EDCU 6003

CURRICULUM THEORY

Roxanne Waithe

November 3rd 2008

Lecturer: Professor Winston King

Introduction

At the heart of all the activities that go on in the educational arena there are

some basic assumptions about the nature of learners and teachers, the

purpose of schools, about what kind of knowledge is important, what kind of

world we live in and about what kind of world we want to live in. This text

considers the underlying philosophies that influence day to day activities in

schools in Barbados and how they affect curriculum innovation. The

discussion will be based on both empirical and anecdotal evidence as a

means of defining the ‘Barbadian Curriculum and its Philosophy of

Education’. However, a fundamental question must first be addressed:

What is curriculum?

Although reference has so far been made to activities in schools, Pratt (1980)

explains that a curriculum itself is not activities but plans or a blueprint for

activities. Other educational theorists and practitioners use the term

curriculum in different ways but the Barbados Ministry of Education (2000)

defines curriculum as:

“An organized statement of goals and intended learning outcomes

that serves as a framework for teaching and learning. It represents

an attempt to meet the perceived needs and interests of all

students, in a manner consistent with the philosophy, objectives,

and expectations of our society.”

The immediate observation is that the Barbados curriculum is presented as a

well-ordered account of how people will acquire the knowledge they need in

order to work and live here. It is expressed as a statement or declaration, as

opposed to a plan.

The key document, from which this extract is taken, Curriculum 2000

Barbados, also emphatically states that ‘the curriculum must not be

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restricted to subject content’. The inference is that the curriculum is not to

be equated with a syllabus to be transmitted to uninformed students.

Another facet to this definition of curriculum is the implication that the

curriculum is tied to a core philosophy. But does the conceptual definition of

curriculum as stated by the Barbados Ministry of Education reflect practice in

our schools? Which philosophy of education guides the national curriculum?

Philosophy of Education in Barbados: Theory vs. Practice

For clarity, it is important to explain the term ‘philosophy of education’.

Dewey (1916) posited that philosophy may be defined as the general theory

of education. It provides educators with a framework for organizing schools

and classrooms and answers crucial questions such as:

What are the goals of education?

Which subjects are most valuable in our schools?

What teaching methods should we use?

How should students be assessed and how will the results be used?

(Ornstein, 2000)

Different approaches to answering these fundamental questions have

produced several schools of thought in the philosophy of education.

Educators consistently debate five philosophical positions in education

including essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, reconstructionism, and

existentialism (Ornstein, 2002; Armstrong, 2003).

Paradoxically, the Curriculum 2000 Barbados document declares that a

constructivist philosophy will be infused into the curriculum reform process.

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Let us consider the implications of this assertion. Kamii and Lewis (1990)

explain that constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the

premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own

understanding of the world we live in. The creation of knowledge from

experience and the use of that knowledge to support new learning are the

fundamental principles of a constructivist model.

Theoretically, constructivism describes a learner-centered environment

where education is an interactive and collaborative process (Brooks &

Brooks, 1993). Moreover, constructivists rate authentic activity as an

important part of the learning process. According to Lebow (1993) authentic

activity constitute experiences that permit learners to practice skills in

environments similar to those in which the skills will be used.

Brooks and Brooks (1993) also contend that constructivism calls for the

elimination of a standardized curriculum. It promotes curricula customized to

the students' prior knowledge and emphasizes hands-on problem solving. In

terms of instructional techniques, teachers encourage students to analyze,

interpret, and predict information and as far as assessment is concerned,

constructivists support the elimination of grades and standardized testing.

Assessment is part of the learning process.

Do these principles reflect the Barbadian experience?

The revised curriculum as posited by the Curriculum 2000 program (p12)

speaks to the materialization of active learners schooled using the following

strategies:

- Continuous and multiple forms of assessment

- Authentic learning

- Development of critical thinking and reflective skills

- Learner-centered, collaborative, technology based activities

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- Flexible learning supported by community involvement

To date, there is no evidence that the revised curriculum has been infused

into any of the public primary or secondary schools. As a matter of fact,

curriculum practice points to the contrary – the traditional curriculum.

