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warehouses

Safety guide

01.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

02.Warehouse design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

03.Warehouse risks and preventative measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.1. Fire risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.1.1. Ignition sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.1.2. Fire load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.1.3. Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123.1.4. Risk vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.1.5. Added risks due to external factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.1.6. Fire protection measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2. Environmental risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.3. Natural risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.3.1. Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.3.2. Flooding, rain, hail and snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.3.3. Lightning strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.4. Theft and intrusion risks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.4.1. Passive protection measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.4.2. Active protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.4.3. Organisational measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

04.Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Appendix: Hot work permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

[1]

> 00

Contents

It is always risky to attempt an in-depth discussion ofsuch a wide-ranging issue as warehouse safety mana-gement. This is particularly true when, as is the casewith this guide, the aim is to provide a comprehensivestudy of the general problems found at these facilities.

Among all the risks to which a warehouse is exposed,fire is the one which normally has the gravest conse-quences, although it is by no means the only one thatmust be taken into account. It is also important toconsider a number of other risks, including merchan-dise theft, illegal entry with criminal intent, environ-mental risk caused by poor warehouse managementand even damage caused by the forces of nature.

In view of this, the protection and complete safety ofwarehouses constitutes a growing concern not only fortheir owners, but also for insurance and reinsurancecompanies. For the former, both direct and indirect los-ses may be incurred as a result of an accident. Some ofthe consequences faced in such cases include the des-

truction of goods or warehousing facilities, damage tocorporate image and loss of customers and earnings.

For insurance and reinsurance companies, in mostcases loss events in warehouses constitute evidence ofthe vulnerability of this type of facilities and, indeed, ithas been shown that a warehouse fire generally resultsin complete destruction of the facilities. The rising trendand increasing importance of warehouse loss events hasforced the insurance sector to revise policy conditionstraditionally offering excessively favourable terms forwarehouses compared to those for production facilities.

The objective of this guide is to provide assistance to thereader in identifying the general risks faced by all partiesinvolved in complete warehouse safety management.

As a result, the guide facilitates decision-making aimedat mitigating or anticipating potential losses by elimina-ting or controlling risks and by implementing preventati-ve and corrective measures. In short, this guide will pro-vide an effective tool for warehouse risk management.

[2] Warehouse safety guide

Whenever one intends to start up or expand anindustrial or business activity, it is necessary togather as much information as possible. Buildings,plant, equipment and warehousing facilities will allbe required in order to develop the activity.

The ideal company situation would involve being ableto produce and distribute goods continuously, the-reby eliminating the need for a warehouse altoge-ther and removing the requirement of having goodsin storage, where they are effectively “frozen”assets. However, the elimination of warehouses isonly feasible in specific types of manufacturing,involving made-to-order or just-in- time production.

Large amounts of raw materials, semi-finished pro-ducts, auxiliary material, packaging and finishedproducts must be made available to the varioususers, whether intermediate or final, internal orexternal. Consequently, the creation of storage

areas is necessary in order to enable distributionupon demand at a later date.

Warehouses must be designed and built according toa previous analysis of the movement and relations-hip between materials and products anticipated inthe production process.

Appropriate warehouse design can prevent manyfuture problems and, therefore, the initial designstage should involve consideration of a number offactors, such as:

• The shape and size of the storage areas in relationto the characteristics of the items to be stored.

• The loading and handling methods and the transitareas.

• National, regional and local regulations concer-

[3]


ning stored goods, such as those applicable to che-mical goods storage.

• The warehouse location in relation to the produc-tion areas and transportation facilities.

• Accessibility, visibility and easy identification of theGoods.

• Admissible loads on floors and storage structures.

• Free space between the stored goods and the ceiling.

Although it is tempting to classify warehouses, thisis a complex task that is beyond the scope of thisguide. If necessary, warehouses can be classifiedaccording to the type of goods stored and such amethod would involve classification as follows: dry,refrigerated or frozen foods; clothes and textiles ingeneral; construction equipment and materials;machinery and spares; and so on. Classification canalso be made according to the end customer invol-ved, for example, external or internal customers;retailers or wholesalers; and so on. Finally, classifi-cation can even be based on the mechanical loadingmethods employed, for example, forklifts trucks;transpallets; automated storage and transportationsystems; and so on.

