals possess to enable them effectively function in the

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turbulent business environment as an entrepreneur or self-employed. Akinola (2001) pointed

out that it takes special skills to succeed as an entrepreneur. However, Graduates of auto

technology without the relevant entrepreneurial skills will find the labour market most

unrewarding and unfavorable in terms of creating jobs, instead of seeking jobs where none

exists. Jobs could still be created only if the graduates understand the actual goals of which

auto technology is aimed to achieve after graduation from technical colleges.

Technical colleges play significant roles mostly through the training of students in

different trades. Technical colleges, according to Okoro (2006), are the principal vocational

institutions in Nigeria which give full vocational training intended to prepare graduates for

entry into various occupations such as auto mechanics, metal work, electrical and electronics

among others. Trainees that have completed the programmed in a technical college shall have

the opportunity to secure employment in the industries or become self-employed and be able

to employ others (FGN, 2004).

Trainee in auto technology is an individual who is available to learn the skill of

automotive trade from a professionally skilled teacher to withstand challenges required by

the industry. Auto Technology Teacher at the Technical College level is expected to posses

the needed competencies for imparting technical knowledge and skills to students, especially

now that the emphasis is on competency base learning (Davies 2001). Technical teacher who

is seen as curriculum implementer should see the need to improve the teaching of auto

technology and would have to plan lessons based on good instructional objectives of the

program as well as learners’ practical skill acquisition.

Skill can be defined as knowledge demonstrated by actions or the ability to perform in a

certain way. Osinem and Nwoji (2010) explained skill as a manifestation of acquired

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knowledge that is translated into practical activity. Auto technology craftsmen like the other

counterparts in technical trades requires adequate entrepreneurial skills for effective

performance.

Auto technology is aim to produce graduates with competent skills for self-

employment. Uyanya, (1989) stated that the most important thing that ever happened to

Nigeria is the 1981 National Policy on Education which emphasizes the acquisition of

vocational skills for self-reliance. Entrepreneurship in Auto Technology is among the major

ways to enhance socio-economic and industrial development of self-actualization for the

individuals concerned. Thus, the National Institute of Automotive Service Excellence, ASE

(2005) Certifies Automotive Service Technology (AST) in eight areas as; (1) Engine repairs,

(2) Automatic Transmission and Transaxle, (3) Manual drive train and axles, (4) Steering and

suspension, (5) Brakes, (6) Electrical and Electronics, (7) Engine Performance, and (8) Air

Conditioning. Automotive technology is continuously becoming more and more

sophisticated. Nice (2001) remarked that continual evolution in design is intended to achieve

more reliable, streamline, cleaner and safer vehicle. Hence, the rising demands for skilled

automotive technologists as craftsmen who are mostly graduates of technical colleges to

provide maintenance services for automobile users is on the increase.

However, Rea (2010) describes craftsmen as trained or skilled individuals in the

technical details of a particular art or science, especially one skilled at operating, maintaining

or repairing equipment, in contrast to the theory or informational content of a craft. These

craftsmen who are mostly Auto Technology graduates should possess adequate

entrepreneurial skills for successful management of their business after graduation. Such

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entrepreneurial skills should include technical, managerial, financial management, marketing,

and communication skills.

Technical skill is knowledge about and proficiency in a specific type of work or

activity. It includes competencies in a specialized area, analytical ability, and the ability to

use appropriate tools and techniques (Katz, 2000). For example, in a computer software

company, technical skill might include knowing software language and programming, the

company’s software products, and how to make these products function for clients. Similarly,

in an automobile firm, technical skill might include understanding and having the ability to

apply generally accepted maintenance and repair principles to a client’s customer. In both

examples, technical skills involve a professional hands-on activity with a basic product or

process within an organization.

Management is generally viewed as a professional discipline that assembles and uses

resources in terms of human, resources, financial resources, physical resources and time to

accomplished objectives (Olowu, 2000). This implies that management involves the use of

human resources through the process of planning, organizing and controlling of products in

the industries in order to meet the customer requirements. In automobile industries,

management could be viewed as the function of individual workers for the attainment of the

objectives. However, crises occur when the industry is successfully expanding and the

entrepreneur is not capable of running it due to lack of needed knowledge and managerial

skills. Thus, Anyakoha (2009) stated some of the managerial skills to include; ability to

communicate effectively, ability to make long and short term planning, ability to manage

time, finance and meet job schedule.

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However, the financial management skills in every organization play a key role in the

development and growth of the organization. Osuala (2004) noted that adequate supply of fund

makes it possible not only for emergency of new business but also the survival of existing

ones. In addition, Osuala (1995) is of the view that there is a correlation between inadequate

record and the business organizations of which this constitutes a major problem. Financial

management, according to Nzelibe (1996) is one of the most important aspects of

entrepreneurship. Onwachekwa and Olatunji (2004) concluded that auto technology graduates

who may wish to be self-employed are deeply skeptical to establish on their own for lack of

capital or financial resource skills. This situation inhibits the survival of the few existing

enterprise around.

Another skill required by an entrepreneur is the marketing skills. Skill possession in

marketing is an important and essential aspect of entrepreneurship. The sole economic

justification of a firm’s existence, according to Boone and Kurtz (1977), is the production

and marketing of want-satisfying products and services. The small business entrepreneur

often concentrates marketing mix efforts on selected key target market. However, Kotler

(2006), stated that identifying the customer’s needs and sustaining the customer’s satisfaction

is the beginning of every business through communication skills in marketing operation.

Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the sharing on

ideals between two or more persons in an organization using competency in communication.

Master (2008), stated that Communication enables people in the modern world to work

together, exchange products and services, share and achieve goals profitably. In other words

its effectiveness is dependent on one’s competency in communication. Communication

involves intents and efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver. It is a

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process that can be fraught with error such as with messages muddled that is, mixed up by

the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient. However, if this is not detected, it can cause

tremendous confusion, waste efforts and misopportunities in most of organization. Success of

communication depends on several factors, transmission of message by the process of

encoding and decoding the message which may result in short-term perception, for the

success of communication.

Another possible constraint to skills acquisition of the technical colleges graduates can

be that, the graduates are not aware of the entrepreneurial skills. Therefore, graduates of auto

technology should possess adequate entrepreneurial skills for gainful employment. Self

employment among these graduates may help the government to reduce societal problems

such as burglaries, armed robbery, aggression, frustration, prostitutions, drug addiction and

insecurity (Oyebode, 2005). Hence, it is important to identify entrepreneurial skills possessed

by auto technology graduates for self employment in Nasarawa State.

Statement of the Problem

Succeeding administrations in Nasarawa State have employed measures in areas like:

fiscal incentives, grants, bilateral and multilateral support to aid educational institutions in

the state specifically in technical and entrepreneurial development. However, auto

technology graduates from technical colleges who are expected to have possessed the

entrepreneurial skills for self-employment and join the team of entrepreneurs in the country

for economic growth and industrial development do not seem to possess the entrepreneurial

skills. The graduates are in most case rejected by employers because they do not possess the

entrepreneurial skills. The customers feel disappointed because of the delay in the repairs of

their vehicles by the auto technology graduates in their existing business. In addition,

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customers have to abandon their vehicles or most times take a painful step to relocate their

vehicles to other shops due to unnecessary reasons always given by these graduates. The

graduates might not have been taught in the schools because they were not aware of the

necessary skills or are not skilled by themselves.

The graduates, who are mostly teenagers, leave to different parts of this country for

menial jobs particularly as bus conductors, commercial motorcyclist and hawkers, farmers

among others. This has further increased the youth negative behavior in the state as most

anti-social acts including thuggery, militancy, restiveness, and ethnic political clashes. The

graduates would have established in entrepreneurial ventures and do better if they had been

taught the entrepreneurial skills in the school. Hence, there is need for auto technology

graduates to possess the entrepreneurial skills for self employment in Nasarawa state.

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study is to determine the entrepreneurial skills possessed by

auto technology self employed graduates in Nasarawa State. Specifically, the study sought to

identify the:

1. Technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures

2. Managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


3. Financial management skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates

for entrepreneurial ventures

4. Marketing skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


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5. Communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


Significance of the Study

The findings of the study would be of benefit to the auto technology students in the

Technical Colleges, Curriculum planners, National Board for Technical Education (NBTE),

Federal and State Ministries of Education, Technical Teachers, parents, society, Technical

Education and Researchers.

The students will benefit from the findings of this study by receiving start up training

on entrepreneurial skills and the use of these skills will in turn improved their performance

effectively in business operation.

The findings from the study will provide information to the curriculum planners. The

curriculum planners are expected to identify, plan and develop the curriculum that will

equipped the technical institution graduates with the entrepreneurial skills needed to work

and become an effective workers in the world of work after graduation.

The National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) as a regulatory body in

curriculum development would use the findings from the study to in-corporate suitable

programmes/modules that can enhance entrepreneurial skills of graduates of auto technology.

The entrepreneurial skills would be of great importance to these graduates in terms of

technical, managerial, financial, marketing and communication respectively.

The findings from the study could readily be used by the federal ministry of Education

and Nasarawa state Ministry of Education in particular, as a guide to policy formulator for

skill acquisition centers administrators for the training of the unemployed youths for jobs in

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auto technology. The findings could be useful to these ministries as a reference material

during refresher courses for teachers of auto technology by officials of the ministries.

The findings from the study will be of importance to technical teachers. It will

enlightened the teachers on the wider range of skills required for teaching the graduates, the

auto technology concept especially for entrepreneurial development.

The findings of the study would be of benefit to the parents and the society at large

because, by the time the auto technology graduates practice enterprises in the maintenance

and repairs of automotive engines both at home and in the entire society.

The findings will benefit technical education by using the information provided to come up

with measures that will ensure effective supply of these materials across the states in Nigeria.

The information provided, would also portrait the image of technical education among other

types or levels of education.

The information that would emanate from this study will stimulate similar research

efforts in other states of the federation on the practice of entrepreneurial skills possessed in

their related colleges. The findings of the study would provide information to researchers that

may wish to carry out similar research in other field in the future.

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates

for entrepreneurial ventures.

2. What are the managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates


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3. What are the financial management skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

4. What are the marketing skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates


5. What are the communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested at 0.05level of significance:

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology

entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the technical skills possessed by

auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.


entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the managerial skills possessed by



entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the financial management skills

possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.


entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the marketing skills possessed by


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entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the communication skills possessed

by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

Delimitation of the Study

The study specifically covered the components of entrepreneurial skills namely:

technical, managerial, financial management, marketing and communication skills possessed

by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. The study involves

auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees in three senatorial zones of

Nasarawa State.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The literature related to this study is reviewed under the following sub-headings:

Conceptual Framework

• Concept of Entrepreneurship

• Concept of Vocational and Technical College

• Technical College Education

• Auto Technology in Technical Colleges

• Concept of Skills

• Entrepreneurial Skills

Theoretical Framework

• Leadership Path-Goal Theory

• Socio-Cultural Theory

• Model of Economic Development

Related Empirical Studies

Summary of Review of Related Literature

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Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is seen as analytical tool with several variation and context.

Huberman (1994) define a conceptual framework as a visual or written product, one that

“explains either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied-the key

factors-concepts or variables-and the presumed relationship among them. Thus, human

capital theory provides a framework for examining the impact of acquired variables such as

education, learning and experience on career outcomes and it was further developed on the

assumption that education can serve as a key determinant of decision choice and providing

benefit to specific ventures (Ojeifo, 2013). In recognition to this fact, Adejimola and

Olufunmilaya (2009) and Ojeifo (2013) opined that education should be designed with a

view to create and enhance the entrepreneurial initiative and activities of the learner. The

bottom line here is to inculcate the spirit of entrepreneurship in the student through

education. A framework is the structure of ideas and how they are arranged to give a

functional meaning to an event. However, conceptual framework, as used in the context of

this study involves the explanation of the major variables that are used for the purpose of a

study. The concepts in this study include: Concept of entrepreneurship, auto technology,

concept of skills, entrepreneurial skills, technical, managerial, financial, among other skills

for self employed graduates in Nasarawa state. These concepts will be explained in order to

substantiate and give meaning to the study as follows:

Concept of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship in the less developed countries is very important in the context of

their growth and development. Entrepreneurship, according to Busenitz and Barney (1997),

is the practice of starting new organizations, particularly new business generally in response

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to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship in the view of Omolayo (2006); Baba (2013) is

the act of starting a company, arranging business deals and taking risks in order to make

profit through the education skills required. The entrepreneurship spirit is a pre-requisite to

an entrepreneurial society and culture. This spirit is required for the overall economic growth

of a nation especially developing ones like Nigeria. Entrepreneurship education is designed

with emphasis on realization of opportunities. According to Abdulkadir (2011), through

entrepreneurship education, success and innovation habits are imparted to students to develop

entrepreneurial integrity and skills. Hence, entrepreneurship education will enable potential

entrepreneurs to create businesses, manage, market and sustain them into the future.

Entrepreneurship education seeks to provide auto technology students with the knowledge,

skills and motivation to encourage entrepreneurship success in a variety of settings.

Entrepreneurship education particularly in Nigeria, according to Paul (2005), is structured to

achieve the following objectives.

- To offer functional education for the auto technology students so as to enable them to

be self-employed and self-reliant.

- To offer graduates with auto technology training that will enable them to be creative

and innovative in identifying novel business opportunities

- To provide college graduates with adequate training in risk management to make

certain bearing feasible.

- To provide the young graduates of auto technology with enough training and support

that will enable them to establish a career in small and medium size businesses.

- To offer graduates of auto technology adequate training in the acquisition of skills

that will enable them meet the manpower needs of the society.

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- To stimulate both individual and economic growth of rural and less developed areas.

- To provide both small and medium business enterprises with opportunity of recruiting

graduates who are trained and tutored in the skills relevant to the management and

operation of small businesses.

- To inculcate the spirit of perseverance in the students and graduates which will enable

them to persist in any business venture they embark on during their school period and

after graduation.

In order to achieve these plausible objectives and with the current emphasis on self-

reliance, the federal government of Nigeria through its educational regulatory agencies has

made entrepreneurship education a compulsory course in the technical colleges and

secondary institutions irrespective of subject description; this is part of the education reform

agenda in Nigeria and the essence of it is to equip the students on graduation with skills

capable of making them employers of labour in their area of discipline rather than job

seekers. An entrepreneur, according to Bird (1992) is a mercurial person that is prone to

insights, brainstorming, deceptions, ingenuity and resourcefulness, opportunistic, creative,

and unsentimental. Akintola (2001) sees the entrepreneur as a person of very high aptitude

who pioneer change, possessing characteristics found in only a very small fraction of the

population. Entrepreneurs are free thinkers, who combine a larger element of creativity and

experience. They have knowledge of economic, social, psychological and demographic

trends. They have experience and are comfortable with new technology and change. They are

the agents of change who can effectively live with uncertainty to stimulate and implement

lasting changes (Raj, 1998). Entrepreneurs are the leaders of industrial development. An

entrepreneur in the context of this study is someone who takes the initiative to establish own

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business from scratch and nurtures it to growth and profitability, brings new ideas or

innovations into it to make it viable.

However, it is possible to influence the likelihood that somebody will consider

becoming an entrepreneur. Several authors (Kolvereid and Moen, 1997; Noel, 2001; Tkachev

and Kolvereid, 1999; Varela and Jimenez, 2001) have shown that there is a significant

relationship between entrepreneurial training and the propensity of becoming an

entrepreneur. Knowing that Entrepreneurship Training Programs (ETPs) can change

entrepreneurial intention is intriguing if one considers the economic relevance of

entrepreneurial activity mentioned by various authors. The growing importance of ETPs in

research and education shows that this thought is already being taken seriously (Katz, 2003).

Entrepreneurial training, therefore, as used in this study are the skills, novelty, and

experiences combined to yield proficiency in automobile trades.

Concept of Vocational/Technical Colleges

Vocational and technical colleges play vital roles in Nigeria. They train and produce

craftsmen and technicians for industry, they impart vital technical skills in the youths, and

they help towards the goal of self employment. Through the technical colleges, youths

possessed such skills to include: bricklayers, carpenters, painters and auto mechanics;

laboratory and pharmacy technicians, electrical/electronic technicians and skilled vocational

nurses among others.

Technical colleges according to Nwachukwu, Bakers and Jika (2011) are the colleges

which provide graduates through training with the relevant and adequate knowledge, skills

and attitude for employment under the guidelines of a teacher in related occupation. Okorie

(2001) stated that a technical colleges in Nigeria is established to prepared individuals to

17

acquire practical skills and basic scientific knowledge. Therefore, auto technology as one of

the related trade among other trades is being practice in the technical colleges in Nigeria.

Technical College Education

Technical education is an aspect of vocational education that can be at the secondary

and post-secondary levels, whose major purpose is to produce craftsmen and technicians.

Federal Government of Nigeria (FNG) (2004) defined Technical Education as that aspect of

education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic

scientific knowledge. Technical education provides opportunities for the mastery of skills

and knowledge in selected occupations as well as for development of personality for useful

living. They essentially:

• Provide general education

• Provide training in selected occupations.

• Help trainers to develop the requisite skills and abilities necessary for securing and

retaining a job.

• Help in creating employment and self employment.

However, vocational education can be recognized in terms of recognition of prior

learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary education as credit; thus, it is rarely

considered in its own form to fall under the traditional definition of higher education.

Auto Technology in Technical Colleges

Auto technology is one of the most important products of technology offer as in the

technical colleges in Nigeria. The aim is to produce individual graduates with competent

skills for self-employment. Uyanya, (1989) stated that the most important thing that ever

happened to Nigeria is the 1981 national policy on education which emphasizes the

18

acquisition of vocational skills and self-reliance. Oni (2007) quoted Puding (1994) who

defined vocational-technical education as that type of education, which fits the individual for

gainful employment in recognized occupation as semi-skilled workers or craftsmen. Olaitan,

(2007) defines vocational/technical education as that aspect of education which is a skill

acquisition-oriented. Skill does not depend solely upon a person’s fundamental, innate

capacities but must be developed through training, practice and experience. Skill, according

to Bolt-Lee and Foster (2003), is the art of possessing the ability or power, authority or

competency etc. to do the task required of an individual. Two fundamental issues are used

when a skill is to be acquired. According to Okoro and Osuala (2012), the first is the

condition which promotes acquisition and the second is the change that will occur when the

skill is acquired. However, when an individual set out to learn a new skill, he usually starts

with a communicable programme of instruction. Good learners do not jump into an operation

without first receiving the necessary verbal instruction. Thus, the instruction given in bits,

units, modules, and in stages, perhaps must be fused together to form a skilled performance.

There are many processes of acquisition and development in achieving

entrepreneurial skills. Pleshette (2009) in Okoro and Ursula (2002) outlined the four main

stages of acquiring and developing entrepreneurial skills to include:

- Analyze and identify the current and foreseeable skill needs to business, in terms of

management, administrative and technical skills and relative importance of these.

- Identify the entrepreneur’s own personal goals, objectives and analyze and evaluate

his/her own skills and resources in relation to these.

- Produce a realistic personal development plan for the potential entrepreneur

19

- Monitor on-going performance on follow-up of the entrepreneur once the business

has started and progress made towards developing the new skills that had been

previously identified as necessary for the success of the business.

Training of auto technology craftsmen is carried out in the technical colleges for

example. The quality of academic programmes in technical colleges is assured by the

National Board of Technical Education (NBTE) curriculum and periodic accreditation visits.

The National policy on Education (FGN, 1998) pointed out that vocational education is that

form of education which is obtainable at the technical colleges. This is equivalent to the

senior secondary education but designed to prepare individuals to acquire practical skills,

basic and scientific knowledge and attitude required as craftsmen and technician at sub-

professional level. In line with this policy statement, the Federal Ministry of Education,

FME, (2000), noted that the technical colleges at post –Jss level produce craft men at the

(secondary) level and Master craftsmen at the advance craft (Post-Secondary) level and their

courses lead to the award of National Technical Certificate (NTC)/National Business

Certificate (NBC) and Advanced National Technical Certificate (ANTC)/Advance National

Business Certificate, in technical and business studies respectively.