Students are still programmed to sit the indomitable eleven plus examination

during their formative years, and then they are coached for the Caribbean

Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) in their teens. The more

adventurous or ambitious students go on to write the Caribbean Advanced

Proficiency Examination (CAPE). The point is that the curriculum is still

entirely exam driven. Schools are judged on the basis of how many of their

students are awarded scholarships to universities and the percentage pass

rate for CXC (Caribbean Examinations Council) subjects.

At the tertiary level, the environment is not much different except for in

vocational programs such as mechanical engineering, agricultural studies or

culinary arts where the learners must demonstrate competence in their

occupational area. The University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus still

uses exams and individual projects as the primary modes of assessment.

The repercussion is that quite often employers complain that the UWI

graduates do not function effectively in the workplace as many lack critical

thinking, problem solving and social skills.

Further indication that the revised curriculum is not functional is that the

Barbadian teachers are hard pressed to cover as much material in the

prescribed syllabus as possible within the allocated semester or school term.

The student in turn is expected to cram as much information into his or her

brain during this period and then sit an exam at the end as evidence of

learning. This process precludes the whole concept of learner-centered

activities, creativity and flexibility in the curriculum, and the chance for

authentic learning experiences.

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So theoretically, the Barbados Curriculum claims to be constructivist but the

reality so far suggests otherwise. To verify this postulation, let us briefly

examine examples of constructivist curriculum in practice.

A study conducted by Rainer et al. (2000) examined how primary school

teachers implemented constructivist education in second grade classrooms.

The research tracked the activities of three traditional teachers and three

constructivist teachers over a sustained period of time. The findings were

that in the traditional classrooms the teachers maintained ownership of the

class through scheduling and transitions. All children were expected to work

at the same pace and children’s behavior was closely managed.

By contrast the observation was that constructivist teachers placed more

emphasis on teaching children as opposed to teaching skills. Classroom

sessions were highly interactive and teachers used resources that held

students’ interests such as engaging them in learning on the playground or

while on a field trip. The researchers concluded that the key constructs in a

constructivist education are respectful relationships, real conversations,

purposeful talking, intellectual engagement, and shared responsibility for

behavior, learning and the classroom environment.

Other examples of constructivism in practice at the secondary or high school

level are the Apple Classroom of Tomorrow (ACOT) and the Kellogg

Classroom of Tomorrow (KCOT) Programs that feature the use of technology

in the classroom, long-term, thematic, project-based learning and authentic

assessment (Osberg 1997).

In light of the information presented, the argument that the Barbados

Curriculum is far from constructivist has some credence. Arguably, the

average Barbadian teacher (primary, secondary and tertiary) may not even

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understand what is meant by the term constructivism. Windschitl (1997)

contends that constructivism is actually a very complex philosophy and when

used as a foundation for curriculum decisions, it will create some serious

challenges for teachers in the classroom.

Firstly, constructivist instruction requires highly skilled teachers who can

create learning situations for students that engage them in problem solving

and inquiry tasks. Add to that the notion that the teacher must be able to

help them to explore, understand and represent concepts in different ways

depending on the learner’s ‘construction’ of core curricular topics. Some

may learn for example through graphical or illustrative media, others

through abstract mathematical equations and others through demonstration

of the concept in a real life setting.

Secondly, the teacher has to transform the classroom from the traditional

one into a constructivist culture that facilitates cooperative learning and

meaningful student-teacher and student-student dialogue. The

transformation from a quiet orderly classroom to this direction is not an easy

task, nor can it happen overnight.

Thirdly, the constructivist classroom calls for teachers who have the

autonomy and authority to select and enact the curriculum. This means that

the content, instructional methods and assessment techniques will be driven

by the teacher’s understanding of student needs. Since constructivist

learning differs in nature from student to student, the assessment must

focus on the processes and outcomes. Teachers in this environment will

need to be well-versed in multiple assessment methods: journals, reports,

performances and other representations of learning.

Windschitl (1997) suggests that while constructivism as a theory is appealing

because it focuses on learner’s needs, in practice it has serious political

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implications especially where the educational authorities seek to control the

curriculum through standardized teaching and testing.

Barbadian schools do not presently adhere to constructivist principles.

However, this philosophy appears to be the guiding principle for educational

reform and curriculum innovation in the country.