Although we do not intend to provide a thoroughclassification of warehouses, it is convenient to notethat in general they can be grouped into four typesaccording to their "function" (see Table 1). In thisclassification, each warehouse “type” shares com-mon basic characteristics regardless of the type ofgoods stored or the size of the warehouse.

In many cases, planned or existing warehouses do notfall clearly into one of these types, but instead sharecharacteristics of several types. Thus, warehouses forrefrigerated or frozen products can be included inboth the "Services" and "Distribution" warehousecategories, depending on their main function.

Storage in aisles and transit areas

[5]

Ty

pe

Serv

ice

war

ehou

ses

Dep

osit

war

ehou

ses

Logi

stic

sw

areh

ouse

s

Fu

ncti

on

s

Form

s pa

rt o

f and

supp

orts

a p

rodu

ctio

npr

oces

s.

Rec

eipt

and

hol

ding

of

mer

chan

dise

ow

ned

bya

thir

d pa

rty.

Gro

upin

g an

ddi

stri

butin

g go

ods

atst

rate

gic

geog

raph

ical

loca

tions

to e

nabl

eim

prov

emen

ts in

the

oper

atio

n of

the

com

pany

’s a

ctiv

ities

.

Go

od

s s

tore

d1

Raw

mat

eria

ls to

be

proc

esse

d or

mou

nted

.Fi

nish

ed p

rodu

cts

for

dist

ribu

tion

tocu

stom

ers.

Mat

eria

ls p

roce

ssed

outs

ide

esta

blis

hed

spec

ifica

tions

,re

quir

ing

rew

orki

ng o

rw

ithdr

awal

.W

aste

req

uiri

ng s

peci

alm

anag

emen

t.A

uxili

ary

mat

eria

l,to

ols,

and

so

on, u

sed

for

prod

uctio

n an

dm

aint

enan

ce o

r in

offic

es.

Fini

shed

pro

duct

inte

mpo

rary

sto

rage

.M

any

item

s in

sm

all

amou

nts

with

freq

uent

disp

atch

ing.

Goo

ds o

wne

d by

the

com

pany

.

Ex

am

ple

s o

f g

oo

ds

Woo

d, p

last

ic, m

eat,

fish

etc.

Doo

rs, f

inis

hed

PVC

pipe

s, e

tc.

Pro

duct

ion

rem

nant

s.

Use

d m

achi

nery

oil,

card

boar

d, e

tc.

Sold

erin

g eq

uipm

ent,

circ

ular

saw

s,ha

mm

ers,

pap

er, e

tc.

Boo

ks, c

osm

etic

s,ph

arm

aceu

tical

prod

ucts

, etc

.

Dri

nks,

clo

thes

, etc

.

Wa

reh

ou

se

ch

ara

cte

ris

tics

Extr

emel

y va

ried

,de

pend

ing

on t

hepr

oduc

tion

proc

ess.

For

flam

mab

le p

rodu

cts,

haza

rdou

s m

ater

ials

,an

d so

on,

sto

rage

mus

t co

mpl

y w

ithce

rtai

n sa

fety

requ

irem

ents

(tem

pera

ture

, hum

idity

,in

sula

tion,

etc

.) Fo

rpr

oduc

ts u

sed

in t

hefo

od in

dust

ry,

refr

iger

ated

cha

mbe

rsar

e us

ually

em

ploy

ed.

Max

imum

sto

rage

capa

city

com

patib

lew

ith t

he r

equi

red

avai

labi

lity

of g

oods

inst

orag

e. C

ompu

teri

sed

cont

rol o

f loa

ds a

ndsp

aces

. Loc

ated

nea

rla

rge

urba

n ce

ntre

s.

Req

uiri

ng r

apid

dock

ing,

unl

oadi

ng a

ndlo

adin

g. W

areh

ouse

capa

city

mus

t re

mai

nun

iform

. Loc

ated

nea

rla

rge

urba

n ce

ntre

s or

stra

tegi

c tr

ansp

orta

tion

poin

ts.

Wa

reh

ou

se

de

sig

n

Dep

endi

ng o

n th

epr

oduc

tion

proc

ess,

palle

tised

sys

tem

s,bo

xes

or c

onta

iner

sm

ay b

e us

ed w

ithgo

ods

plac

ed o

nsh

elvi

ng o

r ra

ckin

g of

diff

erin

g de

sign

sac

cord

ing

to t

hepr

oduc

t st

ored

.