Vocational and technical colleges stimulate technological and industrial development.

Okoli (1991) identified lack of relevance as one of the factors militating against cooperation

between industry and technical colleges. Okoli explained further that the industries blamed

the colleges for lack of relevance because the products of technical colleges lack the skills

needed to work in the changing world of work. Supporting this view, the attainment of

technological advancement of Nasarawa state depends on technical colleges in that their

establishments are expected to provide the trainees with the required skills to enter into the

20

world of work in all the vocational programmes such as auto mechanics, electrical electronic

and metal work among others. Olaitan (1996) confirmed that in Nigeria many products of

technical colleges and other vocational institutions are found in the street without job because

their training is inadequate and irrelevant to the needs of industries and society.

Unemployment has been identified as one of the core causes of the rising level of

social disorder and insecurity permeating the entire country of Nigeria. Okoro (1999) in his

own point of view; noted that there is high rate of unemployment in Nigeria because the

products of technical colleges do not have the knowledge and skills that will enable them to

take up the available jobs. Okoro further stated that while there are no jobs for the unskilled,

there are many job for the highly skilled. Therefore, if technical colleges provide trainees

with the requisite skills needed, such trainees after graduation will be self-reliant in the

absence of paid employment in the industries. In addition, the industries would find these

products useful, since the success of industries in an increasingly competitive world is

contingent upon skilled personnel.

The adaptation to the changing market and technologies require skilled personnel. Tukur

(1991) stated that the industries are too busy in the production of goods and services and all

they require are technical personnel who can easily and within a very short period join the

production line. The world of work is a world of technology; the industries are on the outlook

for technological advances that could increase their profit margin in less time and with

greater efficiency. However, if the technical colleges are to provide the industry, the products

have to be trained. (Okorie, 2000). The changing world of technology has rendered

traditional skills inadequate for the world of work while creating need for new and often

sophisticated skills. The automotive systems imported or assembled in this country come

21

with new devices as a result of technological advancement. In this light, the National Institute

of Automotive Service Excellence, ASE (2005) certifies Automotive Service Technology

(AST) technicians in eight areas below to meet the current challenges:

- Engine Repairs

- Automatic Transmission and Transaxle.

- Manual Drive Train and Axle

- Steering and Suspension

- Brakes

- Electrical and Electronics

- Engine Performance

- Air conditioning

The required skills in these areas: engine repairs, Automatic transmission and Transaxle,

Manual drive train and Axle among others is considered important. Nice (2001) remarked

that the continual evolution in design is intended to achieve more reliable, streamlined,

cleaner and safer vehicle. Nice further stated that auto technology seem to get more

complicated because automobiles today might have as many as fifty micro-processor on

them. The micro-processor include computers, computers today are playing significant role

in the field of automobiles. Vehicle with gasoline engines must pass inspections, receive

maintenance, and undergo repairs by highly skilled automotive service technician and

mechanics. The development in automotive repair has seen a change in emphasis from

mechanical to technological work. Presently, vehicles use high-tech computers complex

electronic systems to monitor the performance of the vehicle. A strong sense of

understanding concerning the operation of a vehicle including how each device interacts, as

22

well as the ability to deal with electronic equipment and digital reference manuals is key to

the success of a technician. With electronic diagnostic equipment, auto technology graduate

is able to diagnose, maintain and repair automotive system effectively.

Engine is classified as the power plant of automotive system. Automotive engines have

gone through tremendous changes since the automobile was first introduced in the 1880s, but

all combustion engines still have three requirements that must be met to do their job of

providing power-air, fuel, and ignition. The mixture of air and fuel must be compressed

inside the engine in order to make it highly combustible and get the most out of the energy

contained in the fuel mixture. Since the mixture is ignited within the engine, automobile

power plants are called internal combustion engines. Most of them can be further classified

as reciprocating piston engines since pistons move up and down within cylinders to provide

power. This up-and-down motion is converted into turning motion by the crank shaft.

Automatic transmission and transaxles as one of the automotive driving power unit

have been used for more than sixty (60) years. They have been constantly modified and

improved, evolving from early inefficient designs to the smooth-shifting efficient unit of

today. Most modern transmissions provide almost the same fuel economy as manual models.

Thus, Manual Drive Train and Axle (MDTA) introduces the theory and services of

automotive power trains in the following; clutches and clutched linkage, drive shaft and

universal joints, front wheel drive axles, manual transmissions, differentials among others.

The suspension system and steering system (SS & SS) had been modified as a result of

technological advancement. The suspension system employed in automobile today is known

as fully active suspension system. In an article published via http//www.uk car.com, a fully

Active Suspension system has double acting hydraulic actuators instead of springs and

23

damper. As wheel meet bump the electronic control unit (ECU) uses the wheel signal to

calculate the road speed and the wheel speed as well as the wheel deceleration and

acceleration values. When required, it actuates the solenoid values to prevent locking of the

vehicle wheels known as Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). Since this dialogue is conducted

hundreds of times a second, the wheels accurately follow the contour of the roads and bumps

protecting the body structure against unwanted forces. In the case of steering system the

Electronic Power Steering (EPS) is gradually replacing the hydraulic power steering system

and leading the steering system in the modern car development (Guo Biaoshi, 2007).

The modern car development in the area of electrical and electronics is aim at giving

the trainees the skills to identify the fundamentals of electricity and electronics, electrical and

electronic circuits, and the characteristics of these circuits. Automotive electricity and

Electronics, 1997, Al Santini, Delmer publisher, 0-82 73-6743-0 reported that electrical and

electronics aims at training the trainees on how to build the electrical and electronic circuits

and to carry out different measurement operations on the electrical variables to determine

circuit component and condition. However, the situational condition of engine performance

depends on the basic principles of fuel and induction system. This also includes the basics of

pressure differential, the venture principle, and fuel systems for gasoline and diesel engines

among others. Engine performance for gasoline and diesel also assists in the operation of

automotive heating and air-conditioning system.

The Auto Heating and Air –condition presents the theory and operation of automotive

heating and air-conditioning system. Ford motor company, climate control systems, in 1988

and Nissan motor Co. Ltd. infinity Qx4 manual. Tokyo in 2011 reported that air-conditioning

aims at familiarizing the trainees with the operations of different air condition systems, and

24

the methods used in diagnosing faults and executing maintenance, repair, and adjustment

operations in a technically correct manner. Technological innovation in the application of

computer to automobile has brought about the development of computer-controlled panels in

almost all the automotive system either imported or assemble in Nigeria. In the light of these

changes, auto mechanics program has been designed to meet the training needs of the local

labor market by taking into considerations the National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS)

for Automotive Technology or Trade. Technical institutions in Nasarawa state offering

automotive technology are charged with the responsibility of equipping auto technology

students with relevant automotive technology skills required for the students to be competent

to handle any piece of work that pertains to automotive repairs. In addition to post-secondary

education providers such as community colleges, vocational schools, and four-year

institutions, the public workforce system is another critical partner in helping to narrow skills

gaps. The original Workforce Investment Act (WIA) passed in 1998 set up the federally

funded public workforce system designed to help individuals obtain the skills and training

needed to be employable and to help organization find skilled workers to employ. Okoro

(1999) has remarked that every society needs efficiency and well-trained workers poorly

trained workers are costly in terms of time and equipment. Okoro explained further that a

well-trained auto mechanics would be able to diagnose and repair automotive faults

effectively. It enables them to become capable of living in the society and to contribute

towards its economic development (Nwachukwu & Nwamuo; 2010). This shows that a

functional education system takes cognizance of the dynamics of the labour market,

graduates with occupational skills and competencies to enable them be self-reliance.

25

Concept of Skills

As time in the labor market accumulates, individual wages become increasingly

correlated with plausible proxies for an unobserved, individual-specific quality defined as

ability (Farber and Gibbons, 1996; Altonji and Pierret, 2001). This is consistent with a model

in which agents learn about a fixed, transferable worker component of production over the

course of the career. While Altonji and Pierret and others have focused upon the signaling

role of education and statistical discrimination, evidence of this type of learning also furthers

the original objective of Farber and Gibbons (1996) to present learning as a determinant of

wage dynamics that complements the established frameworks of human capital and search.

In a general setting, a typical learning model is equally capable of matching observed mean

wage profiles compared to other explanations but may differ in its predictions for other

objects of interest such the variance of wages (Rubinstein and Weiss, 2006). These

differences in predictions as well as potential policy implications continue to motivate further

study of learning in the labor market.

To the extent that learning influences labor market outcomes, an additional

consideration is the speed at which it occurs. If learning matters but happens very quickly, it

may have little economic significance. Lange (2007) studies early career wage movements

and finds that employers do learn relatively quickly, with initial expectation errors halving in

about three years. This leads to an estimate of the signaling value of education accounting for

less than 15% of the estimated marginal return to schooling. In a similar vein, Arcidiacono,

Bayer, and Hizmo (2010) take the log wage regression that has been the standard in this

literature beginning with Altonji and Pierret (2001) and estimate it separately for high school

and college graduates. They fail to find any evidence of learning at all among the college

26

educated. Specifically, this education group fails to generate the hallmark of learning in this

specification: a significantly positive coefficient for the interaction of ability and experience.

This leads to the conclusion that technical college graduates demonstrate their ability on the

job while college perfectly reveals ability.

These recent results introduce some doubt as to whether learning is a widespread

phenomenon in the labor market or a process restricted to certain subgroups at select stages

of the career. However, it is important to note that wage changes are but one potential

outcome of learning about a permanent component of individual productivity. Another

plausible outcome of a negative signal, in particular, is the termination of a match by the

firm. Firings commonly occur and are a powerful and unambiguous indication that a match

that was once seen as profitable takes on, for whatever reason, an irreparably negative value

to the employer. If learning does result in a firing for some workers, it is also conceivable

that it has affected job prospects going forward and increased the possibility of long

unemployment duration. This study uses a search model featuring public learning about

worker ability to derive unique implications of these learning-related outcomes for wages

augment the typical empirical specification of the learning literature with plausible proxies

for the reception of a negative signal and present evidence supporting the model using data

from 1For a comparison of search, human capital, and learning see Rubinstein and Weiss

(2006). The National longitudinal survey of youth, the researcher find that learning is

important for both high school and college graduates and provide an alternative explanation

for previous results that led to the conclusion that college graduates do not face any

uncertainty regarding their productivity on the job.

27

The model generates outcomes of learning that have not been fully accounted for in

the recent empirical literature, features a rich yet tractable production and learning process,

and has potential extensions in several directions. Firings and long term unemployment arise

through the interaction of search behavior and learning in an environment where jobs have a

fixed skill requirement and a fixed output if the worker satisfies the ability requirement.

Workers update beliefs about their ability by learning whether or not they satisfy the ability

requirement of the job they currently hold. Firings occur when it is revealed that a worker

does not satisfy the minimum requirements of their current job. Long term unemployment

arises when a worker learns they do not satisfy the skill requirement of a low skill job and

must wait to be matched with an even less demanding job. Employer skill requirements are

an important characteristic of the model for several reasons. Skill requirements combined

with learning provide a natural source of firm-initiated separations, or firings. Workers

failing to satisfy a job’s skill requirement produce nothing and, once revealed, their retention

is not profitable for the firm at any positive wage. Skill requirements also allow for a

fundamental change to the learning process itself, avoiding the imposition of equal rates of

learning across all jobs while retaining tractability. Rather than learning occurring through

the repeated observation of noisy signals of a worker’s ability, skill requirements within a

search framework allows one to dispense with the signal noise process altogether and still

feature the gradual revelation of a worker’s true ability. In this model the individual’s

posterior distribution of ability is based upon a truncation of the population ability

distribution, where the lower and upper bounds change, respectively, in response to the

positive and negative signals of the worker’s ability to produce received in different jobs over

the course of the career.

28

Most work to this point in the learning literature has either explicitly or implicitly

relied on a standard Bayesian learning process in which agents regularly receive a noisy

signal of the worker’s ability (for notable exceptions Cunha, Heckman, and Navarro, 2007;

Navarro, 2004). This is commonly inferred via direct observation of output from a

production process which is strictly monotonic in worker ability and subjected to random

noise. In the canonical Jovanovic (1979) learning model, agents continuously learn about an

idiosyncratic match quality component of production. This type of learning has been

integrated into search models before (Jovanovic, 1984), but learning about idiosyncratic

match quality has no permanent effects by construction and so this particular specification is

of no use in explaining long unemployment durations or wage stagnation across jobs. The

more recent literature modifies this framework so that agents publicly learn about permanent,

transferable worker ability and derives testable implications of the standard Bayesian

learning model. This study diverges by making learning occur across jobs with varying skill

requirements rather than uniformly over time. Learning is based upon a random signal

verifying that the worker satisfies the job’s skill requirement, and after receiving a signal a

worker must move on to another job to update beliefs. The rate of learning in this paper

varies with the rate at which workers place into jobs requiring greater skills. Further, the

amount learned about an individual worker’s ability in any given job depends on the ex ante

probability that the worker satisfies the job’s skill requirement. This implies that the

information content of signals is state dependent, a feature also present in Sanders (2011).

Another common factor in the prior empirical literature on learning is a production

process that is strictly increasing in the worker’s imperfectly-observed ability. Firings and

endogenous separations in general are not as natural of an outcome of this type of production

29

process compared to one with skill requirements, although it is possible to account for them.

However, it is difficult to allow for firings caused by learning to have a permanent impact in

this framework due to the relative smoothness of the updating process. If wages are believed

to represent all current information about a worker’s ability at any time, the fact that a worker

has been fired should not contain much additional information compared to the last observed

wage.

In contrast, this study assumes that jobs have a predetermined output and require only

a worker with sufficient skill to complete the task. As a result, all workers that satisfy the

requirement are equally productive. This is a common assumption in the skill-biased

technical change literature (Acemoglu, 1999; Card and DiNardo, 2002). Albrecht and

Vroman (2002) specify a search and matching model of the labor market to this effect, where

workers are of two skill levels and match with jobs that vary in their skill requirements. The

model implies a high degree of assortative matching and even under perfect information the

skill requirements that accompany job vacancies in the matching process have important

implications such as exit rates from unemployment that depend on the worker’s skill level

(high type workers can match with low type firms but the reverse is not allowed). Uren and

Virag (2011) address within-group wage inequality by integrating skill requirements into a

Burdett-Mortensen framework, generating similar implications using a continuous wage

distribution. This study makes advancement by integrating a learning process based upon the

skill requirements into a search model of the general labor market.

This study also relates to the literature on unemployment stigma and scarring and the

effects of job displacement. Gibbons and Katz (1991) present and find empirical support for

a model in which a downsizing firm’s decision of which workers to lie off and which

30

workers to retain communicates information about worker quality to the market. Vishwanath

(1989) characterizes optimal search behavior from unemployment when pre-employment

signals of ability are present. Firms avoid workers with long ongoing unemployment

durations, inferring that the worker is of low ability. In this study broaden the scope of

learning and provide simultaneous explanations for these Jovanovic (1979) features

separations due to learning about a match-specific component of production. When learning

about a permanent worker component, however, any new information may also have an

effect on the worker’s outside option. When jobs are ranked by their contribution to output, if

the declining expected ability of the worker does manage to cross a possibly declining

threshold for separations there is a counterintuitive implication that the now unemployed

worker only accepts new matches with jobs of a higher type than the previous job. Further, if

the firm’s value of a vacancy in equilibrium is zero the firm prefers to retain the worker at

any positive level of output. If the wage is contained in some way, such as by a minimum

wage, firings may occur but with the same counterintuitive implications for sorting outcomes

as well as wage growth. Stevens (1997) is also notable for several reasons. Against what

appears to be convention in the displacement literature, Stevens includes firings in the

definition of a displacement and also looks at the effects of displacement on wages across

different educational groups separately using a fixed effects model. It is determined that

repeated job loss is a key factor in explaining the persistent effect of displacement on wages

commonly documented in the literature, and once this is controlled for the long-run effects of

displacement are reduced. There is also an indication that the college-educated suffer larger

earnings losses relative to those with high school degrees or less education. However, firings

are not looked at separately and the estimated effect of a single displacement is concluded to

31

dissipate over time. In order to achieve the individual ability, that is on the job. The

researcher presents the model of learning and generates new implications regarding the effect

of firing on subsequent wages as follows.

Model

This model builds upon the search with counteroffers foundation of Postel-Vinay and

Robin (2002). The main premise is that workers differ in their permanent productive capacity

or ability and must overcome search frictions and the lack of perfect knowledge about their

true productivity to match with a job for which they are best suited. In a frictionless world

with no uncertainty there would be perfect assortative matching as workers would go directly

to firms requiring their exact level of ability. In this model, however, agents must learn about

worker ability on the job, treating the value of the worker-firm match as an experience good

(Jovanovic, 1979). Following a long line of previous work departing from Jovanovic (1979),

the object of learning is permanent and transferable such that the worker’s entire sequence of

match values will be serially correlated. The point at which I make a key divergence from the

current learning literature is in the specification of the production function. I assume that

output is not directly observable and only depends on worker ability through the worker’s

satisfaction of a job-specific skill requirement. This is consistent with a world in which the

duties and output of each job are predetermined but also dependent on outside factors such as

coworker performance that impair the immediate, direct inference of the worker’s

contribution. Firms are primarily concerned with qualifications and whether the worker has

the requisite ability to produce in a particular job. High ability workers must be placed in

more demanding jobs in order to produce more than low ability workers.

32

In this model, auto technology graduates receive randomly arriving signals that reveal

with certainty whether or not they have the requisite ability to be productive in their current

job (auto technology). This is a significant divergence from the widely used learning process

in which ability is inferred directly via repeated observations of noisy signals. Graduate of

auto technology use these signals to form beliefs about their own ability, which influences

reservation behavior while searching from unemployment and on the job. The primary

implication of this particular signal process for learning is that workers must keep climbing

the job ladder to continue refining their beliefs about their own ability or competency.

Some studied suggest that the definition of competency may be drawn from the

domain of knowledge, skills, and attitude and performance indicators. Competency has a

number of definitions which depend on the specific task to be performed by individuals

under different conditions. Competency was first popularized by Boyalzis (1982), who

performed as comprehensive study of over 2000 managers and he identified and assessed

over a hundred potential competencies. Boyatzis defined competency as, “the capacity that

exist in a person which leads to behavior that meets the job demands with the parameters of

organizational environment, and which in turn brings about desired result. The competency is

considered to be an underlying characteristic that an individual entrepreneur brings to a job

situation, which can result in effective and/or supervisor performance in such job.

The entrepreneur’s competency is highly a critical factor in achieving excellence in

performance to ensure a sustainable and success amidst a competitive business environment.

Therefore the importance of entrepreneurial competency has been increased during the past

decades due to the strategic role played by human factor particularly the entrepreneur’s of a

business enterprise. It was suggested that the entrepreneur’s demographic characteristics,

33

attitudinal, behavioral, managerial and technical competencies are often cited as the most

influential factors related to the performance of small and medium sized enterprises (Man,

Lau and Chan, 2002; and Noor, 2010). These unique features of small and medium scale

enterprises management mean that the competencies required of the entrepreneur include not

only managerial skills in the various functional areas, most importantly, the ability to manage

the complex and diverse interactions with the various agents and stakeholders in the business

environment. For this behavioural and interpersonal competencies are very important. In

addition, the ability to gather and organize information and to learn from the interactions

with the key agents in the environment is essential. The real challenge of entrepreneurs is to

raise their ability to learn from experiences and derive from them insights and knowledge

that are relevant in managing future interactions. However, in running a small business, the

tight and synergistic combinations of entrepreneurial and managerial competencies are

required. Hence, competencies of management in the context of this study will lead to the

growth of individuals and enterprises to help enterprises meet future demand.