Curriculum Innovation in Barbados: Priorities and Issues

According to the Barbados White Paper on Educational Reform (1995), there

was a need for change because there were general deficiencies among

students in the areas of critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Additionally, it was recognized that the educational system needed to be

transformed to keep up with economic and technological changes.

The resulting seven-year reform initiative, the Education Sector

Enhancement Programme (commonly referred to as EduTech 2000),

commenced in 1999 and had as its priorities:

- Civil works – conducting renovations on old schools and

building new ones

- Institutional strengthening – establishment of resource

centres for teachers and educational researchers

- Procurement and installation of hardware and software –

widespread introduction of technology into all primary and

secondary schools

- Teacher training and technical assistance.

Within the context of the prescribed educational reform, the Barbados

curriculum was revised to introduce strategic innovations. Hall and Hord

(2001) explain that curriculum innovation can be defined in terms of three

different characteristics:

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- Their emphasis on a new or revised product such as new

textbooks, new technology (computers), or new assessment

devices such as portfolios

- Their focus on a new or revised process such as the use of a

new instructional method

- Their size in terms of complexity and scope. This feature

considers whether the users of the curriculum will be required

to change just one or two things that they are currently doing

or whether the change involves a number of innovations

which will mean that the users will have to alter many things

from current practices.

The Curriculum 2000 Barbados document stipulates four specific innovations

that are intended to drive change in the education system:

(1)The introduction of constructivism and a child-centred approach to

teaching and learning

(2)A shift to outcomes-based assessment instead of standardized testing

(3)The integration of social and emotional learning content into the

curriculum

(4)The integration of information and communication technologies in

classrooms

Taking into account Hall and Hord’s (2001) description of curriculum

innovation, it would appear that the Barbados Ministry of Education has set

itself a gargantuan task. The proposed curricular innovations are

multifaceted and have wide ranging implications for all curriculum

stakeholders including the Ministry of Education, learners, teachers,

employers and parents.

The most salient issue of course pertains to the introduction of a

constructivist curriculum. Based on the foregoing discussion about its

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inherent complexity, some crucial questions emerge such as; who will guide

the process of change from the traditional to the constructivist approach?

How will the users be prepared for its effective use? What is the anticipated

role of teachers during this transition? What mechanisms will be used to

inform other key stakeholders about the impending changes? Whose idea

was it to introduce constructivism in the first place?

With regard to the other innovations, similar concerns arise. For example,

the intention is to use continuous, authentic and outcomes-based

assessment. Will these new assessments have the same currency as CXC

passes in the job market? Suppose a learner earns no CXC passes but is

able to present a comprehensive portfolio as evidence of learning, will

potential employees accept this as proof of qualification?

The idea of integrating social and emotional learning (SEL) content into the

curriculum was so vaguely addressed within the Curriculum 2000 document

that there is serious doubt as to whether the creators gave full thought as to

its application in the classroom. A brief review of the literature revealed that

the work of Goleman (1997) is used by educators as a basis for research and

to devise strategies for integrating SEL concepts, skills and values in the

classroom and in school culture. While SEL as an innovation is a worthwhile

venture for the Barbados educational arena, the framework for its

implementation in the curriculum needs to be more clearly defined.

To date, the only real evidence that the Education Sector Enhancement

Programme is in execution stage is because five secondary and ten primary

schools were outfitted with computer hardware. Additionally, a May 2007

press release from the Ministry of Education disclosed that a total of 1,104

teachers received training in Technology, Mastery and Technology

Integration, 702 were trained in Teaching Methodologies, 162 in Educational

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Leadership, and 122 teachers participated in a course on Indigenous

Software Development.

The integration of information and communication technologies in

classrooms had its own challenges including the difficulty involved in

ensuring optimum use of equipment by teachers and students, the

temporary re-housing of schools when extensive infrastructural work was

required and there was some confusion as to the criteria for selection of the

schools in the pilot phase.

Undoubtedly curriculum innovation in Barbados is fraught with problems.

Perhaps at the heart of these concerns is the question:

What is the real underlying philosophy on which curriculum

innovation is based?

So far we have concluded that it is not constructivist. Furthermore, we have

clear indications that the traditional curriculum is still thriving in our schools.

However, given the fact that some fundamental changes have been made,

there is the need to consider which philosophy of education really guides day

to day activities in Barbadian schools.