Tend

s to

invo

lve

stor

age

at g

reat

heig

hts

with

nar

row

aisl

es. S

aw-t

ooth

(zig

zag)

load

ing

bays

for

use

by a

flee

t of

lorr

ies.

Pal

lets

sto

red

at a

heig

ht o

f 2 to

4, w

ide

aisl

es a

llow

ing

fork

lifts

to p

ass

one

anot

her.

Saw

-too

th (z

igza

g)lo

adin

g ba

ys fo

rsi

mul

tane

ous

use

byse

vera

l lor

ries

.

Ma

ch

ine

ry

Die

sel o

r el

ectr

icfo

rklif

ts a

nd e

lect

ric

orha

nd-o

pera

ted

palle

ttr

ucks

.

Aut

omat

ic s

hutt

leca

rria

ge fo

r in

tern

alpa

llet

mov

emen

t.A

utom

atic

ret

riev

aleq

uipm

ent

and

conv

eyor

bel

ts. O

wn

lorr

y fle

et p

rovi

ding

ase

rvic

e fo

r th

e cl

ient

s.

Fork

lift

truc

ks a

ble

tom

ove

larg

e pa

llets

and

the

use

of a

utom

ated

syst

ems.

Lor

ry fl

eet

prov

idin

g a

serv

ice

for

the

com

pany

.

Ex

am

ple

s

Any

of t

hose

foun

d in

fact

orie

s w

ithpr

oduc

tion

proc

esse

sof

any

typ

e.

Com

pani

es p

rovi

ding

stor

age,

tra

nspo

rt a

nddi

stri

butio

n of

mer

chan

dise

, suc

h as

cour

iers

or

carr

iers

.

Larg

e co

mpa

nies

requ

irin

g w

areh

ouse

slo

cate

d be

twee

n th

efa

ctor

ies,

dis

trib

utio

nce

ntre

s an

d fin

al r

etai

lou

tlets

. Obv

ious

exam

ples

are

larg

ecl

othi

ng c

ompa

nies

with

the

ir o

wn

city

-ce

ntre

sho

ps.

Ta

ble

1.

Cla

ss

ific

ati

on

of

wa

reh

ou

se

s


Ty

pe

Dis

trib

utio

nw

areh

ouse

s

Fu

nti

on

s

Use

d as

"re

serv

oirs

" of

larg

e am

ount

s of

goo

dsw

hich

are

tra

nsfe

rred

to c

onsu

mer

s w

ithou

tsu

bseq

uent

tran

sfor

mat

ion.

The

yco

nstit

ute

prov

isio

ning

poin

ts fo

r fo

od a

nddr

ink

outle

ts.

Go

od

s s

tore

d1

Goo

ds b

elon

ging

toot

her

com

pani

es, w

hich

are

stor

ed te

mpo

rari

lypr

ior

to d

istr

ibut

ion

tofo

od a

nd d

rink

out

lets

.

Ex

am

ple

s o

f g

oo

ds

Food

pro

duct

s in

gene

ral (

drin

ks, c

anne

dgo

ods,

etc

.),ag

ricu

ltur

al p

rodu

cts

(fru

it, v

eget

able

s),

prod

ucts

from

live

stoc

k(m

eat)

or

from

the

sea

(fis

h, s

eafo

od),

etc.

Wa

reh

ou

se

ch

ara

cte

ris

tics

Com

pact

sto

rage

on

palle

ts, w

ith lo

adin

gta

king

pla

ce a

t on

e en

dan

d un

load

ing

at t

heot

her.

Ref

rige

rate

dch

ambe

rs a

nd/o

rfr

eezi

ng t

unne

ls m

aybe

pre

sent

, dep

endi

ngon

the

pro

duct

sto

red.

Wa

reh

ou

se

de

sig

n

Larg

e sh

elve

s w

ithpa

lletis

ed s

tora

ge a

ndge

nera

lly w

ide

aisl

es.

Ma

ch

ine

ry

Man

ually

ope

rate

dfo

rklif

ts a

nd p

alle

ttr

ucks

.

Ex

am

ple

s

Cen

tral

war

ehou

ses

ofa

larg

e re

tail

netw

ork

selli

ng d

irec

tly

to t

hepu

blic

and

dis

trib

utin

gpr

oduc

ts to

sm

alle

rre

tail

outle

ts.

Com

mon

in t

he fo

odse

ctor

.