Entrepreneurial Skills

From a rhetorical perspective, entrepreneurial skill is important, because the concept

of a skill implies the possibility of learning, and consequently teaching entrepreneurship. In

the psychological literature on entrepreneurship, as well as in some theories by economists,

entrepreneurs are often described as individuals with certain kinds of stable and enduring

characteristics or features. The emphasis is on personality traits, (Brockhaus and Horwitz,

1986; Cromie 2000). These traits presumably originate from early childhood, and persist

through years. Therefore learning and teaching are not relevant issues. The concept of skill

does not necessary imply this kind of innateness, rather the possibility of communication and

34

change (Stevenson and Jarillo). Indeed the entrepreneurial literature until the mid 1980’s

focused on these innate traits as a way of identifying entrepreneurship. It was only after such

critiques as Gartner (1985) and Chell (1985) that research turned more to seeing

entrepreneurship as an organizing practice. Of course, in the context of teaching, it is much

easier to talk about learning in the connection of skills than in the connection of personality

traits.

However, as Stevenson and Jarillo emphasized, one must focus on activity when

talking about skills and entrepreneurial skills are defined and described in relation to

entrepreneurial tasks. But, as already noted, entrepreneurial tasks are multifaceted (Smilor

1997). Therefore, the concept of entrepreneurial skill is, by necessity, ambiguous.

Furthermore, it appears to be a wide concept, so that it actually covers the whole of

entrepreneurial activity as well as various aspects or subcategories of it. One may question

whether it is only a question of skills? Indeed, how self-contained is the concept of skill?

Moreover, if an attempt could be made to explain entrepreneurial success with the help of the

concept of entrepreneurial skills, which would be the most relevant of the other factors

needed in such explanation?

Two types of factors can be suggested. First, a skill is learned, mastered and used by

somebody. The individual/actor/agent is, therefore, relevant. Secondly, even though an

entrepreneur may not only recognize, but also actively construct new business opportunities,

he/she cannot do so in a vacuum. Consequently entrepreneurs enact their environment, thus

entrepreneurial skills involve dealing with material and social environment; so situational

factors are also relevant. Many formulations of entrepreneurial tasks and skills imply the

presence of situational factors: markets, customers, investors, or human resources, social

35

networks and ties generally speaking. Many authors approach entrepreneurship as socially

embedded activity (Aldrich and Zimmer 1986; Carsrud and Johnson 1989; Granovetter 2000;

Jack and Anderson 2002). On one hand, the idea of social embededness underlines the

importance of skills that are related with dealing with other agents; on the other hand, it

emphasizes the fact that there are social constraints in the environment, all of which cannot

be unilaterally controlled by the entrepreneur, however skilful he/she might be.

Concerning the individual factors, a good example is in the study of entrepreneurial

self-efficacy (Chen et al. 1998; Boyd and Vozikis 1994; De Noble et al. 1999).

Entrepreneurial self efficacy refers to the strength of an individual’s belief that he or she is

capable of successfully performing the roles and tasks of an entrepreneur (Boyd and Vozikis

1994; Chen et al 1998). From the perspective of self-efficacy theory (Bandura 1986), skills

are not enough in explaining behaviour, but one needs to take into account cognitions

concerning the relation between self and behaviour, such as self-efficacy. This kind of belief

can be interpreted also in terms of self-confidence. One may view self-efficacy, and self-

confidence, as behavioural attitudes, comparable to optimism and persistence, for example.

These kinds of attitudes are not strictly speaking skills, but it is common sense to conceive

them as prerequisites for efficient learning and use of skills. In the literature on

entrepreneurship is has been conventional to view these kinds of attitudes as individual

dispositions, or personality traits. However, as attitudes that have a specific object – that of

entrepreneurial behaviour - they can be approached also as something that can be changed

through communication or experience (Shaver 1995). The significance of attitudes might also

be extended to cover, not only behavioural attitudes, but also those values and conceptions

that an individual might have about entrepreneurship. For example, it is not self-evident that

36

everybody would consider developing entrepreneurial skills as desirable, or even socially

acceptable. Individual backgrounds, cultural traditions, social and institutional settings may

have considerable bearing on the individual’s willingness to learn or use entrepreneurial

skills.

Entrepreneurial skills in business operation are considered to be Very complex in a

competitive business environment which is constantly changing with fast technological

advancements. An entrepreneur is expected to interact with these environmental forces

which required him to be highly skilled in different dimensions like intellectual, attitudinal,

behavioral, technical, and managerial aspects. Entrepreneurs are therefore permanently

challenged to deploy a set of Competencies to succeed in their entrepreneurial endeavors.

Base on the work of Boyatzis (1982), entrepreneurial competencies are defined as

underlying characteristics possessed by a person which result in new venture creation,

survival, and / or growth (Bird, 1995). These characteristics include generic and specific

knowledge, motives, traits, self-images, social roles, and skills that may or may not be

known to the person (Boyatzis, 1982). That is, these characteristics may be even unconscious

attributes of an individual. Some of these competencies are innate while others are acquired

skills in the process of learning and development. In an effort to make difference in terms of

innate and acquired skills. Muzychenko and Saee (2004) differentiate between innate and

acquired aspects of competencies of an individual. The former involve traits, attitudes, self-

image and social roles and are sometimes referred to as “internalized element” (Bartlett and

Ghoshal, 1997) and the latter involve components acquired at work or through theoretical or

practical learning (that is, skills, knowledge, and experience), and they are often referred to

as “externalized element” (Muzychenko and Saee, 2004). The internalized aspect of

37

competencies can be acquired through proper training and education programs and need to

be practiced (Garavan and McGuive, 2001; Man and Lau, 2005). In the context of a small

business enterprise, these competencies are normally studied as characteristics of the

entrepreneur, who owns and actively manages the business (Gibb, 2005; McGregor and

Tweed, 2001). Hence, Stuart and Lindsay (1997) also defined competencies as a skills,

knowledge, and personal characteristics. Entrepreneurial competencies have also been

understood in terms of traits, skills and knowledge (Lau et al, 1999): Newer approaches to

entrepreneurial skills, according to George (2007), have been built upon the technical,

human, and conceptual skill classification, but are highly different. Aliyu (2001) outlined

three domains of managerial skills, purely technical skills, cognitive abilities, and

competencies that demonstrated emotional intelligence.

For the purpose of the present study, entrepreneurial skills are defined as individual

characteristics that includes; Technical, managerial, financial, marketing, and

Communication skills. These skills enable auto technology graduates to achieve and

maintain automobile business successfully.

Technical Skills for Entrepreneurship

Technical skills of today’s auto technology have become a major challenge to the auto

motive technicians. Apparently, it is upon this (technician and entrepreneurial skills) that the

business enterprises depend to a great extent. According to Naraya (2004), Repair and

maintenance of automobiles is a set of preventive, corrective or breakdown rectification

activities. Olaitan, Nwachukwu, Igbo, Onyemachi and Ekong (1999) defined the process of

repairs and maintenance as taking specific approved step and precautions to care for a piece

of equipment, machinery or facility and ensure that it attains its maximum, self-life. Auto

38

Technology graduates must acquire technical, skills to achieve the effectiveness for

maintenance and repairs of automobiles.

However element of the graduates stock of skills and knowledge contribution to their

employability, basic and soft skills, it is important, at this point, to recognize the range of

definitions and models (Pedagy for employability group, 2004; Yorke, 2004, Yorke and

Knight, 2004) of what constitutes graduates employability. The researcher believed that as

the global economy evolves so will these models, and it is essential to continuously ascertain

and articulate employer opinion on what makes a graduate employable; and ensure that Auto

Technology Programs are suitable aligned. The traditional classifying categories for a task

analysis use knowledge and skills (Jonassen, 1999). However, to stay aligned with a goal for

this process to be authentically align with the Career and Technical Education (CTE) areas,

the categories need to present cognitive, psychomotor, and affective as they exist in the real

world, which is often very complex. The latter classification seems to be too inclusive and

limited to the sensitivity of the depth of the authentic ability. Another proposed categorical

system of levels used four targets in a continuum and they are; knowledge, reasoning, skills,

and product (Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis and Chappuis, 2004; Chappius and Chappius, 2002).

However, the letter terms; product does not fit many authentic repair processes, such as those

used in automotive service technology. In a US survey of IT employers, the Boston Area

Advanced Technological Education Connections (BATEC, 2007) group found that

employers placed more emphasis on employability. Skill than technical ones; technical skills

are important, but without employability skills, technical skills are merely commodities.

Changes occasioned by technological advancement obviously demand, a

commensurable skill adjustment (Okorie, 2000). A number of countries, according to

39

Okorie, affect by the impact of new technology clamour that skills are inadequate for future

needs. As a result for future needs, technological innovation in the application of computer to

automobile has brought about the development of computer-controlled panels in almost all

the automotive system either imported or assemble in Nigeria. In the light of these changes,

auto technology program has been designed to meet the training needs of the local labor

market by taking into considerations the skills standard for auto technology or trade. Human

resources and skills development Canada in 2009 outlined some of the essential skills for

success as an automotive technician.

Thus, auto technology graduates must possess technical skills for adequate and timely

maintenance action which will minimize the incidence of failure and increases the reliability

of vehicle engines, machines and equipments through the effective management of

maintenance functions within their organization.

Managerial Skills for Entrepreneurship

Managerial competencies are underlying skills, including work habits and ethics,

essential to the work place and personal growth. These skills are taught with the intention of

providing the entrepreneur with a well-rounded understanding of workplace expectations in

areas not specific to a particular occupation, in an attempt to develop a valuable employee.

Anyakoha (2009) outlined some managerial competencies to include; ability to communicate

effectively, ability to make long and short term planning, ability to manage time, finance and

meet job schedule. Entrepreneur can gain competitive advantage by implementing continual

and on-going innovations and the managerial skills and knowledge that are in the centre of

this process of innovations. Many times these facts are underestimated by small

entrepreneurs and overlooked by support programs for development of this size of

40

entrepreneurship. Development and support programs for entrepreneurs should also focus on

the area of skills and knowledge. Whether these assertions are justified and the neglect of

managerial skills by entrepreneurs affects their success are the questions which we would

like to cover in this study.

Entrepreneurship play significant part in employment and professional training of

young people. Compared to big companies, they employ more women, young people and

part-time employees. Entrepreneurship are closely connected with the region than large

employers and therefore have significant influence on further the region’s development.

Fiscal decentralization of the regions of Nasarawa state creates pressure on municipalities

and Government, who must pay a closer look on actual needs of all employers doing business

in the particular region. Only this ways the Government can secure loyalty of these

employers and support them in their business.

In the transitive economies like Nasarawa State, there is relatively smaller share of

entrepreneurship. Government efforts are trying to speed up the change of the size structure

with various support programs and instruments.

Recently, the most significant changes that influenced the business environment are:

• youth empowerment scheme

• establishment of new tax system – flat tax of 19%

• speeding up of the procedures needed to start business

• change from defined benefit to defined contribution pension plans

• slight improvement of communication with tax offices

The results of empirical studies of small enterprises by Newton (2001), show that

failure and bankruptcy of enterprise is caused more by internal problems inside the enterprise

41

rather than by outside generated problem. Small enterprises do not create enough force to

survive and overcome daily problems in the long run. Same experiences gained by Gerber

(2001) from his own consultancy practice the following entrepreneurial myth: The fatal

assumption is – you understand the technical work of a business, you understand a business

that does that technical work “.Gerber points out to the fact that, small enterprises are mostly

founded by technicians, specialists or professional in certain field. For example, an

accountant or a carpenter “know their onions” but have little information and experience in

the field of management. They can perform their work on professional level, but seldom do

they entrust their enterprise in the hands of manager, or try to acquire this knowledge by

themselves. They run into problems with management of their enterprise because they

concentrate all attention just to their specialized field of expertise. The management and

managerial skills are neglected. Similar results come out of Slovak study (National agency

for development of enterprises, 2005), where the second most significant reason of not

wanting to be in business (right after lack of financial capital) were missing skills and

experience needed for conducting a business. It is also the role of supporting program to

help explain the difference between entrepreneurial and managerial education. The skillful

worker who decides to go into business for him/her can be easily overwhelmed by the both

types of needed skills. That is managerial and financial skills.

Financial Management Skills for Entrepreneurship

Financial as well as non-financial managers can benefits from knowledge finance,

Robert and Ricardo (1996) opined that in most business organization the majority of

managers are not working directly in finance area. Nonetheless the knowledge of finance is

often very useful for non-finance manager. Financial management demands that the

42

enterprise owner/manager must need to plan for all his future need for funds, plan for the

most economical way of acquiring funds from different sources and be able to also plan for

the most efficient way of putting to use acquiring money from friends family members,

banks other sources. Needle (1997) indicated that financial management is concerned with

the raising of capital to finance the organization’s operation and with ensuring that the

company can generate sufficient revenue to cover the cost of raising the finance. The author

further identified personal savings, share issues, bank borrowing, state funding and internally

generated funds (redistribution of profit) as nucleus of financial management.

According to Nieman (2006), financial management is responsible for acquiring the

necessary financial resources to ensure the most beneficial results over both short and the

long term and making sure that the business makes the best use of its financial resources.

Dayananda (2002) add that the financial manager is engaged in two primary tasks, namely

financing and investment decision-making. Gitman (2010) stated that, in addition to

financing and investment decision making, the financial manager must ensure that cash is

managed efficiently so that the business can become profitable. All the primary functions are

interrelated. An investment project, whether of a long-term or short –term nature, cannot be

undertaken without adequate financing.

However, Osuala (1995) is of the view that there is a correlation between inadequate

record and the business organizations of which this constitute a major problem. Financing

management is the systematic recording of financial transactions. It is a service activity, the

function of which is identifying, measuring, recording and communicating quantitative

information, primarily financial in nature, about economic entities Ezeani (2008) sees

financial management as the process of expressing the economic activities of everyday life in

43

money terms, so that we may estimate the costs of creating goods and services, make

decisions about production on the basis of these estimates, compare the actual costs as they

occur with the estimate originally made, and adjust the output and prices of goods and

services accordingly. Ama (1999) as cited by Ezeani (2008) sees financial management as a

set of themes, concepts or (ideas) and techniques by which financial data are processed into

meaningful information for reporting, planning, controlling and decision-making purposes;

or situation according to him may create some difficulties for the entrepreneur, as he may not

come to full appreciation of the meaningful relationship between financial activities and

results. He however, further advised that the entrepreneur should make effort to acquire

knowledge/basic competencies of financial management as success can only come to his/her

business through such efforts. Having basic financial knowledge or skills does not necessary

imply that the proprietor (entrepreneur) should be able to appreciate the contributions that

financial information offers in solving both financial problems that may arise from time to

time. The entrepreneur should be able to prepare and interpret his/her financial statements.

He should be able to keep and maintain records of receipts and payments (cash book),

income and expenditure and a balance sheet for the business.

Agbonifoh (1999) advised that the need of modern business make it essential for all

managers (entrepreneurs) to have a sound appreciation of the financial implications for their

plans and actions. They went further to explain that in the competitive world, the key factors

are costs, prices, turnover and profits. These are factors, which no manager can ignore.

Therefore, it is very important that every auto technology students possess the basic or

fundamental knowledge of financial skills. They should be able to appreciate and interpret

simple financial statements. This will help in reducing the rate at which small-scale business

44

go into liquidation. Having made this distinction, it is possible to draw on recent reviews

such as de Meza et al. (2008), Remund (2010), PACFC (2010), Bank of Zambia (2012) and

OECD (2012) for a list of the core elements that define these concepts Knowledge of

financial concepts. It is important to note that almost all widely used definitions treat

financial education as a process that develops financial capability, not merely literacy

(OECD 2005), even though in practice curricula can be more or less ambitious in scope. In

any case, the assumption is that financial education can achieve significant and persistent

change in the learners’ financial behaviours by raising their levels of financial capability.

Following the 2008–9 financial crises, the continued experience of financial

exclusion in developing countries and the severe credit rationing to enterprise in developed

countries revived interest in how the concept of financial capability might relate to agents in

the business world entrepreneurs, managers, or company directors. From a theoretical

perspective, some complications are bound to arise.

As Bay et al. (in press) explain, the way financial literacy is discussed in the business

world can be very different from the way it is discussed in a pure consumer setting. In the

latter, the aim is to highlight and remedy illiteracy, setting out an implied curriculum; in the

former, the aim is to distinguish between different levels of literacy, setting out criteria for

eligibility. The consumer approach to financial literacy seeks inclusion (for example, turning

individuals into confident and reliable consumers of financial services) while the business

approach seeks exclusion (for example, avoiding majorities of financially ‘illiterate’ directors

on company boards). Perhaps uniquely among the many target groups at which financial

education is aimed, entrepreneurs sit astride this distinction.

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Financial institutions want entrepreneurs as their customers and governments want

them to be able and willing to access external finance. Yet, at the same time, entrepreneurs

are seen as responsible for the survival of vulnerable entities whose needs they may not fully

understand, and with greater use of external finance comes greater risk. At 8–14% per

annum, business mortality rates are substantial even in the developed world and were still on

the rise until recently (OECD 2013). Entrepreneurs’ lack of financial capability is often

portrayed as part of the reason for the substantial churn in the sector (New Vision 2011),

even though many business exits are arguably not ‘failures.’

Even entrepreneurs with unlimited liability who could, in theory, argue that their

businesses are theirs to make or break, may be putting the livelihoods of employees, family

members, suppliers and customers at risk through their financial decisions; under many

bankruptcy regimes they could do so without internalizing most of the social cost (Metzger

2010). Hence the case for financial education is, if anything, stronger when it comes to

entrepreneurs.

As a result of the differences between consumers and entrepreneurs, notions of financial

capability and literacy as applied to the two groups are also bound to be different. As OECD

(2013) demonstrates, internationally applied curricula overlap substantially and there is broad

consensus that they should include an understanding of financial and risk management,

record keeping and compliance, and of the main finance providers and their requirements. If

just-in-time training and insights are among the keys to successful financial education, then

this begs the question of what the right timing is. In a wide-ranging critique of financial

education, Willis (2008) warns that the search for what the literature refers to as ‘teachable

moments’, when individuals are most open to and confident about learning, is rarely

46

comprehensive enough, with programme designers settling instead for ‘reachable moments,’

such as the point when a loan application is made or a bank account is opened, which do not

produce the same behavioural benefits. The fact that many interventions are sponsored or

otherwise supported by financial institutions compounds this problem. The central role of

financial management in entrepreneurs’ financial capability, the informal or non-commercial

nature of most business financing, plus ACCA’s reading of Cho and Honorati (2013), all

suggest that an alternative approach is needed. For entrepreneurs’ financial education, the

most genuine ‘teachable moments’ may not be linked to financing at all, but to business

planning and the creation of business policies, such as those on credit. This could go some

way towards explaining why generic business education outperforms financial education, or

even the combination of the two. It also suggests that the target outcome of financial

education should not be achieving access to external finance at all.

A ‘Plan First’ approach to financial education would use business planning, as

opposed to financial concepts or financial decisions, as the starting point for financial

education. Professional business advisers would talk entrepreneurs through their intentions

for their businesses, helping them develop a detailed and comprehensive business plan. A

simple system of financial management and controls, based on rules of thumb derived from

the business plan, could then be introduced complete with a schedule for regular management

reporting. This would mirror the process for setting key performance indicators (KPIs) with

which professional business advisers should already be familiar (ACCA 2013).

Entrepreneurs and their advisers would then work together to deduce the business’s actual,

specific financing needs and agree a tailored curriculum explaining how to identify

appropriate sources of financing inside and outside the business. This curriculum would

47

cover not only how the relevant finance providers make their decisions, but also how the

entrepreneurs themselves can evaluate their investment options before allocating funds to

them.