Educational Ideology in Barbados: Juxtaposed Philosophies

Ornstein (2002) presents an instructive overview of four educational

philosophies: perennialsim, essentialism, progressivism and

reconstructionism. If we adapt his ideas to explore the basic tenets of each

philosophy, we can briefly explain each as follows:

Perrenialism - Its educational premise is that ideas that have lasted over

centuries are still relevant today. The curriculum focus is on classical

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subjects and the study of profound and enduring ideas. The goal of

education is to produce intellects.

Essentialism - The educational premise is that there is a core body of

knowledge that must be mastered in order for a person to be considered

"educated. “ The curriculum focuses on the basics, the ‘Three Rs’ and those

that are considered to be essential subjects. The goal of education is to

produce good citizens.

Progressivism - The educational premise is that learning is rooted in the

questions of learners. The curriculum content is derived from student

interests and questions and the goal is to promote social responsibility and

democracy.

Reconstructionism - Teaching and learning is a process of inquiry to

address social reform. The curriculum is geared towards social sciences,

research and international issues. The goal is to create a better society and

new social order.

Now consider the educational principles as espoused within the Curriculum

2000 Barbados document. The introduction states that “education must

seek to enable all young people to be knowledgeable and creative and to

develop positive attitudes and requisite skills.” The subsequent chapter also

points out that the curriculum reform process will be used to create

socioeconomic and political changes needed for development. These two

doctrines have roots in progressivist and reconstructionist philosophy; one

advocates social responsibility and the other addresses social reform. While

they are not mutually exclusive ideas, the progressivist thought speaks to

the general purpose of education while the reconstructionist is concerned

about how school can tackle contemporary societal issues.

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Additionally, Curriculum 2000 specifies eight learning areas which will

constitute the foundation of a well-rounded education for Barbados youth. In

addition to the three Rs, science, social studies, health and family life

education, physical education and technology will form the core curriculum.

This application is undoubtedly an essentialist tactic and is in direct

opposition to the progressivist and constructivist models of education. The

latter philosophies promote learner-centred schools where the curriculum is

guided by students’ needs and interests.

It appears therefore that the philosophy of education in Barbados is really

juxtaposed between old and new ideas. The ‘revised curriculum’ outlined in

the reform rhetoric ranges from traditional to progressive underpinnings.

The other dimension is the extent to which classroom instruction is in line

with the curriculum policy ideals. Teaching practices in Barbados are

divergent from the declared constructivist philosophy and they range on a

continuum between “essentialist” and “reconstructivist.”

Based on the foregoing observations, perhaps it is more useful to treat the

principles which guide schooling in Barbados as educational ideology.

Passmore (1967) proposed three conceptions of philosophy: philosophy as

wisdoms; philosophy as ideology; and philosophy as critical inquiry.

Following this intellectual, an ideology serves programs of action and can be

regarded as applied philosophy.

Clabaugh and Rozycki (1990) contend that philosophy as ideology is what we

normally find in schools. This argument is supported by O’Neill (1981) who

uses the term educational ideologies to convey that the values associated

with a belief system are not merely ‘wisdoms’ but rather a set of specific

ideas which are intended to direct social action.

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Since current curriculum practice in Barbados renders juxtaposed

philosophies, and the Curriculum 2000 Barbados document provides

prescriptions for reform, maybe Barbadian educational ideology is a more

suitable framework for discussion.

Philosophy, Ideology and Daily Curriculum Conundrum

Ultimately, the pivotal question is: how do the educational ideologies

identified influence daily curriculum practice in Barbados?

The situation can best be explained through The Saber-Tooth Curriculum, a

satirical outlook of the American education system, published by Peddiwell in

1939. Peddiwell’s parable strikes at the heart of what is wrong with daily

curriculum activities in Barbados.

The story tells of a group of people in prehistoric times that make their living

by hunting sabre-tooth tigers. Since this is their livelihood, this is what they

teach their children. Everybody needs to know how to hunt and kill sabre-

tooth tigers to survive. However, as time progresses, the sabre-tooth tigers

die out and they are replaced by different types of animals that take their

place in the food chain. The tribe hunts those animals instead. However, in

the schools, the children are still being taught how to hunt and kill sabre-

tooth tigers.