1Fo

r al

l war

ehou

ses,

the

re is

usu

ally

sto

rage

for

the

back

-up

mat

eria

ls o

n w

hich

the

goo

ds a

re p

lace

d, s

uch

as w

ood

or p

last

ic p

alle

ts, c

onta

iner

s, b

oxes

, bin

s, a

nd s

o on

. The

se m

ater

ials

als

o re

quir

e th

eir

own

stor

age

area

.

[7]

In general, the risks to which warehouses are expo-sed relate to a number of factors. Past experienceand statistics concerning warehouse loss eventsboth demonstrate that they form a significant part ofthe total losses in industrial environments as awhole.

Adequate business risk management practicerequires an initial identification of the hazards towhich the company is exposed, followed by appro-priate risk assessment, and subsequent implemen-tation of plans for risk prevention and control. Therisks concerned do not only include the most typicalones such as fire, but also explosions, illegal entry

into the workplace involving the possibility of theftor vandalism, environmental damage which mayoccur due to accidental spillage of toxic products,falling shelves, knocks and damage to shelf andrack structures or merchandise, and even risksgenerally classified as natural catastrophes, suchas floods or storms.

All measures implemented to minimise these risksmust be closely interrelated and must be carried outin addition to suitable warehouse maintenance andfrequent safety condition checks. Only then will theeffectiveness of the safety system chosen by thecompany be ensured.

In general, storage of goods does not entail a highlikelihood of fire unless the materials themselvesrepresent a special risk, as would be the casewhen storing explosives, fuels, solvents, and soon.

However, when fires in warehouses do occur, theyalmost always have devastating consequences. Thisis because difficulties often arise when trying to con-trol and extinguish fires at the initial stage, evenwhen automatic fire-extinguishing systems are ins-talled throughout the warehouse.

The variables that have a significant effect in causinga fire and resulting in spreading it are numerous andcan be interrelated. As a consequence, it is often dif-ficult to establish the exact origin of fires and toreduce their occurrence in warehouses by acting ononly one of these factors. Experience of warehousefires shows that extensive damage occurs as a resultof factors such as the following:

• Late discovery of the fire.

• Rapid fire spread.

• Inadequacies in storage space layout and design.

• Lack of compartmentalisation.

• Bad housekeeping.

• A disproportionate amount of stored goods.

• Generation of a high level of toxic fumes and gases.

• Absence of automatic sprinklers.

• Absence of a damage reduction and action plan inthe event of emergency.

The main factors or circumstances that influence theincreasing incidence of warehouse fires are discus-sed below.

3.1.1. Ignition sources

Fire occurs due to the rapid and continuous combus-tion of a material. This requires three basic ele-ments:

• Fuel, which is the element that burns. Examplesinclude paper, cardboard or petrol.

• Oxygen, found in the air and present when certainsubstances decompose.

• Energy, to raise the temperature of the fuel to itsignition point, for example, a flame, sparks orlightning.

The energy needed to start the combustion is one ofthe elements which must be present in order for afire to start. This energy comes from an ignition

source, which is defined as something with sufficientenergy to raise the temperature of the stored goodsand produce a fire.


3.1. Fire risk

Fire extinguishing work at a warehouse

Results of a fire in a perfume warehouse (Source: Munich Re)

Common ignition sources in warehouses include:

a. Power installations, such as electricity, gas orheating installations. The risk is greater whenthese are poorly maintained or located near thestored goods.

Electrical installations are the origin of manyfires and there are several factors which canincrease this risk. These include:

- Damaged or poorly insulated electrical wires,leaving conductors exposed, and so on.

- Failure to use the correct size of electrical con-ductor protection, leading to overheating.

- Multiple use of the same electrical socket, cau-sing overloading at a particular point in theelectrical network.

A suitable way to prevent fires due to the existen-ce of electrical installations in poor condition is tointroduce predictive maintenance. This includescarrying out thermal imaging (thermography) atleast once a year.

Thermal imaging is a technique which uses aninfrared camera to measure the surface tempera-ture of different components. In most cases, elec-trical faults are preceded by increased temperatu-res at the weakest point of the installation. Thistechnique is extremely useful since it facilitatesdetection up to months in advance of defects whichcould cause a breakdown leading to process stop-page or, in the worst case scenario, a fire.

In addition, goods can become hot and catch fireif they are stored near energy sources such asheaters or lighting which is heat-producing.