Crucially, a Plan First approach would not assume that external financing, let alone

any individual product, is necessary in the first place. Rather, it would emphasize the fact that

some short-term financing needs can be pre-empted by good financial management, or

fulfilled informally through trade credit arrangements. Similarly, the entrepreneur may need

to turn to friends, family or their own savings for some long-term financing needs. A Plan

First approach would, however, treat suppliers and informal financial providers as rational

decision makers on a par with banks, venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs themselves –

they need to be convinced of the creditworthiness or investment-readiness of the business

and the prospects of individual projects.

As enterprise’ most trusted financial advisers, professional accountants are obvious

partners in the provision of such programmes. Nonetheless, their involvement is often

hindered by the mistaken assumption that they as professionals are not sufficiently embedded

in poorer communities, where the need for support is likely to be greater. More careful

consideration, however, would reveal the opposite. A substantial share of ACCA members,

more than one-third in Africa and about one-quarter in the Caribbean, have experienced

deprivation first-hand.2 In Africa in particular, members are more likely to engage and

advise small businesses on a social basis than in their professional capacity (ACCA 2009).

With appropriate professional input, just-in-time interventions can be used throughout

the lifetime of the business, adapting as the needs of the entrepreneur become more complex.

Box 6.1 presents the findings of ACCA (2013) regarding the business needs driving the

48

evolution of the finance function: the same needs are likely to drive other kinds of

development and specialization as well.

Marketing Skills for Entrepreneurship

Marketing skills is another important and essential skill which depends on the very

success or failure of a business. Marketing is a common phenomenon but it is a very complex

and elusive subject matter. The activities of marketing are so diverse that it is difficult to say

exactly what marketing is. Osuala (1993) defined marketing as the process by which the

productive potentials of the company is used to satisfy individual and social needs of all

kinds.

Ezeani (1999) sees marketing as consisting of all profitable human activities

undertaken by the firm towards the creation of goods and services. Argument among

Nigerian traders is that successful entrepreneurship in trading occupation simply depends on

talent and luck”. They believe that programmed training in marketing skilled is irrelevant for

success in trading activities. This view is rooted in ignorance because education and training

can promote individual initiative and marketing competencies.

However, the auto technology student must acquire the sales and marketing skills that

will enable them to make such vital business decisions as “getting the price right” which is an

important factors in retail marketing. Stanton (2002) stated that sales and marketing skills

will keep the entrepreneur informed, knowledgeable and confident as to determine the most

efficient method of physical distribution of goods and services.

Uche (2006) as quoted by Ademiluyi (2001) opined that the acquisition of marketing

skills offers the entrepreneur the unique strategy for succeeding in business. Therefore, auto

technology graduate is able to offer the right services to his targeted customers. He is able to

49

cost and determine his maintenance and repairs price and which will be acceptable to the

customers, based on their perception of the value and a cost that allows for profit making.

Business related graduates require these marketing skills in order to enable them identify

their potential customers; persuade them to patronize their shops or services. Ademiluyi

(2007) also identified the following marketing skills and competencies, which are needed for

effective entrepreneurship by business related graduates: Salesmanship, Negotiation, Sales

record keeping, Sales promotion, Stock record keeping, Pricing, Advertising channels among

others.

Marketing authorities generally agrees that business organization exists to serve

markets for which they engage in production and distribution of goods and services. Modern

marketing emerged as the concept that business exists to create and serve customers and at

the same time achieving the firms profit objective (Ezeani, 1999). Entrepreneur in business

related areas should therefore organize their resources to concentrate on achieving success in

the market environment as mishandling of negligence can lead to failure.

However, marketing and sales environment is rapidly changing reflecting changes

brought about by Information Communication Technology (ICT). Management at any level

may continually and consistently adapt the organization’s marketing effects to keep pace

with observed changes. Such changes require management and staff training, and

development of effective selling skills through education with the help of ICT. Marketing

education in Nigeria involves acquisition of selling and marketing skills with the help of ICT.

It also deals with developing, training and retraining of markets and sales personnel

(professionals) for the purpose of meeting the changing demands of client and customers in

the market, and excelling in all e-permeated market environment for example e-sales.

50

The use ICT is relevant and important to e-permeated market since ICT comprise

technologies or electronics as radio, television, videos, computers, sensors, internet, interface

boxes, e-mail, satellite connections, among others. Nation Policy on Education (NPE)’s

vigorous effort to respond to on-going changes in all aspect of life recognized that:

Marketing education involves two main concepts which are marketing and education for

adaptability and creativity. Adaptability refers to the “ability to manage in a complex,

interdependent world. While creative ability refers to the use of imagination to create new

things which involves taking some risk (Tino and Browne, 2010). Marketing education

involves functional literacy which means the ability of salesmen with marketers to separate

meanings and express ideas in various technologies and regard to marketing. It also involves

motivation of learners and customers to learn with the help of ICTs like videos, television

and multimedia computer software.

The international Labour Organization (ILO) defined training in three areas to

include; Basic Education for all, Core work Skill for all, and Life Long learning for all.

Training and retraining of marketing students is unavoidably the only way of tooling and

retooling them as a calculated means of tracing up for the various challenges poses by

dynamism in the 21st century. The illiterate of the 21st century according to Futurist Alvin

Toffer, will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn and

relearn (Toffler, 1970). Training according to Ebitu (2002), is the systematic development of

the knowledge skills and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately on a given

task or job”. This training is overwhelmingly necessary because of continuous changes in

technology, machines, equipment, strategies and knowledge.

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Communication Skills for Entrepreneurship

Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interlocutors’

communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on one’s

competency in communication. Communication involves intents and efforts from both the

sender of the message and the receiver. It is a process that can be fraught with error such as

with messages muddled that is, mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient,

miscommunication in avoidable. However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous

confusion waste efforts and miss opportunities. Thus, communication is essential to effective

team performance and communications for any organization is like blood flow in the human

body.

The most efficient auto technology graduates are who, that understand

communication and they use it in their organizational environment. For coordination between

material and human elements of organization as efficient network, good communication is

essential. Because communication isn’t being connected organization operation will stop.

The context of this study would help auto technology graduates to communicate desirably in

the organization. Therefore, the researcher explains brief skills in communication,

communication process and types of communication. He then discuss communications

planning process, and with expressing Johary window clear vague and dark areas of

communication in organization for entrepreneurs.

Communication is transference and the understanding of meaning. Business

communication is the sending and receiving of verbal and non verbal messages (see fig 2)

Hauna and Wilson (1998) expanded on this definition, indicating business communication is

52

a process of generating, transmitting, receiving, and interpreting messages in interpersonal,

group, public, and mass communication contexts through written and verbal format.

Communication Send Receive

Verbal Verbal indicators you give to others. Verbal indicators that others

give to you

Visual Behavioural indicators such as hand

movements that you give to others.

Behavioural indicators others

give to you.

Fig. 1: Sample Communication Model

Communication skills have great importance in the work area just as they in all areas

of life. It is widely accepted that business management and business educators perceive

communication skills as highly valuable to employee and organizations alike. In business

organizations, numerous sources have reported that communication skills are critical to

career success and a significant contributor to organizational success (Du-Babcock, 2006) in

academia, research has shown faculty and administrators perceive that communication skills

are very important to students’ eventual career success (National Association of colleges and

Employers, 2001; Gray, 2010). Despite the agreement in business regarding the importance

of communication skills, evidence exists that long-term employees and those just entering the

workforce from college still lack this skills. Even though an organization perform its tasks

more efficient than expected, one should know that this success will not continue so long if it

lacks the same efficacy in communication (Zarei Matin, (2010).

The success of communication depends on several factors, transmission of message

by the process of encoding and decoding the message, which may result in short-term

perception, is not adequate for the success of communication. Communication should be in

53

such a way that will give opportunity for the respondent or receiver to tasks decision with

regard to the message he perceived (Master, 2008).

Studies have shown that listening is the most frequent aspect of workplace

communication (Adler and Elmhorst, 1999). Other studies have identified that managers

spend 65-90% of their working day listening to someone, with the percentage of time

increasing with level of managerial responsibility (Kotter, 1982, Nichols & Stevens, 1990).

However, research suggests that misunderstandings are the rule rather than the exception, and

that people generally achieve no more than 25-50% accuracy in interpreting the meaning of

each other’s remarks (Spitzberg, 1994). Becoming fully proficient at listening would

therefore seem to have significant influence on workplace communication and related

effectiveness.

Effective listening is a specific skill that can be consciously developed and practiced

in various workplace situations, whether a meeting, supervision session, telephone

conversation or chance meeting in the corridor. Listening is not simply a matter of hearing.

Listening is an active psychological rather than passive process, which enables us to attach

meaning to all the information we receive. It requires concentration and effort.

As we listen to others we interpret and evaluate the meaning from the verbal and non-

verbal information that we receive. We also plan and rehearse our response in preparing to

execute it. While the processes of evaluation, planning and rehearsal occur subconsciously,

they can therefore interfere with effective listening. It can be important to maintain

awareness of this to ensure that the processes that mediate between listening and speaking do

not actually interfere with the listening process itself.

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Listening Skills

Developing effective listening skills involves two specific steps (Hartley & Bruckman,

2002). These are:

1. To develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening

with full attention.

2. To develop and use behaviours which help you to listen. Such behaviours can also

serve to let the other person know that you are giving them your full attention.

Communication Process

Communication is the transmission of meaning from one person to another or too

many people, whether verbally or non-verbally. Nicholson, (1995) noted that

communication from one person to another is commonly depicted as a simple triangle

consisting of the context, the sender, the message, and the receiver. There are also at least

two positions on the role of communication in organisation. One regards communication as a

sub- process which plays an important role in other organsiational process. Communication

serves as a channel for the exercise of leadership or for the maintenance of international

linkages. The other position argues that communication in the process which constitutes the

organisation and its activities (Nicholson, 1995).

Communication is essentially a perceptual process. The sender must encode intended

meaning to create messages. The receiver then decodes the messages to obtain perceived

meaning. Effective communication depends on the sender and the receiver sharing an

understanding of the rules used to encode meaning into messages. Effective communication

according to Storh, (2002) is between individuals (the sender and the receiver) involves many

steps, including encoding, decoding, and feedback. In order for communication to take place,

55

an objective, expressed as a message to be conveyed by some person is required. This

message is encoded in human communication. The channel is the medium through which the

message travels (Vasu, 1998). Communication is about creating and exchanging messages

between senders and receiver channels. As shown in fig 2, the source in human

communication is the person sending the communication.

Fig. 2: Communication as a Process

In the light of the above, communication is a vital function which auto technology students

needs and must be conscious of in an attempt to improve the productivity of organization.

Organizational Communications

All communication is associated with initiating some form of action or behaviour.

Communication is generally one of three types (fig 3). At its simplest level, Top-down

communication is used to instruct, control, and direct impersonally. Top-down

communication is commonly associated with hierarchically structured, centrally driven

organizations in which decisions are taken without too much consultation at the lower

operating levels within the hierarchy. Feedback is not a requirement though team briefings

are usually undertaken by middle managers. In contrast to top-down communication, the

MESSAGE

Receiver

Communication Sender

Communication Sender

Network (channel)

Receiver

56

purpose of two-way communication is to create the conditions under which people freely

contribute move to the achievement of the organisation. Two-way communication is

associated with participatory styles of management, best practice, and the alignment of

project goals and personal goals.

Three-way communication that is downward, upward, and lateral are a feature of

“project organizations” in which people are encouraged to cross barriers to get the

information they need to do the job (Mcmanus, 2006).

Types of Communication Explanation

Downward communication The process is management owned and controlled and is

used to pass information down through the organisation

Downward and upward

communication

A two-way flow of information is exchange between

management and operating staff-ownership of the

process is sometimes shared.

Downward, upward and

lateral communication

There is a free exchange of information across the

organization

Fig. 3: Types of Communication

Formal and Informal Communication

Organizational communications differ in formality. Formal communications are

official, organisation-Sanctioned episodes of information transmission. They can move

upward, downward, or horizontally and often are prearranged and necessary for performing

some task.

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Informal Communication is more unofficial. The grapevine is the social network of

informal communication that helps people interpret the organisation, translates

management’s formal messages into “employee’s language”, and conveys information that

the formal system leaves unsaid. On the other hand, the grapevine can be destructive when

irrelevant or erroneous gossip and rumors proliferate and harm operations (Bateman, 2002).

Communication Planning Process

Communication planning with the proper investment of time, resources, and

collaboration becomes both a problem solving process and a learning process. Perhaps the

greatest payoff that comes from successful use of communication planning is the groundwork

that is laid for future cooperation within the project community.

The European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (2011) reported that

communications planning generally involves four phases. Within each phase, it is important

that the auto technology graduates will normally work through several tasks to accomplish

the specific objectives (fig 4). The four phases include the following:

- Assessment of need

- Formulate plan

- Implementation plan

- Feedback

Phase 1: Assessment

The assessment phase is a critical first step in determining the scope of

communications planning. The objectives of an assessment are to identify key

communications issues and which stakeholders will be affected and those that will play a

vital role in the project.

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Fig 4: Overview of Communications Planning.

Phase 2: Formulate Plan.

Once the assessment phase is concluded, the next task is to assimilate the findings

from the assessment and recommend a suitable course of action. There is no precise formula

for determining the right communication plan or whether it is likely to succeed or hit the

right Mark.

However, the European journal of Humanities and social sciences (2011) also has it

that, there are a number of key indicators that contribute to what may be considered best

practice to include:

- Keep the process simple

- Know your audience

- Maintain an overview of the vision

- Define clear roles and responsibilities.

- Set concise deliverables.

- Perform validations at appropriate intervals

- Use appropriate validation criteria

Stake holders

Visions and Goals

Evaluation feedback

Development and Implementation

Communication Planning

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- Represent your vision by words and deeds.

Phase 3: Implementation

The moment an agreement is reached as to the content of the plan, the work of

implementation and monitoring begins. Although the process often creates a great deal of

good will, the progress can be wiped out by a lack of attention to detail following agreement

to implement plan. McManus et al, (2006) noted that during the implantation phase, the

project manager should support the actions of the implementers and ensure that all actions

are concluded in line with the agreed deliverables.

Communication Styles

People differ in the ways they choose to communicate with others we all know

individuals who rely on face-to-face discussions, and others who utilize e-mail and voicemail

almost exclusively. Developed by Drs. Joseph Luft and Henry Ingham (after whom it was

named), the Johari Window has received widespread use by management trainers as a device

for assessing and categorizing managers’ communication styles. As shown in figure 5, the

Johari window classifies an individual’s tendencies to facilitate or hinder interpersonal

communication along two dimensions: exposure and feedback. Exposure is the extent to

which an individual openly and candidly divulges feelings and information when trying to

communicate.

Feedback is the extent to which an individual successfully elicits exposure from

others. These two dimensions of communication as shown in figure 5, the arenas represent

information that is known to the manager and know to others. In the best of all words, all

communication would be in the arena. A manager would be open and candid in discussions

with others team members, and in turn those other members would be open and candid in

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discussion with the manager. The more the information falls in arena, the effective the

communication. The second of the Johari window is the blindspot occur when a manager

does not communicate enough, does not listen well when communicating, or antagonizes

others so that they don’t provide the manager with feedback. Components of communication

become hidden when a manager fails (intentionally or unintentionally) to provide

information to others. Hidden information can cause problems, particularly if the manager

incorrectly assumes that event one already knows it. Finally, information may be unknown to

both the manager and others. This information is not internationally being held back, but it

nevertheless remains excommunicated (Stroh, 2002).

Fig. 5: Johari Window of Communication Styles.

Differences in the extent to which managers’ communication skills and abilities result

in arena, blindspot, Hidden, and unknown information give rise to four distinct

communication styles as follow:

Type A communicators are low in both exposure and feedback. Type A managers

would be characterized as uncommunicative, terse, and even aloof or impersonal. Type A

communication results in both hidden information and blind spots.

Type B Communicators are also low in exposure, but they are high in feedback. Type B

managers constantly seek out information, but they rarely provide information in exchange.

Known Unknown

Known to others

Unknown to others

Arena Blindspot

Hidden Unknown

Known

Un known

Low

High

Exposure

Known to staff Unknown to staff

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Type B communication results in hidden information. Mangers low in exposure (Type A or

Type B Communicators) basically don’t trust others with important information. Low-

exposure communication is particularly ineffective when paired with high feedback because

it results in continual requests for information.

Type C communicators are high in exposure but low in feedback. Type C managers are

typically perceived as being auto critic arrogant. They provide lots of information but rarely

request the opinions of others. They are likely to be perceived as not valuing other’s opinions

and perspectives. Type C communication tends to create blindspots.

Type D Communicators are high on both exposure and feedback most of their

information is arena, information, and they tend to communicate effectively (Stroh, et al,

2002).

The communication in organization is so important that it is said, the first and most

important task of managers that they have to expand communications system in the

organizations. Necessary information should be considered before a decision must be taken.

Communication is considered as the blood vessel that brings life flows and lack of

information cause will be disorder of the heart. Therefore without effective communication

tasks of survival in any organization and it will not be possible.

The context of this study investigated all aspects and points to effective

communication in the organization, it gain in conclusion that channels of communication is

one of the most effective way in a relationship, and qualified auto technology students to

pass over all stages of communication skills to meets their performance standard within a

specified plans in their organization.

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Fig. 6: Isuwa, 2015 Schema of Entrepreneurial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self

Employed Graduates.

The researcher presented the conceptual framework of the study which is however,

broadly divided into five areas such as: technical skills, managerial skills, financial skills,

marketing skills and community skills. The schema indicated that, the teacher acquires the

skills of the five aspects of business enterprises and effectively orients those skills to the

students. These lead to the students’ effective acquisition of skills by the students positively

affects their wellbeing as individuals in their families in particular and the nation at large,

thus addressing the nation’s sustainable development positively. These aspects of branches

call for many career opportunities in automotive technology as diagnosing, maintaining,

Technical Skills

Financial management

Skills

Marketing Skills

Communication Skills

Graduates of Auto Technology

Employment Opportunities

Auto Technology

Entrepreneurial skills possessed by graduates

Managerial Skills

63

repairing among others. All these recommend business enterprises as a vital tool for

entrepreneurship. It is primarily concerned with assisting the individual to be useful and as

well as improving his/herself in the business world which will in turn lead to the

improvement of the society at large. All these depend on how effective auto technology.

Curriculum is implemented by the auto technology teachers. The relevance of Business

enterprises as a vital tool for entrepreneurship is the focus of this schema with reference to

entrepreneurial skills as a branch of business enterprises.

Theoretical Framework

Leadership Path-Goal Theory

House and Mitchell propounded the path-goal theory which they referred to as

leadership path-goal theory in 1977 which state that “the leader (entrepreneur) should make

desired rewards available (goal) and clarify for the workforce the kinds of behaviour that will

lead to the reward (path)”. Fig 3 displays the key concepts of path-goal theory and illustrates

the relationship between one another.

Characteristics of Group Members

Leadership Style Directive Supportive Participative Achievement-Oriented

Outcomes Productivity Morale

(Contingency Factors)

(Contingency Factors)

Demand of the Task

Fig. 3: Leadership Path-Goal Theory

(Source: House and Mitchell, 1977)

64

As the originators of the path-goal theory, House and Mitchell further emphasized the

relationship between styles is one of the important factors that affects organizational

effectiveness. Thus, a specific relationship between the style of leadership and operating

aspect of entrepreneurship will substantially influence its level of effectiveness.

The Leadership Path-Goal Theory proposes four types of leader behaviours as follow:

• Directive Leadership: Characterized by a leader (entrepreneur) who explicates

expectations and provides specific guidance to the employees.

• Supportive Leadership: Characterized by a leader (Entrepreneur) who is

friendly and approachable, and mostly, concerns about the status, well-being, and

personal needs of the employees.