It has already been argued that the curriculum in Barbados is straddling

twentieth century practices and twenty-first century ideals. The policy

makers are aware that they need to prepare students for ‘the evolution of a

new Caribbean person’ (Curriculum 2000). But how many schools in

Barbados actually teach students things they are going to use later on in

life? Where are the start your own business classes or grow what you eat

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classes (food security is now a critical national issue), or community

development classes?

The revised curriculum has been configured to prepare our young people for

the “real world” yet practitioners in Barbadian classrooms are still teaching

to the test: Common Entrance, CSEC, CAPE and then onto UWI for a battery

of exams at the end of each semester. Then at the end of it all employers

find difficulty in acquiring efficient, creative, critical thinking individuals that

can help them to solve problems in the workplace.

Curriculum 2000 Barbados proclaims that “Each one matters” and that every

child should have educational opportunities which would allow him to make

the most of his abilities. Nevertheless average children, special education

children, gifted children, and those who may do well in trades (mechanics,

computers, carpentry, farming, and culinary arts) but not in a classroom are

all evaluated based on the same standard.

Each one matters, but the options for those students that are not academics

and do not belong in the traditional classroom are grievously few. The result

is that our schools produce hordes of people who are still ignorant and

uneducated, and that are capable of hunting only sabre-tooth tigers.

Future Curriculum Practice: Some Recommendations for Barbados

The implementation of the revised curriculum as presented by the Barbados

Ministry of Education raises serious concerns. The Curriculum 2000

document reads more like a statement of intent rather than a concrete plan

of action. Indeed Rogan and Grayson (2003) observed that policymakers

and politicians are focused on the ‘what’ of desired educational change and

sorely neglect the ‘how’.

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The Barbados Curriculum 2000 document provides no clear prescriptions for

how the ministry is going to achieve what they propose to achieve. Where is

the section that deals with the process of reform? For example who is

responsible for implementing different aspects of the program? How will the

revised curriculum be presented and executed in the schools? What

mechanisms will be put in place to evaluate the effectiveness of the new

measures at each stage of the process?

The revised curriculum in Barbados is still very much an unsolved mystery

waiting to be unravelled. There is some urgent work that needs to be carried

out to address the issues of due process, responsibility and the impacts of

change. As a first order of business, the ‘Revised Curriculum’ needs to be

reviewed because it was developed eight years ago and must be revised to

equip our youth to hunt at least elephant birds if not sabre-tooth tigers.

Secondly, Verspoor (1989) recommends that a phased approach taking into

account the diversity of schools is needed to implement large-scale change.

His research findings were that the most successful cases of curriculum

implementation occurred when a firm national commitment to change goals

was combined with an acceptance of substantial diversity at the school level,

an insistence on school accountability, and an effective mix of dissemination

strategies.

Finally, a framework for curriculum implementation as conceived by Rogan

and Grayson (2003) was especially designed for developing nations and may

have some applications to the Barbadian education system. The framework

has three main constructs:

• A Profile of Implementation - which takes into account the nature of

classroom interaction, practical work and assessment practices.

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• Capacity to Innovate – considers physical resources, teacher factors,

learner factors and each school’s ethos and management.

• Outside Support – makes provision for professional development,

resources required for the innovation, types of pressures and support

brought to bear by change, direct support to learners and monitoring

strategies.

If the Barbados Ministry of Education were to apply these guidelines, and

adopt a systematic approach to curriculum implementation, there is a

greater possibility that the revised curriculum would convert some of the

worthwhile ideas in Curriculum 2000 into classroom realities.

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References

Armstrong, D. (2003). Curriculum today. Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice

Hall.

Barbados Ministry of Education. (1995). White paper on education reform:

Preparing for the twenty-first century.

Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case

for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development.

Clabaugh, G. K., & Rozycki, E. G. (1990). Understanding schools: The

foundations of education. New York: Harper & Row.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan.

Goleman, D. (1997). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

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and pitfalls. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Lebow, D. (1993). Constructivist values for instructional systems design: Five

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Rogan, J. M. & Grayson, D. (2003). Towards a Theory of Curriculum

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Countries. International Journal of Science Education, 25 (10), 1171-1204.

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Thompson, J. (1984). Studies in the Theory of Ideology. Cambridge: Polity

Press.

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in Developing Countries. Washington DC: The World Bank.

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