• Participative Leadership: Characterized by a leadership who consults

subordinates (workforce) for asks for their suggestions before making any final

decision.

• Achievement – Oriented Leadership: Characterized by leader (entrepreneur)

who sets challenging goals, prompt followers (workforce) to endeavor, and shows

confidence in their abilities to fill the task.

To achieve the outcomes of productivity and morale, one of the above four leadership styles

will be chosen depending on the characteristics of the situation and the demands of task.

Therefore, the theory is relevant to this study because it is directed on the leadership style

that the students will adapt as they engaged on entrepreneurship after graduation from the

college.

65

Socio-Cultural Theory

The Socio cultural theory has a historic view about the act of learning. Williams and

Burden (1997) claim that the theory opposes the idea of the discrete teaching of skills and

argues that meaning should constitute the central aspect of any unit of study. Any unit of

study should be presented in all its complexity rather than skills and knowledge presented in

isolation. The theory emphasizes the importance of what the learner brings to any learning

situation as an active meaning-maker and problem-solver. It acknowledges the dynamic

nature of the interplay between teachers, learners and tasks and provides a view of learning

as arising from interactions with others. Socio cultural theory assumes that learning arises not

through interaction but in interaction.

Learners first succeed in performing a new task with the help of another person and

then internalize this task so that they can perform it on their own. In this way, social

interaction is advocated to mediate learning. The theory goes further to say interactions that

successfully mediate learning area those in which the learners scaffold the new task.

Scaffolding is a concept that derives from cognitive psychology and research. It states

that in a social interaction, a knowledgeable participant can create by means of speech and

supportive conditions in which the student (novice) can participate in and extend current

skills and knowledge to a high level of competence. The theory is relevant to this study

because, entrepreneurial skills in an education context, however, scaffolding provides

assistance as an instructional structure whereby the teacher models the desired learning

strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility to the graduates.

66

Model of Economic Development

A. Schumpeter (1947) has given a model of economic development. According to

Schumpeter, entrepreneurs renew the economic activities by introducing new ideas, new

processes, new products and services for the development of an economy. Schumpeter

defines entrepreneur as someone who establishes a new business to produce a new product or

to make an old product in a new way. In his work, the entrepreneur takes the center stage of

socioeconomic development. He takes the role of socioeconomic leader since he has the

ability to decide, to direct, to push matters through. The Schumpeterian entrepreneur differs

from imitators in applying new methods of production on the market, in opening up new

markets. This creative ability differences gives entrepreneur a chance of accumulation of a

surplus but this eroded as imitators appear in the market using same methods. Thus, the

temporary monopoly profits made by the entrepreneur shows the dynamics of the capitalist

system and also show that each cycle of innovations by entrepreneurs is the main cause of

business cycles. He sharply differentiates himself from Marshallian-Neoclassical theories of

economic development and growth. While, in the Marshallian analysis, small contributions

from a very large number of modest entrepreneurs lead to economic progress, Schumpeter’s

entrepreneur plays the role of a revolutionary in creation of new production functions and

methods. Thus, entrepreneurs create disequilibrium and this creative destruction is possible

only under capitalistic system. In contrast to Marshall, Schumpeter’s analysis progress does

depend on the “great man” and as an innovator, economic and social leader the entrepreneur

by definition is a monopolist. Therefore, this model is based upon experimental psychology

but identifies sociological variables as the determinants of entrepreneurial growth.

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Related Empirical Studies

The need for the review of the empirical studies to this present study cannot be over

stressed. The literature on skill required in entrepreneurship in auto mechanics technology

appears to be scanty despite the relative importance of this aspect to automobile trade.

Anele (1997) carried out a study to identify entrepreneurial competencies needed by

technical college students for self employment. The study was a survey type that covered five

eastern states, which include; Abia, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi and Imo. Entrepreneurial

Competencies Questionnaire (ECQ) was used for data collection. The population comprised

514 entrepreneurs in technical occupations, and 388 technical teachers in the state covered by

the study. No sampling was carried out. Mean scores, t-test and analysis of variance

(ANOVA) were used for data analysis. The findings revealed 90 entrepreneurial

competencies needed by technical college students for self-employment. Factors that could

enhance teaching and learning entrepreneurial competencies were also identified. It was

recommended that entrepreneurial competencies identified be incorporated into the technical

college programme so that they can be used to prepare students for self-employment on

graduates. However, the present study differs from the previous study because the study

focuses on entrepreneurial skills posses by auto technology self employed graduates in

Nasarawa State, while the previous study focuses on entrepreneurial competencies needed by

technical college students for self-employment in five states which include; Abia, Anambra,

Enugu, Ebonyi and Imo.

Olaintan and Ede (2009) carried out a study to determine the technical skills

improvement needs of the informally trained auto mechanics in maintaining modern

automobiles. Three research questions were formulated to guide the study. Structured

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questionnaire was used for data collection which was duly validated by experts. The

population for study comprised by 302 registered auto mechanics in the state and purposive

complying techniques was used to select to experienced and 60 less experienced auto-

mechanics from twelve semi urban and urban town in the three senatorial district of the state.

Cronbach Alpha was used to establish the reliability of the instrument. The data collected

were analyzed using the mean and standard deviations for the research questions and the t-

test for hypotheses. The result of the hypothesis showed that the respondents do not differ

significantly in their responses. The findings of the study revealed that the auto mechanics do

not possess the requisite technical skills needed for maintaining modern automobile and

consequently call for skill improvement. The previous study differ from the present study

because the study focuses on the technical skills improvement needs of the informally trained

auto mechanical in maintaining modern automobiles, while the present study focuses on

entrepreneurial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates in Nasarawa

state.

Stasz (2001) conducted a study on skills acquisition for improvement of maintenance

needed by automobile technicians in the automobile trade. Four research questions were

developing. The research method, with a population of 79 automobile technicians trained

through the formal vocational institutions and 81 auto mechanics trained through

apprenticeship system drawn from 23 automobile workshops. Instrument for data collection

were face validated by three experts. Cronbach alpha method was used to determine

reliability coefficient of the instrument and 0.81 was obtained. The data collected for the

study was analysis using the mean and one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and

correlation coefficient. The result of the study revealed that changes in workplace and

69

procedure as a result of technological innovations raises many concerns about the adequacy

of workers skills in that country Stasz carried out his study in far away Tongo (A Country in

the south pacific Ocean). Similarly, the study seek to determine the skills improvement needs

a Nigeria automobile technician will possessed to maintain modern automobiles which

influence the country on a daily basis. However, the previous study was on skill acquisition

for improvement of maintenance needed by automobile technicians in the automobile trades

while the presented study is on entrepreneurial skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates in Nasarawa State.

Dangana (2006), carried out a study which examine the technical skills improvement

needs of auto electronic technicians for the maintenance of modern day automobile in

Nigeria State. A survey design was adopted in the study which was carried out in the 25 local

government areas of Niger State. The population consists of 63 auto electronic technical

who received their training through formal education system and 176 who receive theirs

through the informal system, making a total of 239 auto-electronic technicians. A

questionnaire containing 134 items on the technical skills improvement needs of auto

electronic technicians for the maintenance of modern day automobiles was developed and

used for the data collection.

The questionnaire was structured in a five-point liker scale, ranging from Strongly

Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD), with a mean score of 3.00 as a cutoff point. In

analyzing the data, mean and standard deviation were used to determine the technical skills

improvement needed by auto-electronic technicians as well as the degree of disagreement on

retraining strategies that could be adapted to enhanced professional competences. The t-test

was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed 10 major

70

skills in the electronically principles, 8 practical skills, 11 skills in the knowledge of basic

functions of tools and equipment, 8 safety skills and 3 retraining strategies perceived to be

possessed by the Automotive technicians in order to improve their maintenance skills on

modern day automobile. The two studies are related because their methodologies are the

same. Although the two studies differ because the previous study is on skills improvement

needs of auto electronic technicians while the present study is on skills possessed by auto

technology self employed graduates.

Agbogidi (2007), carried out a research on skills requirement. The purpose was to

identify the entrepreneurial skills required for establishing small and medium scale enterprise

in Delta State with four research questions to determine the required skills for establishing

SMEs. A survey research design was used with a population of 59 respondents was also used

for the study. No sampling was carried out since the number of the respondents was small: a

structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The two studies is related because, they

centered on entrepreneurship practices. The two studies are related because the focus on

entrepreneurial practice skills need for enterprise. However, the two study differ because the

previous study was on entrepreneurial skills required for small and medium scale enterprise

while the present study is on enterprise while the present study is on entrepreneurial skill

possessed by auto-technology self employed graduates.

Anyakoha (1994) cited in Alio (2006) conducted a study on enhancing the

entrepreneurial skills of operators of Home Economic related business and its implication for

entrepreneurship education. The sample of the study consisted of 200 entrepreneurs in

Home Economics in Enugu State. Questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection.

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The data collected was analyzed using mean statistics. The following findings were

made from the research.

� Some entrepreneurial skills were needed by operators of Home Economics related

enterprise.

� The entrepreneurial skill needed included knowledge of factors involved in overhead

control knowledge of inventory control, and turn-over ability manage time and meet

job schedules, acquisition of management and supervisory skills, knowledge of

importance and of job demands at home and family life, maintenance of appropriate

open channels of communication.

The following recommendations based on the findings of the study were made

• That entrepreneurship education should be made part of the Home

Economics Education of various levels of education, since graduates from

programmes often strive for self employment and self reliance.

• That Entrepreneurship education should be encouraged through mass

media.

The two studies are related because they centered on entrepreneurial practice skills.

Although the two studies differ because the previous study was on enhancing the

entrepreneurial skills of operators of Home Economic related business while the present

study is on Entrepreneurial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates.

Summary of Review of Related Literature

The related literature was reviewed on concept of entrepreneurship, concept of

technical college, auto technology, concept of skills, entrepreneurial skills required for small

and medium scale enterprises. The review of culture related to this study however, reveals

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that small and medium scale enterprises have made a traveled contribution in the area of

employment, income generation, training and provision of social well being of the people

that government somehow neglected to provide. The small and medium scale enterprises in

auto technology is beset with several problems, most of which revolved around lack of

capital for growth and poor skills requirement to meet up with technological advancement in

the trade.

The review also has it that most technical college graduates do not have the

knowledge and skills that will enable them to take up available job or be self-reliance. Some

of these deficiencies attributing to the failure of the graduates in establishing and sustaining

their enterprises are in the area of managerial, financial marketing, communication and

technical skills. The study also revealed that auto technology’s efficient operations in their

workshops or organizations are hampered as a result of poor level of skills they attained

during their initial training.

From the literature reviewed no study was conducted on the entrepreneurial skills

possessed by auto technology self employed graduates in Nasarawa State. This is the gap the

study is set to fill.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the procedure to be adopted for the study under the following

sub-headings: design of the study, area of the study, population for the study, instrument for

data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data

collection and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The study was conducted using survey research design. Descriptive research design,

according to Olaitan and Nwoke (1999), is one which the entire population or representative

sample is studied by collecting and analyzing data from the group through the use of

questionnaire. Similarly, Nworgu (2006) defined survey research design as that design that

centers on people, their beliefs, opinion, attitudes and behaviour. Descriptive survey design is

suitable for the study since information will be solicited from the respondents (auto

technology entrepreneurial) and (auto technology employees) on the entrepreneurial skills

possessed by auto technology self employed graduates in the three senatorial zones in

Nasarawa State.

Area of the study

The study was conducted in Nasarawa state of Nigeria. The state is made up of three

senatorial zones namely: Northern, Southern and Western senatorial zones respectively. In

each of these zones, there are relatively few auto technology entrepreneurs who provide

maintenance service and repairs for automobile users in the state.

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74

Nasarawa state as the area of study was chosen because of its cosmopolitan nature

and location especially with the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja, which enhances

entrepreneurial activities and the number of vehicles playing the roads. Because of this

characteristic of the state, there is the need for a wide spread of well-trained technical

personnel especially the graduates of auto technology to take up entrepreneurship for

maintenance service and repairs of automobile in the state.

Population for the Study

The population for the study comprised of 110 respondents. This is made up of 30

entrepreneurs and 80 employees drown from 30 registered self employed graduates of auto

technology in the three senatorial zones of Nasarawa State. The population is based on

information collected from Nasarawa state ministry of commerce and industries 2012 (see

Appendix E) for distribution in page 146. The choice of auto technology entrepreneurs and

auto technology employees is based on the fact that students are not knowledgeable about the

skills possessed in auto technology. Hence, the absence of sampling is as a result of size of

the population.

Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire on Entrepreneurial

Skills possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates (ESPATSEG). The

questionnaire was developed by the researcher from the available literature on Automotive

Technology and Entrepreneurial skills possessed by Auto Technology self employed

graduates. The questionnaire is divided into six (6) sections (A-F), Section ‘A’ will solicit

information on personal data of the respondents, while section ‘B’ will request information

on technical skills possessed by auto technology graduates for maintenance and repairs of

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automobiles. ‘C’ will seek information on managerial skills possessed by Auto Technology

Self employed graduates for their entrepreneurial development. Thus, section ‘D’ has –items

that deals with the financial skills possessed by Auto Technology self employed graduates

for entrepreneurial development. Section ‘E’ comprised items designed to find out the

marketing skills possessed by Auto Technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial

development. Section ‘F’ contained items designed to find out communication skills

possessed by Auto Technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial development.

The response options to the items were base on a five-point rating scale, with numerical

values as follows:

Very Highly Possessed (VHP) = 5

Highly Possessed (HP) = 4

Possessed (P) = 3

Slightly Possessed (SP) = 2

Not Possessed (NP) = 1

Validation of the Instrument

The instrument was subjected to face-validation by three experts. Three of them are

from the Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The

experts were requested to assess the items of the instrument in terms of clarity and

appropriateness in addressing the problem of the study and research questions under

investigation. Their corrections, suggestions and recommendations were incorporated in the

final draft of the instrument.

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Reliability of the Instrument

The Cronbach Alpha coefficient method was used to determine the internal consistency of the

instrument. Fifteen (15) copies of the questionnaire was trial tested on five auto technology

entrepreneurs and (10) auto technology employee in Plateau State. An overall reliability of 0.984

which consist 0.911 for section A, 0.976 for section B, 0.954 for section C, 0.973 for section D, and

0.971 for section E. The instrument is highly reliable.

Method of Data Collection

The researcher administered the instrument on the auto technology entrepreneurs and

auto technology employees through personal contact and with the help of three research

assistance. The research assistants were given instruction on how to administer the

questionnaire on the respondents while the researcher supervised the RAs and coordinated

the administration of the instrument. The copies of the questionnaire were collected a few

days later by the research assistants. Through personal administration of the instrument, a

hundred, present return rate was achieved.

Method of Data Analysis

Data collected from the respondents were analyzed using mean to answer research

questions. For decision, items with mean of 3.50 and above were considered as having high

means, which indicate that graduates should possess skills for self-employment. Any item

with mean rating less than 3.50 was considered as low and that the graduates do not possess

skill for self employment. The five hypotheses stated, were tested using t-test at 0.05 level of

significance. Any item whose its t-cal less than t-table was accepted but any item that its t-cal

greater than t-table was rejected. All computation was done using the statistical package for

social science (SPSS), Version 16.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter presents the analysis of data collected in the course of the study. The

presentation and analysis is organized in tables and is arranged according to research

questions and hypothesis formulated for the study.

Research Question 1

What are the technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures?

Table 1

Mean and standard deviation of responses of Auto technology entrepreneurs and Auto

technology employees on the Technical Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates. N=109

S/N Technical Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates MEAN SD Decision

(a) Engine System: 1 Identify and interpret engine concern.

3.9908 1.04965 HP

2 Research applicable vehicle and service information on internal engine operation. 3.5780 1.03900

HP

3 Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks. 3.5596 1.10077

HP

4 Diagnose engine noises and vibrations. 3.5138 1.11068

HP

5 Perform engine vacuum test. 3.3486 1.14161

AP

6 Perform cylinder power balance test. 3.3853 1.10477

AP

7 Perform cylinder cranking and running compression test. 3.3394 1.26359

AP

8 Install engine covers using gaskets, seals and sealers as required. 3.6330 1.05111

HP

9 Perform common fastener and thread repair on the broken bolt, internal and

external threads. 3.3486 1.10030

AP

10 Inspect, remove and replace engine mounts. 3.5046 1.13549

HP

11 Replace valve stem seals on an assembled engine. 3.5648 1.10456

HP

12 Disassemble engine block; clean and prepare components for inspection and

reasonably. 3.5963 1.05514

HP

(b) Electrical System 13 Identify and interpret electrical/electronic system concern.

3.6789 1.02633 HP

14 Check electrical/electronic circuit wave forms. 3.4722 1.04531

AP

15 Determine repairs for electrical/electronic circuit wave forms. 3.6330 1.01526

HP

16 Perform battery state-of-charge test. 3.6019 .98531

HP

17 Confirm proper battery capacity for vehicle application. 3.6514 1.04860

HP

(c) Braking System 18 Identify and interpret brake system concern.

3.7156 1.10631 HP

19 Enforce pressure concerns in the brake system using hydraulic principles. 3.4587 1.16692

AP

20 Describe the operation of a regenerative braking system. 3.9505 1.05239

HP

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21 Check master cylinder for internal/external leaks. 3.8611 .99961

HP

22 Check brake pad wear indicator system operation 3.8224 1.04442

HP

(d) Transmission System 23 Identify and interpret drive train concern.

3.5185 1.05442 HP

24 Drain and fill manual transmission/transaxle and final drive unit. 3.4167 1.00582

AP

25 Remove and reinstall transmission/transaxle. 3.4444 1.05311

AP

26 Remove and replace transaxle final drive. 3.5278 1.12290

HP

27 Remove and replace drive axle shafts. 3.6019 1.10174

HP

(e) Suspension and Steering System 28 Identify and interpret suspension and steering system concern.

3.5833 1.09481 HP

29 Disable and enable supplemental restrain system (SRS). 3.4167 1.07760

AP

30 Adjust non-rack and pinion worm bearing preload and sector lash. 3.4444 1.06194

AP

31 Remove and replace shock absorbers. 3.5701 1.09124

HP

(f) Fuel and Ignition System 32 Perform test on ignition primary and secondary circuit wiring and solid state

components. 3.5888 1.02748

HP

33 Inspect and test fuel pump control systems for pressure regulation, and volume. 3.4815 1.06325

AP

34 Check fuel for contaminants and quality. 3.4444 1.04419

AP

35 Inspect and test fuel injectors. 3.4722 1.11455

AP

36 Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks. 3.4352 1.18616

AP

KEY: HP= Highly Possessed; AP= Averagely Possessed

The data in table 1 shows that items 1-4, 8, 10-13, 15-18, 20-23, 26-28, 31 and 32 have their

means above 3.50, and are regarded as Highly Possessed. While items 5-7, 9, 14, 19, 24, 25,

30 and 33-36 have their means to fall within 2.50 and 3.49, and are regarded as Averagely

Possessed.

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Research Question 2

What are the managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


Table 2


technology employees on the Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self

Employed Graduates

SN Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates Mean SD Decision 37 Acquire management and supervisory skills

3.6606 1.22641 HP

38 Organize the planning process 3.3945 1.14680

AP

39 Develop detailed project schedules, including task, accountabilities and deadlines 3.2569 1.16590

AP

40 Anticipate problems that may impede work. 3.2222 1.11350

AP

41 Communicate changes and progress within the organization. 3.2477 1.23345

AP

42 Predict future development from own experience without analysis. 3.2294 1.25191

AP

43 Identify the component part of a situation or problem. 3.1376 1.30857

AP

44 Creative ability to search and find new solution to problem. 3.2018 1.26769

AP

45 Recognizes the potential consequences or implications of action, or ideas. 3.1193 1.28902

AP

46 Use graphic illustrations to capture interrelationships and connections. 3.0183 1.19398

AP

47 Reformulates or restates the problem, take a look at it from different angle. 3.2661 1.29559

AP

48 Applies appropriate frameworks, principles, and modules to solve problem. 3.3119 1.19952

AP

49 Manage time and meet job schedules. 3.2385 1.18555

AP

50 Conduct personal evaluation. 3.2430 1.28004

AP

51 Identify the knowledge of the need for employee growth and development. 3.2661 1.22204

AP

52 Identify the factors involved in overhead control 3.1284 1.29172

AP


The data in table 2 shows that item 37 has its mean as 3.6606 which is above 3.50, and is

regarded as Highly Possessed. While items 38-52 have their means to fall within 2.50 and

3.49, and are regarded as Averagely Possessed.

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Research Question 3

What are the financial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


Table 3


technology employees on the financial skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates

SN Financial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates Mean SD Decision

53 Identify options available for managing cask and liquid assets. 3.7103 1.19756

HP

54 Describe the characteristics and services of financial institutions. 3.5888 1.02748

HP

55 Identify major economic system in the global economy. 3.1308 1.28183

AP

56 Identify investment opportunities. 3.1963 1.33487

AP

57 Explain basic tax concepts and effective tax maximization strategies. 3.1402 1.26229

AP

58 Demonstrate accountability of responsible use of company resources. 3.1215 1.26424

AP

59 Identify major types of employee benefits. 3.3645 1.41016

AP

60 Explain the basic financial markets and investment options. 3.0280 1.26981

AP

61 Explain the contingency planning, including retirement and estate planning. 3.0280 1.29919

AP

62 Compute various financial transactions. 3.0935 1.32133

AP

63 Compare and evaluate consumer credit. 2.9533 1.34854

AP


The data in table 3 shows that items 53 and 54 had their means as 3.7103 and 3.5888

respectively which fell within the 3.50 and 4.49 range, and are regarded as Highly Possessed.

While items 55-63 have their means to fall within 2.50 and 3.49 range, and are regarded as

Averagely Possessed.

81

Research Question 4 What are the marketing skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


Table 4


technology employees on the marketing skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates.

SN Marketing Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates Mean SD Decision 64 The desire to write market and marketing plan

3.5185 1.17991 HP

65 Conduct a competitive analysis. 3.3241 1.12598

AP

66 Design a management information system. 3.1481 1.16663

AP

67 Develop insights concerning individual and group buying behaviors. 3.1574 1.20871

AP

68 Adapt to business practices and protocol. 3.1667 1.33606

AP

69 Analyze market shares. 3.0000 1.31752

AP

70 Assess market legal environment implications. 3.0093 1.30670

AP

71 Analyze import/export Government regulations. 3.0185 1.33942

AP

72 Analyze human resource task and design that appropriate organization structure. 2.9815 1.23031

AP

73 Satisfy different segments of the market 2.9630 1.32500

AP

74 Evaluate the effectiveness of your marketing activities. 3.2037 1.28077

AP

75 Set overall pricing for markets. 2.9630 1.33903

AP

76 Forecast profits and revenue related to markets. 2.9537 1.31408

AP

77 Use appropriate trade financing programs. 3.1028 1.41378

AP

78 Assess the suitability of products to the markets to devise branding strategies. 2.9537 1.36296

AP

79 Use appropriate market entry alternatives. 3.0648 1.27721

AP

80 Appropriate selections, recruit, compensation, and manage sales force. 3.0370 1.33903

AP

81 Balance between distribution efficiency and distribution effectiveness. 3.1667 1.30778

AP

82 Select appropriate advertising agency. 3.2593 1.27059

AP

83 Select the appropriate distribution channel. 3.0841 1.36756

AP

84 Use different pricing strategies peculiar to different customers. 3.0463 1.26332

AP





82

Research Question 5

What are the communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


Table 5


technology employees on the Communication skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self

Employed Graduates

SN Communication Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates Mean SD Decision 85 Initiating Open discussion

3.5833 1.16109 HP

86 Listen openly to the other person. 3.3796 1.19749

AP

87 Remove distractions. 3.2685 1.19662

AP

88 Be receptive to the other person. 3.2130 1.29738

AP

89 Resolving conflict. 3.1308 1.24449

AP

90 Maintaining an open posture, appropriate/comfortable eye-contact, learning

slightly forward. 2.9167 1.26140

AP

91 Delay evaluation on the information received what you have heard until. 2.8426 1.27640

AP

92 Avoid defensive step. 2.9537 1.43640

AP

93 Relax as any tension or impatience is likely to transmit via-verbal leakage 2.9074 1.32225

AP

94 Using information technology. 2.9815 1.34638

AP

95 Write business correspondence. 2.9444 1.39313

AP

96 Making convincing presentations. 3.0000 1.38078

AP

97 Response through owner’s facial expression or body gestures. 3.0463 1.35608

AP

98 Ask the other person for as much detail. Related to business practices. 3.0463 1.30695

AP

99 Develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents listening with

full attention. 3.0000 1.26047

AP

100 Develop and use behaviours that help in listening. 2.7222 1.34535

AP





83

Hypothesis 1

There is no significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and

auto technology employees on the technical skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures

Table 6

SN Technical Skills Possessed by Auto

Technology Self Employed Graduates

X1

n1= 30 SD1 X2

n2 = 79 SD2 df T-cal Sig.(2-

tailed Decision

(a) Engine System: 1 Identify and interpret engine concern.

4.2667 .78492 3.8861 1.11422 107 1.706 .091 NS

2 Research applicable vehicle and service

information on internal engine operation. 3.7333 1.01483 3.5190 1.12437 107 .962 .338

NS

3 Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks. 3.7000 1.02217 3.5063 1.17034 107 .819 .415

NS

4 Diagnose engine noises and vibrations. 3.8667 1.04166 3.3797 1.12854 107 2.075 .040

S

5 Perform engine vacuum test. 3.7333 1.08066 3.2025 1.06049 107 2.207 .029

S

6 Perform cylinder power balance test. 3.6667 .99424 3.2785 1.21644 107 1.651 .102

NS

7 Perform cylinder cranking and running

compression test. 3.5333 1.38298 3.2658 1.13156 107 .987 .326

NS

8 Install engine covers using gaskets, seals and

sealers as required. 4.0333 .92786 3.4810 1.13657 107 2.510 .014

S

9 Perform common fastener and thread repair on

the broken bolt, internal and external threads. 3.7000 .95231 3.2152 1.11291 107 2.086 .039

S

10 Inspect, remove and replace engine mounts. 3.8000 .99655 3.3924 1.13084 107 1.688 .094

NS

11 Replace valve stem seals on an assembled

engine. 4.0690 .88362 3.3797 1.04833 106 2.978 .004

S

12 Disassemble engine block; clean and prepare

components for inspection and reasonably. 3.5667 .89763 3.6076 1.12075 107 -.180 .857

NS

(b) Electrical System 13 Identify and interpret electrical/electronic

system concern. 3.9000 .99481 3.6203 1.03179 107 1.392 .167

NS

14 Check electrical/electronic circuit wave forms. 3.5862 1.08619 3.4231 1.03383 106 .685 .495

NS

15 Determine repairs for electrical/electronic

circuit wave forms. 4.0000 .87099 3.4937 1.03618 107 2.375 .019

S

16 Perform battery state-of-charge test. 4.0667 .90719 3.4304 .96051 106 3.166 .002

S

17 Confirm proper battery capacity for vehicle

application. 3.7333 .94443 3.5949 1.08962 107 .501 .617

NS

(c) Braking System 18 Identify and interpret brake system concern.

3.7692 .95231 3.7692 3.6667 107 -.090 .928 NS

19 Enforce pressure concerns in the brake system

using hydraulic principles. 3.8718 1.06997 3.8718 3.5333 107 .778 .439

NS

20 Describe the operation of a regenerative

braking system. 4.0000 1.33119 4.0000 3.6000 99 -.781 .437

NS

21 Check master cylinder for internal/external

leaks. 3.4051 .94989 3.4051 3.6667 106 -.178 .859

NS

84

22 Check brake pad wear indicator system

operation 3.7215 1.11748 3.7215 3.7667 105 .863 .390

NS

(d) Transmission System 23 Identify and interpret drive train concern.

3.6667 .71116 3.5385 1.13609 106 .905 .368 NS

24 Drain and fill manual transmission/transaxle

and final drive unit. 3.5333 1.10589 3.4744 1.15909 106 .746 .457

NS

25 Remove and reinstall transmission/transaxle. 3.6000 1.16264 3.3846 1.00945 106 .952 .343

NS

26 Remove and replace transaxle final drive. 3.6667 1.02833 3.3718 .96845 106 .796 .428

NS

27 Remove and replace drive axle shafts. 3.7667 1.00630 3.4615 1.15873 106 .964 .337

NS

(e) Suspension and Steering System 28 Identify and interpret suspension and steering

system concern. 3.9000 .95953 3.3846 1.08389 106 1.886 .062

NS

29 Disable and enable supplemental restrain

system (SRS). 3.6667 .84418 3.3462 1.07904 106 1.504 .136

NS

30 Adjust non-rack and pinion worm bearing

preload and sector lash. 3.7000 .98786 3.3205 1.14522 105 1.561 .121

NS

31 Remove and replace shock absorbers. 4.0690 .96106 3.4615 1.12460 105 2.989 .003

S

(f) Fuel and Ignition System 32 Perform test on ignition primary and

secondary circuit wiring and solid state

components.

3.8276 .92848 3.1795 1.20328 105 1.474 .143 NS

33 Inspect and test fuel pump control systems for

pressure regulation, and volume. 3.5000 1.00858 3.2308 1.09216 106 .112 .911

NS

34 Check fuel for contaminants and quality. 3.7000 .98786 3.3462 1.05470 106 1.589 .115

NS

35 Inspect and test fuel injectors. 4.1000 .92289 3.4744 1.08979 106 3.859 .000

S

36 Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks. 4.1000 .84486 3.5000 1.05375 106 3.837 .000

S

Key: NS= Not Significant; S= Significant; df= Degree of freedom; t cal= calculated values of t-test SPSS; SD1= Standard Deviation of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs SD2 Standard Deviation of Auto Technology Employees; X1= Mean of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs; X2= Mean of Auto Technology Employees; n1= Number of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs; n2= Number of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs; Level of Significance= 0.05

Table 6 revealed that items 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12-14, 17-30, and 32-34 have their

calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed) values to be greater than 0.05 showing that there is no

significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto

technology employees on the technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. However, items 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 31, 35 and 36

have their calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed) values to be less than 0.05 showing that there

is significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto

technology employees on the technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures for these items.

85

Hypothesis 2


auto technology employees on the managerial skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures

Table 7

SN Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

X1

n1 = 30 SD1 X2

n2= 79 SD2 df T-cal Sig.(2-

tailed Decision

37 Acquire management and supervisory skills 3.6333 1.21721 2.9873 1.34444 107 -.142 .887

NS

38 Organize the planning process 3.3667 1.32570 3.2278 1.29049 107 -.155 .877

NS

39 Develop detailed project schedules, including

task, accountabilities and deadlines 3.2333 1.19434 3.0633 1.26432 105 -.129 .897

NS

40 Anticipate problems that may impede work. 3.1034 1.20549 3.1772 1.20639 107 -.670 .504

NS

41 Communicate changes and progress within the

organization. 3.3000 1.39333 3.3165 1.21470 107 .272 .786

NS

42 Predict future development from own

experience without analysis. 3.1333 1.43198 3.1392 1.28835 107 -.492 .624

NS

43 Identify the component part of a situation or

problem. 3.3333 1.49328 2.9747 1.18727 107 .962 .338

NS

44 Creative ability to search and find new

solution to problem. 3.1000 1.26899 2.9873 1.25569 107 -.515 .608

NS

45 Recognizes the potential consequences or

implications of action, or ideas. 3.4667 1.33218 3.2405 1.27315 107 1.750 .083

NS

46 Use graphic illustrations to capture

interrelationships and connections. 3.1333 1.22428 3.0633 1.23352 107 .618 .538

NS

47 Reformulates or restates the problem, take a

look at it from different angle. 3.6000 1.27577 3.2658 1.18439 107 1.672 .097

NS

48 Applies appropriate frameworks, principles,

and modules to solve problem. 3.3000 1.17884 3.2278 1.17615 107 -.064 .949

NS

49 Manage time and meet job schedules. 3.4000 1.13259 3.2658 1.08260 106 .875 .383

NS

50 Conduct personal evaluation. 3.7500 1.20570 3.2658 1.16254 107 2.499 .014

S

51 Identify the knowledge of the need for

employee growth and development. 3.3667 1.03335 3.4051 1.08035 107 .528 .599

NS

52 Identify the factors involved in overhead

control 3.5000 1.07479 3.6709 1.23747 107 1.872 .064

NS


86

Table 7 shows that items 37-49, 51 and 52 have their calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed)

values to be greater than 0.05 showing that there is no significant difference in the mean

responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the

managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial

ventures. However, item 50 has its calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed) values to be less than

0.05 showing that there is significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology

entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the managerial skills possessed by auto

technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures for the item.

Hypothesis 3


auto technology employees on the financial management skills possessed by auto technology

self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

Table 8

SN Financial Skills Possessed by Auto


X1 n1= 30

SD1 X2

n2=79 SD2 df T-cal Sig.(2-

tailed Decision

53 Identify options available for managing cask

and liquid assets. 3.8333 1.11675 2.8961 1.28334 105 .662 .485

NS

54 Describe the characteristics and services of

financial institutions. 3.7333 .82768 2.9610 1.22948 105 1.020 .097

NS

55 Identify major economic system in the global

economy. 3.3333 1.18419 3.0390 1.25070 105 .500 .890

NS

56 Identify investment opportunities. 3.3000 1.46570 2.9610 1.22948 105 .645 .384

NS

57 Explain basic tax concepts and effective tax

maximization strategies. 3.2667 1.28475 3.2208 1.35359 105 1.256 .091

NS

58 Demonstrate accountability of responsible use

of company resources. 3.3667 1.24522 3.0260 1.26672 105 1.704 .212

NS

59 Identify major types of employee benefits. 3.7333 1.50707 3.0909 1.25846 105 .873 .520

NS

60 Explain the basic financial markets and

investment options. 3.2000 1.37465 3.1558 1.28826 105 -.139 .618

NS

61 Explain the contingency planning, including

retirement and estate planning. 3.0000 1.43839 3.0519 1.31686 105 1.675 .310

NS

62 Compute various financial transactions. 3.4333 1.50134 3.5325 1.09526 105 .701 .366

NS

63 Compare and evaluate consumer credit. 3.1000 1.51658 3.6623 1.23129 105 .662 .510

NS


87

Table 8 shows that all the items have their calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed) values to be

greater than 0.05 showing that there is no significant difference in the mean responses of auto

technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the financial skills possessed by


Hypothesis 4


auto technology employees on the marketing skills possessed by auto technology self


Table 9

SN Marketing Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

X1

n1 =30 SD1 X2


tailed Decision

64 The desire to write market and marketing plan 3.5000 1.16708 3.0256 1.26875 106 -.101 .920

NS

65 Conduct a competitive analysis. 3.6667 1.18419 2.8846 1.28912 105 1.988 .049

S

66 Design a management information system. 3.4667 1.04166 3.2564 1.30370 106 1.777 .078

NS

67 Develop insights concerning individual and

group buying behaviors. 3.1333 1.25212 3.1538 1.33948 106 -.128 .899

NS

68 Adapt to business practices and protocol. 3.3000 1.41787 2.8077 1.28990 106 .641 .523

NS

69 Analyze market shares. 3.3103 1.33907 2.9487 1.27816 106 1.494 .138

NS

70 Assess market legal environment implications. 3.0667 1.31131 2.7564 1.34054 106 .282 .778

NS

71 Analyze import/export Government

regulations. 3.2333 1.38174 2.9351 1.37972 105 1.034 .303

NS

72 Analyze human resource task and design that

appropriate organization structure. 3.0333 1.27261 2.8718 1.33250 106 .270 .787

NS

73 Satisfy different segments of the market 3.1000 1.37339 2.7949 1.31286 106 .665 .508

NS

74 Evaluate the effectiveness of your marketing

activities. 3.4333 1.22287 3.1154 1.29916 106 1.157 .250

NS

75 Set overall pricing for markets. 3.4000 1.32873 2.9615 1.31115 106 2.138 .035

S

76 Forecast profits and revenue related to

markets. 3.1667 1.26173 2.9359 1.22148 106 1.045 .298

NS

77 Use appropriate trade financing programs. 3.5333 1.43198 2.9870 1.32253 106 1.994 .049

S

78 Assess the suitability of products to the

markets to devise branding strategies. 3.4667 1.30604 2.8846 1.31283 105 2.484 .015

S

79 Use appropriate market entry alternatives. 3.3667 1.24522 3.1154 1.29916 105 1.533 .128

NS

80 Appropriate selection, recruit, compensation,

and manage sales force. 3.6333 1.29943 3.1667 1.30912 106 2.973 .004

S

81 Balance between distribution efficiency and

distribution effectiveness. 3.2000 1.24291 3.0256 1.19975 106 .164 .870

NS

82 Select appropriate advertising agency. 3.2667 1.20153 3.1923 1.19495 106 .037 .970

NS

88

83 Select the appropriate distribution channel. 3.6207 1.44948 3.5256 1.08182 106 2.537 .013

S

84 Use different pricing strategies peculiar to

different customers. 3.1000 1.26899 3.0256 1.19223 106 .273 .786

NS


Table 9 revealed that items 64, 66-74, 76, 79, 81, 82 and 84 have their calculated probability

(Sig. 2 tailed) values to be greater than 0.05 showing there is no significant difference in the

mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the

marketing skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial

ventures. However, items 65, 75, 77, 78, 80 and 83 have their calculated probability (Sig. 2

tailed) values to be less than 0.05 showing that there is significant difference in the mean

responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the marketing

skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures for

these items

Hypothesis 5


auto technology employees on the communication skills possessed by auto technology self


Table 10

SN Communication Skills Possessed by Auto


X1 n1= 30

SD1 X2


tailed Decision

85 Initiating Open discussion 3.5172 1.15328 2.6962 1.37145 106 -.357 .722

NS

86 Listen openly to the other person. 3.6552 1.26140 2.9241 1.21710 106 1.456 .148

NS

87 Remove distractions. 3.2759 1.19213 2.9873 1.29589 106 .038 .969

NS

88 Be receptive to the other person. 3.3793 1.34732 3.1139 1.33961 106 .806 .422

NS

89 Resolving conflict. 3.2143 1.28689 2.8987 1.33585 106 .411 .682

NS

90 Maintaining an open posture,

appropriate/comfortable eye-contact, learning

slightly forward.

3.1034 1.31868 2.8481 1.36897 106 .932 .354 NS

91 Delay evaluation on the information received

what you have heard until. 3.0345 1.37536 2.9241 1.38464 106 .946 .013

S

92 Avoid defensive step. 3.5172 1.35279 2.7975 1.31441 106 2.532 .155

NS

93 Relax as any tension or impatience is likely to

transmit via-verbal leakage 3.2069 1.31961 2.7468 1.41845 106 1.433 .467

NS

89

94 Using information technology. 3.1379 1.24568 2.7722 1.23982 106 .730 .237

NS

95 Write business correspondence. 3.2069 1.44863 2.8481 1.24126 106 1.188 .210

NS

96 Making convincing presentations. 3.2759 1.48556 3.1013 1.23615 105 1.261 .395

NS

97 Response through owner’s facial expression or

body gestures. 2.8621 1.40723 3.1519 1.28191 106 -.854 .442

NS

98 Ask the other person for as much detail.

Related to business practices. 3.2069 1.34641 3.2658 1.20585 106 .772 .304

NS

99 Develop the ability to recognize and deal with

barriers that prevents listening with full

attention.

3.2069 1.37267 3.2785 1.16505 106 1.034 .742 NS

100 Develop and use behaviours that help in

listening. 2.7931 1.29227 3.6076 1.17034 106 .330 .722

NS


Table 10 shows that items 85-90 and 92-100 have their calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed)

values to be greater than 0.05 showing that there is no significant difference in the mean


communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures. However, item 91 has its calculated probability (Sig. 2 tailed)

values to be less than 0.05 showing that there is no significant difference in the mean


communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures for the item.

Findings of the study

The following findings emerged from the study with respect to the research questions and

hypothesis tested.

1. Technical Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

(a) Engine System:

i. Identify and interpret engine concern.

ii. Research applicable vehicle and service information on internal engine operation.

iii. Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks.

iv. Diagnose engine noises and vibrations.

90

v. Perform engine vacuum test.

vi. Perform cylinder power balance test.

vii. Perform cylinder cranking and running compression test.

viii. Install engine covers using gaskets, seals and sealers as required.

ix. Perform common fastener and thread repair on the broken bolt, internal and external

threads.

x. Inspect, remove and replace engine mounts.

xi. Replace valve stem seals on an assembled engine.

xii. Disassemble engine block; clean and prepare components for inspection and

reasonably.

(b) Electrical System

i. Identify and interpret electrical/electronic system concern.

ii. Check electrical/electronic circuit wave forms.

iii. Determine repairs for electrical/electronic circuit wave forms.

iv. Perform battery state-of-charge test.

v. Confirm proper battery capacity for vehicle application.

(c) Braking System

i. Identify and interpret brake system concern.

ii. Enforce pressure concerns in the brake system using hydraulic principles.

iii. Describe the operation of a regenerative braking system.

iv. Check master cylinder for internal/external leaks.

v. Check brake pad wear indicator system operation

(d) Transmission System

i. Identify and interpret drive train concern.

ii. Drain and fill manual transmission/transaxle and final drive unit.

iii. Remove and reinstall transmission/transaxle.

iv. Remove and replace transaxle final drive.

v. Remove and replace drive axle shafts.

91

(e) Suspension and Steering System

i. Identify and interpret suspension and steering system concern.

ii. Disable and enable supplemental restraint system (SRS).

iii. Adjust non-rack and pinion worm bearing preload and sector lash.

iv. Remove and replace shock absorbers.

(f) Fuel and Ignition System

i. Perform test on ignition primary and secondary circuit wiring and solid state

components.

ii. Inspect and test fuel pump control systems for pressure regulation, and volume.

iii. Check fuel for contaminants and quality.

iv. Inspect and test fuel injectors.

v. Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks.

2. Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

i. Acquire management and supervisory skills

ii. Organize the planning process

iii. Develop detailed project schedules, including task, accountabilities and deadlines

iv. Anticipate problems that may impede work.

v. Communicate changes and progress within the organization.

vi. Predict future development from own experience without analysis.

vii. Identify the component part of a situation or problem.

viii. Creative ability to search and find new solution to problem.

ix. Recognizes the potential consequences or implications of action, or ideas.

x. Use graphic illustrations to capture interrelationships and connections.

xi. Reformulates or restates the problem, take a look at it from different angle.

xii. Applies appropriate frameworks, principles, and modules to solve problem.

xiii. Manage time and meet job schedules.

xiv. Conduct personal evaluation.

xv. Identify the knowledge of the need for employee growth and development.

xvi. Identify the factors involved in overhead control

92

3. Financial Management Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates

i. Identify options available for managing cask and liquid assets.

ii. Describe the characteristics and services of financial institutions.

iii. Identify major economic system in the global economy.

iv. Identify investment opportunities.

v. Explain basic tax concepts and effective tax maximization strategies.

vi. Demonstrate accountability of responsible use of company resources.

vii. Identify major types of employee benefits.

viii. Explain the basic financial markets and investment options.

ix. Explain the contingency planning, including retirement and estate planning.

x. Compute various financial transactions.

xi. Compare and evaluate consumer credit.

4. Marketing Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

i. The desire to write market and marketing plan

ii. Conduct a competitive analysis.

iii. Design a management information system.

iv. Develop insights concerning individual and group buying behaviors.

v. Adapt to business practices and protocol.

vi. Analyze market shares.

vii. Assess market legal environment implications.

viii. Analyze import/export Government regulations.

ix. Analyze human resource task and design that appropriate organization structure.

x. Satisfy different segments of the market

xi. Evaluate the effectiveness of your marketing activities.

xii. Set overall pricing for markets.

xiii. Forecast profits and revenue related to markets.

xiv. Use appropriate trade financing programs.

xv. Assess the suitability of products to the markets to devise branding strategies.

xvi. Use appropriate market entry alternatives.

93

xvii. Appropriate selection, recruit, compensation, and manage sales force.

xviii. Balance between distribution efficiency and distribution effectiveness.

xix. Select appropriate advertising agency.

xx. Select the appropriate distribution channel.

xxi. Use different pricing strategies peculiar to different customers.

5. Communication Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

i. Initiating Open discussion

ii. Listen openly to the other person.

iii. Remove distractions.

iv. Be receptive to the other person.

v. Resolving conflict.

vi. Maintaining an open posture, appropriate/comfortable eye-contact, learning slightly

forward.

vii. Delay evaluation on the information received what you have heard until.

viii. Avoid defensive step.

ix. Relax as any tension or impatience is likely to transmit via-verbal leakage

x. Using information technology.

xi. Write business correspondence.

xii. Making convincing presentations.

xiii. Response through owner’s facial expression or body gestures.

xiv. Ask the other person for as much detail. Related to business practices.

xv. Develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents listening with

full attention.

xvi. Develop and use behaviors that help in listening.

Hypothesis

1. It was found that there is no significant difference in the mean responses of auto

technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 26 (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12-

14, 17-30, and 32-34) items of technical skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. However, significant difference

94

existed in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology

employees on 10 (4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 31, 35 and 36) items of technical skills


Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for the 26 items

because their calculated probability values were more than the stated 0.05 level of

significance. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was not upheld for the

10 items as their calculated probability values were less than the stated 0.05 level of

significance.


technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 15 (37-49, 51 and 52)

items of the managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates

for entrepreneurial ventures. However, significant difference existed in the mean

responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 1 (50)

item of managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant difference

was upheld for the 15 items because their calculated probability values were more

than the stated 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no significant

difference was not upheld for the 1 item as their calculated probability values were

less than the stated 0.05 level of significance.


technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on all the 11 (53-63) items

of the financial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant difference

was upheld for these 11 items because their calculated probability values were more

than the stated 0.05 level of significance.


technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 15 (64, 66-74, 76, 79,

81, 82 and 84) items of the marketing skills possessed by auto technology self

employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. However, significant difference

existed in the mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology

employees on 6 (65, 75, 77, 78, 80 and 83) items of marketing skills possessed by

95

auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore the

null hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for the 15 items because their

calculated probability values were more than the stated 0.05 level of significance. The

null hypothesis of no significant difference was not upheld for the 6 items as their

calculated probability values were less than the stated 0.05 level of significance.


technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 15 (85-90 and 92-100)

items of the communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. However, significant difference existed in the

mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on

1 (91) item of communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant

difference was upheld for the 15 items because their calculated probability values

were more than the stated 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no

significant difference was not upheld for the 1 item as their calculated probability

values were less than the stated 0.05 level of significance.

Discussion of the Findings

The findings of the study were organized and discussed according to the research

questions answered and null hypothesis tested.

Research Question 1

The result revealed that Technical Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates is all the 36 skill components shown in table 1 above. . This is in line with

Katz,(2000) which stated that technical skills include competencies in a specialized area,

analytical ability, and the ability to use appropriate tools and techniques. Also this is in line

with Human resources and skills development Canada in 2009 who outlined some of the

essential skills for success as an automotive technician.

Hypothesis One (Ho1)

The result of the analysis of hypothesis revealed that there is no significant difference in the

mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 26

items of technical skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for

96

entrepreneurial ventures. However, significant difference existed in the mean responses of

auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 10 items of technical skills


Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for the 26 items but

was not upheld for the 10 items. These also agree with the opinion of Human resources and

skills development Canada (2009) who outlined some of the essential skills for success as an

automotive technician.

Research Question 2

The result revealed that all the 16 Managerial Skills components shown in table 2 above are

possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates. This is in line with Anyakoha

(2009) who outlined some managerial competencies as: ability to communicate effectively

using oral and written skills; knowledge of methods for conducting effective meeting; ability

to make long and short term planning; acquisition of management and supervisory skills

among others.

Hypothesis Two (Ho2)



items of managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 1 item of managerial skills



was not upheld for the 1 item. These also agree with the opinion of Anyakoha (2009) who

outlined some managerial competencies as: ability to communicate effectively using oral and

written skills; knowledge of methods for conducting effective meeting; ability to make long

and short term planning; acquisition of management and supervisory skills among others.

Research Question 3

The result revealed that all the 11 Financial management Skills components shown in table 3

above are possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates. This is in line with

description of the responsibilities of a financial manager as put forward by Nieman (2006),

who opined that financial manager is responsible for acquiring the necessary financial

97

resources to ensure the most beneficial results over both short and the long term and making

sure that the business makes the best use of its financial resources. Gitman (2010) stated that,

in addition to financing and investment decision making, the financial manager must ensure

that cash is managed efficiently so that the business can become profitable.

Hypothesis Three (Ho3)


mean responses of auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on all the

11 items of the financial management skills possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures. Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant

difference was upheld for these 11 items. This supports the broad consensus of OECD (2013)

financial education curricular should include an understanding of financial and risk

management, record keeping and compliance, and of the main finance providers and their

requirements. Proper possession of these skills components aligns with the definition of

financial management as defined by Ezeani (2008) which sees financial management as a set

of themes, concepts or (ideas) and techniques by which financial data are processed into

meaningful information for reporting, planning, controlling and decision-making purposes.

Research Question 4

The result revealed that all the 21 Marketing Skills components shown in table 4 above are

possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates. This is in line with Ademiluyi

(2007) also identified the following marketing skills and competencies, which are needed for

effective entrepreneurship by business related graduates: Salesmanship, Negotiation, Sales

record keeping, Sales promotion, Stock record keeping, Pricing, Advertising channels among

others.

Hypothesis Four (Ho4)



items of managerial skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 6 items of managerial

skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.


98

was not upheld for the 6 items. These also agree with the opinion of Kotler (2006) who stated

that identifying the customer’s needs and sustaining the customer’s satisfaction is the

beginning of every business through communication skills in marketing operation. Also in

line with the words of Ademiluyi (2007) who identifies marketing skills and competencies

that are required for effective entrepreneurship by business related graduates to include;

salesmanship, stock record keeping, among others

Research Question 5

The result revealed that all the 16 Communication Skills components shown in table 4 above

are possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates. This is in line with the words

of Hartley & Bruckman, (2002) who identified two specific steps involved in developing

effective listening skills to include: to develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers

that prevents you listening with full attention: and to develop and use behaviours which help

you to listen. Such behaviours can also serve to let the other person know that you are giving

them your full attention.

Hypothesis Five (Ho5)



items of communication skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


auto technology entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on 1 item of communication

skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.


was not upheld for the 1 item. These also agree with the opinion of Hartley & Bruckman,

(2002) who identified two specific steps involved in developing effective listening skills to

include: to develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening

with full attention: and to develop and use behaviors which help you to listen. Such behaviors

can also serve to let the other person know that you are giving them your full attention.

99

CHAPTER FIVE

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter contains the re-statement of the problem, summary of procedure used,

and the major findings of the study, implications of the study, conclusion, recommendations

and suggestions for further study.

Re-statement of the problem

Important measures has been employed by the past administrations in Nasarawa state

in areas like; fiscal incentive, grants, bilateral and multilateral support to aid educational

institutions in the state especially in technical and entrepreneurial development. However,

auto technology graduates from technical colleges who are expected to have possessed the

entrepreneurial skills for self-employment and join the team of entrepreneurs in the country

for economic growth and industrial development do not seem to possess the entrepreneurial

skills. The graduates are in most case rejected by employers because they do not possess the

entrepreneurial skills.

The graduates, who are mostly teenagers, leave to different parts of this country for

menial jobs particularly as bus conductors, commercial motorcyclist and hawkers, farmers

among others. This has further increased the youth negative behavior in the state as most

anti-social acts including thuggery, militancy, restiveness, and ethnic political clashes. The

graduates would have established in entrepreneurial ventures and do better if they had been

taught the entrepreneurial skills in the school. Hence, there is need for auto technology

graduates to possess the entrepreneurial skills for self employment in Nasarawa state.

99

100

Specifically, the study determine:

• Technical skills possessed by auto technology self-employed graduates for


• Managerial skills possessed by auto technology self-employed graduates for


• Financial management skills possessed by auto technology self-employed graduates


• Marketing skills possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for


• Communication skills possessed by auto technology self-employed graduates for

entrepreneurial ventures.

Summary of procedures used

The study adopted survey research design. The population for the study consist 110

respondents which include 30 auto technology entrepreneurs and 80 auto technology

employees drawn from 30 registered small scale auto technology self employed graduates in

the three senatorial zones of Nasarawa state. The entire population was involved in the study.

A structured questionnaire consisting 100 items was developed and used for data collection.

The questionnaire was face-validation by three experts. Three of them are from

Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The experts

were requested to assess the items of the instrument in terms of clarity and appropriateness in

addressing the problem of the study and research questions under investigation. The expert’s

corrections, suggestions and recommendations were incorporated in the final draft of the

instrument. Crombach alpha method was used to estimate the reliability coefficient of the

101

instrument. A total of 110 copies of the questionnaire were administered on the respondent

by the researcher with the aid of three trained research assistants. The completed

questionnaires were collected after the interval of one week. The data collected were

analyzed using mean for answering the five research questions while t-test statistic was use to

test the five null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Major findings

Base on the data collected and analyzed, the following are the major findings of

which auto technology self employed graduates should possess for entrepreneurial ventures.

1. Thirty six technical skills to be possessed by auto technology self employed graduates


2. Sixteen managerial skills to be possessed by auto technology elf employed graduates


3. Eleven financial management skills to be possessed by auto technology self employed

graduates for entrepreneurial ventures

4. Twenty one marketing skills to be possessed by auto technology self employed


5. Sixteen communication skills to be possessed by auto technology self employed


6. There was no significant difference in the mean responses of auto technology

entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the technical skills possessed by


102


entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the managerial skills possessed by

auto technology self-employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

8. There was no significant difference in the mean response of auto technology

entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the financial management skills

possessed by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures


entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the marketing skills possessed by



entrepreneurs and auto technology employees on the communication skills possessed

by auto technology self employed graduates for entrepreneurial ventures.

Implication of the study

The findings of this study had implication for graduates of auto technology from

technical colleges, technical teachers and the government. Graduates of auto technology will

have confidence on the training received on entrepreneurial skills and the use of these skills

to improve their performance effectively in business operation.

Teacher of auto technology will found it necessary to learn more on the wider range

of skills required for teaching the students, the auto technology and entrepreneurial concept

especially for entrepreneurial development since these types of skills are not incorporated in

the curriculum. In addition, the teachers will now educate their students on various

entrepreneurial skills as; technical skills, managerial skills, financial skills, marketing skills

and communication skill for entrepreneurial ventures.

103

The government through her National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) as

regulatory body in curriculum development would use the findings from the study to in-

corporate suitable programmes/modules that can enhance entrepreneurial skills for self-

reliance in the country.

Conclusion

Base on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

There are many unemployed graduates of auto technology from technical colleges

due to lack of technical and entrepreneurial skills which cover skills in technical, managerial,

financial, and marketing and communication. The study was carried out and found that the

graduates required these skills for self-employment in Nasarawa state.

Recommendations

Base on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

1. All the skills identified in this study should be packaged and use to retain the

graduates of auto technology as prospective entrepreneurs in the country.

2. There should be regular seminar, workshops and conferences for teachers, students

and the general public to strengthen and refocus on entrepreneurial education.

3. Youth should be introduced to entrepreneurial activities at their early stage to enable

them grow alongside with it in and out-of-school programmes.

4. Entrepreneurship subjects should be introduced as one of the compulsory subjects in

all secondary schools in the country. Through this methods students who transcend

into technical institutions to the university level, would have become conversant with

the tenets of entrepreneurial demands.

104

5. Government should increase the budget for the implementation of this policy on

mandatory entrepreneurship education and the budgeted sum should be released in

order to actualize the purpose of the funding.

6. Government should provide initial capital in for of soft loan with little or no interest

to the prospective graduates who intend floating their entrepreneurship.

Suggestions for further study

The following are suggested for further studies:

1. Skills improvement needs of technical teachers for effective teaching of auto

technology repairs and maintenance work to student of technical colleges in

Nasarawa state.

2. Entrepreneurial skills possessed by auto technology self-employed graduates in other

states of the federation.

3. Entrepreneurial competencies require by technologist for success in small scale

automobile maintenance industry in Nasarawa state.

105

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APPENDIX “A” Department of Vocational Teacher Education Faculty of Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 12 May, 2015.

Prof./Dr..Mr./Mrs.

-----------------------

-----------------------

Sir,

REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT

I am a postgraduate student of the above named institution; I am carrying out a project

research titled: Entrepreneurial skills possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed

Graduates in Nasarawa State.

I humbly request you to carefully examine the instrument in terms of relevance of the content

and clarity of the instrument.

Yours faithfully,

Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja

Name of Expert…………………

Sign……………………………..

Date……………………………

112

APPENDIX “B”

Department of Vocational Teacher Education Faculty of Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 12 May, 2015

Dear Respondents,

Questionnaire on Entrepreneurial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates in Nasarawa State

I am a Postgraduate student of the above named institution, currently carrying out a study on

the topic stated above.

You have been identified as one who could provide useful information needed to the

successful conduct of this study. I will appreciation if the questionnaire will be completed by

you and return it to it bearer.

You are assured that your responses shall be treated with utmost confidence and will be used

strictly for the intended purpose.

Yours faithfully,

Isuwa, Yakubu Kpanja

113

APPENDIX “C”

SECTION A

QUESTIONNAIRE


SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

Entrepreneurial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates in

Nasarawa State

SECTION A: Personal Data

Instrument: Check (√) against the box or fill the gap-as applicable to you.

Status

i. Auto Technology Entrepreneurs ( )

ii. Auto Technology Employees ( )

Instruction: Please, thick (√) in the appropriate column or space provided, be assured that

information provided are for research purpose only and will be treated with strict confidence.

KEY:

Very Highly Possessed (VHP) - 5 Points

Highly Possessed (HP) - 4 Points

Possessed (P) - 3 Points

Slightly Possessed (SP) - 2 Points

Not Possessed (NP) - 1 Point

114

SECTION “B”

S/N Technical Skills Possessed by Auto Technology

Self Employed Graduates

VHP HP P SP NP

(a) Engine System:

1. Identify and interpret engine concern.

2. Research applicable vehicle and service information

on internal engine operation.

3. Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks.

4. Diagnose engine noises and vibrations.

5. Perform engine vacuum test.

6. Perform cylinder power balance test.

7. Perform cylinder cranking and running compression

test.

8. Install engine covers using gaskets, seals and sealers

as required.

9. Perform common fastener and thread repair on the

broken bolt, internal and external threads.

10. Inspect, remove and replace engine mounts.

11. Replace valve stem seals on an assembled engine.

12. Disassemble engine block; clean and prepare

components for inspection and reasonably.

b) Electrical System

13. Identify and interpret electrical/electronic system

concern.

14. Check electrical/electronic circuit wave forms.

15. Determine repairs for electrical/electronic circuit

wave forms.

16. Perform battery state-of-charge test.

17. Confirm proper battery capacity for vehicle

application.

c) Braking System

18. Identify and interpret brake system concern.

19. Enforce pressure concerns in the brake system using

hydraulic principles.

115

20. Describe the operation of a regenerative braking

system.

21. Check master cylinder for internal/external leaks.

22. Check brake pad wear indicator system operation

d) Transmission System

23. Identify and interpret drive train concern.

24. Drain and fill manual transmission/transaxle and final

drive unit.

25. Remove and reinstall transmission/transaxle.

26. Remove and replace transaxle final drive.

27. Remove and replace drive axle shafts.

E) Suspension and Steering System

28. Identify and interpret suspension and steering system

concern.

29. Disable and enable supplemental restraint system

(SRS).

30. Adjust non-rack and pinion worm bearing preload

and sector lash.

31. Remove and replace shock absorbers.

f) Fuel and Ignition System

32. Perform test on ignition primary and secondary

circuit wiring and solid state components.

33. Inspect and test fuel pump control systems for

pressure regulation, and volume.

34. Check fuel for contaminants and quality.

35. Inspect and test fuel injectors.

36. Inspect engine assembly for fuel and oil leaks.

116

SECTION “C”

S/N Managerial Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

VHP HP P SP NP

37. Acquire management and supervisory skills

38. Organize the planning process

39. Develop detailed project schedules, including task,

accountabilities and deadlines

40. Anticipate problems that may impede work.

41. Communicate changes and progress within the

organization.

42. Predict future development from own experience without

analysis.

43. Identify the component part of a situation or problem.

44. Creative ability to search and find new solution to

problem.

45. Recognizes the potential consequences or implications of

action, or ideas.

46. Use graphic illustrations to capture interrelationships and

connections.

47. Reformulates or restates the problem, take a look at it

from different angle.

48. Applies appropriate frameworks, principles, and modules

to solve problem.

49. Manage time and meet job schedules.

50. Conduct personal evaluation.

51. Identify the knowledge of the need for employee growth

and development.

52. Identify the factors involved in overhead control

117

SECTION “D”

S/N Financial Management Skills Possessed by Auto


VHP HP P SP NP

53. Identify options available for managing cask and liquid

assets.

54. Describe the characteristics and services of financial

institutions.

55. Identify major economic system in the global economy.

56. Identify investment opportunities.

57. Explain basic tax concepts and effective tax

maximization strategies.

58. Demonstrate accountability of responsible use of

company resources.

59. Identify major types of employee benefits.

60. Explain the basic financial markets and investment

options.

61. Explain the contingency planning, including retirement

and estate planning.

62. Compute various financial transactions.

63. Compare and evaluate consumer credit.

118

SECITON “E”

S/N Marketing Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

VHP HP P SP NP

64. The desire to write market and marketing plan

65. Conduct a competitive analysis.

66. Design a management information system.

67. Develop insights concerning individual and group buying

behaviors.

68. Adapt to business practices and protocol.

69. Analyze market shares.

70. Assess market legal environment implications.

71. Analyze import/export Government regulations.

72. Analyze human resource task and design that appropriate

organization structure.

73. Satisfy different segments of the market

74. Evaluate the effectiveness of your marketing activities.

75. Set overall pricing for markets.

76. Forecast profits and revenue related to markets.

77. Use appropriate trade financing programs.

78. Assess the suitability of products to the markets to devise

branding strategies.

79. Use appropriate market entry alternatives.

80. Appropriate selections, recruit, compensation, and

manage sales force.

81. Balance between distribution efficiency and distribution

effectiveness.

82. Select appropriate advertising agency.

83. Select the appropriate distribution channel.

84. Use different pricing strategies peculiar to different

customers.

119

SECTION “F”

S/N Communication Skills Possessed by Auto Technology Self Employed Graduates

VHP HP P SP NP

85. Initiating Open discussion

86. Listen openly to the other person.

87. Remove distractions.

88. Be receptive to the other person.

89. Resolving conflict.

90. Maintaining an open posture, appropriate/comfortable

eye-contact, learning slightly forward.

91. Delay evaluation on the information received what you

have heard until.

92. Avoid defensive step.

93. Relax as any tension or impatience is likely to transmit

via-verbal leakage

94. Using information technology.

95. Write business correspondence.

96. Making convincing presentations.

97. Response through owner’s facial expression or body

gestures.

98. Ask the other person for as much detail. Related to

business practices.

99. Develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers

that prevents listening with full attention.

100. Develop and use behaviors that help in listening.

120

APPENDIX “D” RESULT OF THE ANALYSIS USING SPSS

RQ1

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

ITEM1 109 1.00 5.00 3.9908 1.04965

ITEM2 109 1.00 5.00 3.5780 1.03900

ITEM3 109 1.00 5.00 3.5596 1.10077

ITEM4 109 1.00 5.00 3.5138 1.11068

ITEM5 109 1.00 5.00 3.3486 1.14161

ITEM6 109 1.00 5.00 3.3853 1.10477

ITEM7 109 1.00 5.00 3.3394 1.26359

ITEM8 109 1.00 5.00 3.6330 1.05111

ITEM9 109 1.00 5.00 3.3486 1.10030

ITEM10 109 1.00 5.00 3.5046 1.13549

ITEM11 108 1.00 5.00 3.5648 1.10456

ITEM12 109 1.00 5.00 3.5963 1.05514

ITEM13 109 1.00 5.00 3.6789 1.02633

ITEM14 108 1.00 5.00 3.4722 1.04531

ITEM15 109 1.00 5.00 3.6330 1.01526

ITEM16 108 1.00 5.00 3.6019 .98531

ITEM17 109 1.00 5.00 3.6514 1.04860

ITEM18 109 1.00 5.00 3.7156 1.10631

ITEM19 109 1.00 5.00 3.4587 1.16692

ITEM20 101 1.00 5.00 3.9505 1.05239

ITEM21 108 1.00 5.00 3.8611 .99961

ITEM22 107 1.00 5.00 3.8224 1.04442

ITEM23 108 1.00 5.00 3.5185 1.05442

ITEM24 108 1.00 5.00 3.4167 1.00582

ITEM25 108 1.00 5.00 3.4444 1.05311

ITEM26 108 1.00 5.00 3.5278 1.12290

ITEM27 108 1.00 5.00 3.6019 1.10174

ITEM28 108 1.00 5.00 3.5833 1.09481

ITEM29 108 1.00 5.00 3.4167 1.07760

ITEM30 108 1.00 5.00 3.4444 1.06194

ITEM31 107 1.00 5.00 3.5701 1.09124

ITEM32 107 1.00 5.00 3.5888 1.02748

ITEM33 108 1.00 5.00 3.4815 1.06325

ITEM34 108 1.00 5.00 3.4444 1.04419

ITEM35 108 1.00 5.00 3.4722 1.11455

ITEM36 108 1.00 5.00 3.4352 1.18616

Valid N (listwise) 96

121

RQ2 Descriptive Statistics


ITEM37 109 1.00 5.00 3.6606 1.22641

ITEM38 109 1.00 5.00 3.3945 1.14680

ITEM39 109 1.00 5.00 3.2569 1.16590

ITEM40 108 1.00 5.00 3.2222 1.11350

ITEM41 109 1.00 5.00 3.2477 1.23345

ITEM42 109 1.00 5.00 3.2294 1.25191

ITEM43 109 1.00 5.00 3.1376 1.30857

ITEM44 109 1.00 5.00 3.2018 1.26769

ITEM45 109 1.00 5.00 3.1193 1.28902

ITEM46 109 1.00 5.00 3.0183 1.19398

ITEM47 109 1.00 5.00 3.2661 1.29559

ITEM48 109 1.00 5.00 3.3119 1.19952

ITEM49 109 1.00 5.00 3.2385 1.18555

ITEM50 107 1.00 5.00 3.2430 1.28004

ITEM51 109 1.00 5.00 3.2661 1.22204

ITEM52 109 1.00 5.00 3.1284 1.29172


RQ3



ITEM53 107 1.00 5.00 3.7103 1.19756

ITEM54 107 1.00 5.00 3.5888 1.02748

ITEM55 107 1.00 5.00 3.1308 1.28183

ITEM56 107 1.00 5.00 3.1963 1.33487

ITEM57 107 1.00 5.00 3.1402 1.26229

ITEM58 107 1.00 5.00 3.1215 1.26424

ITEM59 107 1.00 5.00 3.3645 1.41016

ITEM60 107 1.00 5.00 3.0280 1.26981

ITEM61 107 1.00 5.00 3.0280 1.29919

ITEM62 107 1.00 5.00 3.0935 1.32133

ITEM63 107 1.00 5.00 2.9533 1.34854


122

RQ4 Descriptive Statistics


ITEM64 108 1.00 5.00 3.5185 1.17991

ITEM65 108 1.00 5.00 3.3241 1.12598

ITEM66 108 1.00 5.00 3.1481 1.16663

ITEM67 108 1.00 5.00 3.1574 1.20871

ITEM68 108 1.00 5.00 3.1667 1.33606

ITEM69 107 1.00 5.00 3.0000 1.31752

ITEM70 107 1.00 5.00 3.0093 1.30670

ITEM71 108 1.00 5.00 3.0185 1.33942

ITEM72 108 1.00 5.00 2.9815 1.23031

ITEM73 108 1.00 5.00 2.9630 1.32500

ITEM74 108 1.00 5.00 3.2037 1.28077

ITEM75 108 1.00 5.00 2.9630 1.33903

ITEM76 108 1.00 5.00 2.9537 1.31408

ITEM77 107 1.00 5.00 3.1028 1.41378

ITEM78 108 1.00 5.00 2.9537 1.36296

ITEM79 108 1.00 5.00 3.0648 1.27721

ITEM80 108 1.00 5.00 3.0370 1.33903

ITEM81 108 1.00 5.00 3.1667 1.30778

ITEM82 108 1.00 5.00 3.2593 1.27059

ITEM83 107 1.00 5.00 3.0841 1.36756

ITEM84 108 1.00 5.00 3.0463 1.26332


RQ5



ITEM85 108 1.00 5.00 3.5833 1.16109

ITEM86 108 1.00 5.00 3.3796 1.19749

ITEM87 108 1.00 5.00 3.2685 1.19662

ITEM88 108 1.00 5.00 3.2130 1.29738

ITEM89 107 1.00 5.00 3.1308 1.24449

ITEM90 108 1.00 5.00 2.9167 1.26140

ITEM91 108 1.00 5.00 2.8426 1.27640

ITEM92 108 1.00 5.00 2.9537 1.43640

ITEM93 108 1.00 5.00 2.9074 1.32225

ITEM94 108 1.00 5.00 2.9815 1.34638

ITEM95 108 1.00 5.00 2.9444 1.39313

ITEM96 108 1.00 5.00 3.0000 1.38078

ITEM97 108 1.00 5.00 3.0463 1.35608

ITEM98 108 1.00 5.00 3.0463 1.30695

ITEM99 108 1.00 5.00 3.0000 1.26047

ITEM100 108 1.00 5.00 2.7222 1.34535


123

t-test Ho1

Group Statistics

respodendents group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

ITEM1 Auto Technology Entrepreneurs 30 4.2667 .78492 .14331

Tuto Technology Employees 79 3.8861 1.12075 .12609

ITEM2 Auto Technology Entrepreneurs 30 3.7333 1.01483 .18528





























Tuto Technology Employees 78 3.4231 .96051 .10876









124

































125

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

F Sig. T df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference Lower Upper

ITEM1 Equal variances assumed

2.410 .124 1.706 107 .091 .38059 .22314 -.06176 .82294

Equal variances not assumed 1.994 74.651 .050 .38059 .19088 .00030 .76088


.222 .639 .962 107 .338 .21435 .22290 -.22752 .65621

Equal variances not assumed .976 53.970 .333 .21435 .21964 -.22601 .65470


.482 .489 .819 107 .415 .19367 .23643 -.27502 .66236



.118 .732 2.075 107 .040 .48692 .23463 .02180 .95204



.002 .961 2.207 107 .029 .53080 .24055 .05393 1.00767

Equal variances not assumed 2.258 54.880 .028 .53080 .23511 .05960 1.00201


.288 .593 1.651 107 .102 .38819 .23505 -.07778 .85415

Equal variances not assumed 1.751 59.219 .085 .38819 .22172 -.05543 .83180


1.175 .281 .987 107 .326 .26751 .27102 -.26975 .80477


126


1.566 .214 2.510 107 .014 .55232 .22008 .11603 .98861



.434 .512 2.086 107 .039 .48481 .23239 .02413 .94549



1.728 .191 1.688 107 .094 .40759 .24145 -.07106 .88625



3.615 .060 2.978 106 .004 .68922 .23146 .23032 1.14812



2.212 .140 -.180 107 .857 -.04093 .22730 -.49153 .40967

Equal variances not assumed -.198 64.637 .843 -.04093 .20633 -.45305 .37119


.108 .743 1.392 107 .167 .30506 .21915 -.12938 .73951



.066 .798 .685 106 .495 .15583 .22752 -.29526 .60691



3.389 .068 2.375 107 .019 .50633 .21320 .08369 .92897



.202 .654 3.166 106 .002 .64359 .20328 .24057 1.04661


127


.795 .374 .501 107 .617 .11308 .22566 -.33427 .56043



1.219 .272 -.090 107 .928 -.02152 .23835 -.49402 .45099



.979 .325 .778 107 .439 .19494 .25071 -.30207 .69195



5.144 .025 -.781 99 .437 -.18519 .23708 -.65560 .28523



.249 .619 -.178 106 .859 -.03846 .21573 -.46617 .38924



.374 .542 .863 105 .390 .19629 .22743 -.25466 .64723



7.783 .006 .905 106 .368 .20513 .22672 -.24436 .65462



.776 .380 .746 106 .457 .16154 .21653 -.26776 .59084



1.600 .209 .952 106 .343 .21538 .22634 -.23336 .66413


128


.841 .361 .796 106 .428 .19231 .24165 -.28679 .67141



.060 .807 .964 106 .337 .22821 .23677 -.24121 .69762



3.389 .068 1.886 106 .062 .43846 .23244 -.02237 .89930



4.396 .038 1.504 106 .136 .34615 .23015 -.11014 .80245



.433 .512 1.561 106 .121 .35385 .22662 -.09546 .80315



2.382 .126 2.989 105 .003 .68435 .22892 .23044 1.13826



.993 .321 1.474 105 .143 .32759 .22224 -.11308 .76826



.752 .388 .112 106 .911 .02564 .22948 -.42933 .48061



.020 .888 1.589 106 .115 .35385 .22275 -.08778 .79547


129


.448 .505 3.859 106 .000 .86923 .22527 .42261 1.31585



4.298 .041 3.837 106 .000 .92051 .23991 .44487 1.39615


130

t-test Ho2

Group Statistics


































131



F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference

ITEM37 Equal variances assumed .192 .662 -.142 107 .887 -.03755

Equal variances not assumed -.143 53.186 .887 -.03755

ITEM38 Equal variances assumed 3.257 .074 -.155 107 .877 -.03840






ITEM41 Equal variances assumed 2.102 .150 .272 107 .786 .07215

Equal variances not assumed .252 45.577 .802 .07215

ITEM42 Equal variances assumed 1.436 .233 -.492 107 .624 -.13249






ITEM45 Equal variances assumed .744 .390 1.750 107 .083 .47932

Equal variances not assumed 1.704 49.764 .095 .47932

ITEM46 Equal variances assumed .200 .656 .618 107 .538 .15865





132








ITEM52 Equal variances assumed 2.465 .119 1.872 107 .064 .51266


133


t-test for Equality of Means



ITEM37 Equal variances assumed .26421 -.56132 .48622

Equal variances not assumed .26224 -.56350 .48839















ITEM45 Equal variances assumed .27383 -.06352 1.02217

Equal variances not assumed .28128 -.08570 1.04435









ITEM50 Equal variances assumed .27481 .14180 1.23161

Equal variances not assumed .26861 .14706 1.22635





134

t-test Ho3 Group Statistics


























F Sig. t df

ITEM53 Equal variances assumed 1.141 .288 .662 105

Equal variances not assumed .691 58.010


Equal variances not assumed 1.025 69.690

ITEM55 Equal variances assumed .471 .494 1.020 105




ITEM57 Equal variances assumed .085 .771 .645 105


ITEM58 Equal variances assumed .291 .591 1.256 105

135


ITEM59 Equal variances assumed 1.192 .277 1.704 105


ITEM60 Equal variances assumed .784 .378 .873 105


ITEM61 Equal variances assumed .569 .452 -.139 105

Equal variances not assumed -.130 47.044

ITEM62 Equal variances assumed 4.320 .040 1.675 105






Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

ITEM53 Equal variances assumed .510 .17100 .25843

Equal variances not assumed .492 .17100 .24751





















136




Lower Upper

ITEM53 Equal variances assumed -.34142 .68341

Equal variances not assumed -.32444 .66643











ITEM59 Equal variances assumed -.08389 1.10900






ITEM62 Equal variances assumed -.08683 1.03142




t-test Ho4

Group Statistics














137































138




F Sig. T df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference



.084 .773 -.101 106 .920 -.02564 .25467 -.53054 .47926



1.084 .300 1.988 106 .049 .47436 .23863 .00125 .94747



.385 .536 1.777 106 .078 .44103 .24814 -.05094 .93299



.317 .574 -.128 106 .899 -.03333 .26087 -.55054 .48387



1.201 .276 .641 106 .523 .18462 .28782 -.38602 .75525



.109 .742 1.494 105 .138 .42573 .28490 -.13917 .99063

Equal variances not assumed 1.474 48.852 .147 .42573 .28891 -.15490 1.00636


.000 .989 .282 105 .778 .07965 .28246 -.48041 .63972


139


.303 .583 1.034 106 .303 .29744 .28766 -.27288 .86775



.489 .486 .270 106 .787 .07179 .26547 -.45452 .59811



.056 .814 .665 106 .508 .18974 .28540 -.37609 .75558



.277 .600 1.157 106 .250 .31795 .27472 -.22670 .86260



.129 .721 2.138 106 .035 .60513 .28298 .04408 1.16617



.715 .400 1.045 106 .298 .29487 .28219 -.26459 .85434



.234 .630 1.994 105 .049 .59827 .30009 .00324 1.19330

Equal variances not assumed 1.961 51.215 .055 .59827 .30508 -.01415 1.21068


.317 .575 2.484 106 .015 .71026 .28599 .14326 1.27725



.018 .894 1.533 106 .128 .41795 .27268 -.12266 .95855


140


.005 .941 2.973 106 .004 .82564 .27768 .27512 1.37616



.726 .396 .164 106 .870 .04615 .28224 -.51342 .60573



1.296 .257 .037 106 .970 .01026 .27425 -.53347 .55398



1.990 .161 2.537 105 .013 .73607 .29009 .16089 1.31126



.210 .648 .273 106 .786 .07436 .27259 -.46607 .61479


141

t-test Ho5

Group Statistics


































142



F Sig. t Df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference























ITEM96 Equal variances assumed 1.843 .177 1.261 106 .210 .37713

143










144



















ITEM92 Equal variances assumed .30427 .16715 1.37366


















145

APPENDIX “E” Population Distribution of Auto Technology Entrepreneurs and Auto Technology

Employees of Self Employed Graduates in Nasarawa State.

S/NO Senatorial zone No of Entrepreneurs No of Employees Total

1 Nasarawa North 8 20 28

2 Nasarawa West 10 25 35

3 Nasarawa South 12 35 47

Total 30 80 110

Source: Nasarawa State Ministry of Commerce and Industries 2012.

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER …...Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja a postgraduate student in the Department...

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Transcript of DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER …...Isuwa Yakubu Kpanja a postgraduate student in the Department...