Goods must be stored at least 1 metre from anylighting or heat-producing source (an air heater,a ventilation fan, a blow torch etc.) which couldcause a fire.

Lightning should also be protected against pos-sible impact from goods so that their breakage

and the resulting hazardous situations are pre-vented.

b. Ignition sources characteristic of the manufac-

turing process. These can be found in storageareas inside industrial processes which use heator open flames, such as industrial furnaces.

c. Ignition sources associated with storage proces-

ses. Warehouses often use machinery to handlegoods. This machinery may be electrical or powe-red by thermal engines using diesel oil, petrol orgas. Machinery can include forklift trucks, pallettrucks or lifting equipment. In general, indoorwarehousing uses electrical equipment requiringa battery power supply which must be rechargedperiodically using battery chargers.

Battery chargers present a particular risk becau-se during the recharging process, they releasehydrogen gas. This is explosive even though itmay only be present in the air in very low concen-trations and, as a consequence, the presence ofcombustible or flammable material around thebattery-charging area increases the fire andexplosion risk in the warehouse.

The following recommendations should be follo-wed in relation to battery-charging areas:

- Anti-explosion trucks must be used in areaswhere there may be explosive or flammablegases, vapours or dust, in accordance with thecurrent regulations.

- The battery-charging area must be free of igni-tion sources and well ventilated.

- Electrical installations must comply with theprovisions of the Electrical/TechnicalRegulations.

[9]

Thermal imaging analysis of a main switchboard. Real image on the left,thermal image on the right.

Plastic material stored near lighting

- Necklaces, bracelets, watches or any othermetallic objects which could lead to short-cir-cuits or sparks must not be worn during batteryhandling and charging operations.

- Lighters or live flames must not be used tocheck charging levels.

- In automatic battery-charging operations, onlythe number of batteries specified by the equip-ment manufacturer must be recharged simul-taneously.

- Daily and period checks of circuits, tanks, cou-plings and battery elements and circuits.

- Daily and periodic checks of combustionsystems and/or electric batteries.

In the case of equipment powered by thermal

engines, sparks can occur in the exhaust pipe,potentially leading to a warehouse fire. This isparticularly true if there are explosive atmosphe-res involving explosive or flammable gases,vapours or dust. In such cases, it is advisable to

provide flame-extinguishing or spark contain-ment devices around the exhaust pipe outlet.

d. Other possible ignition sources, albeit not com-mon in warehouses, are those related to hotwork. This type of work includes all operationswhich generate heat, sparks, flames or high tem-peratures and which, in the presence of flamma-ble or combustible materials can cause a fire.This is the case with certain tasks performed ingeneral warehouse maintenance, such as solde-ring, circular sawing, drilling, and so on.

Execution of these tasks in a safe manner requi-res certain basic safety measures to be followed.APPENDIX 1: HOT WORK PERMIT includes a safeworking procedure for this type of tasks.

e. Another potential ignition source of no lessimportance is that related to poor practices bysmokers. Controlling this risk involves creatingspecific smoking areas and forbidding smokingelsewhere. No-smoking signs must be displayedand staff must be appropriately informed of theirobligations. These prohibitions must be strictlyobserved and periodic checks should take placeat least once a month.

f. Ignition sources associated with the process of

using heat to shrink wrap products, which involveswrapping the goods in a thin plastic film. Somewarehouses use this technique to protect the goodsagainst breakage or becoming worn in appearance.

Shrinking-wrapping processes may require theuse of heat to seal the plastic film. The heat isgenerally supplied by a soldering electrode orelectrical resistor incorporated in the shrink-wrapping device. The plastic material used isoften highly combustible (for example, polypropy-lene or polyethylene.) and therefore the risk offire is considerably increased.


Material stored next to a battery charger (up) and obstacle-free battery -charging area (down)

Sparks from filing processes can be propelled a considerable distance

3.1.2. Fire load

Fuel is the second factor involved in the origin of afire and to understand its role, it is necessary todiscuss what is known as the fire load.

In general, the fire load of a warehouse is calculatedby considering, among other factors, the quantityand the heating value of each combustible materialpresent, including construction materials.

What is of most importance here is the nature ofthe materials or goods stored. Depending on theircharacteristics, the rate of fire spread will be hig-her or lower. The severity of a fire will obviouslydepend on the combustibility of the material. Onthe whole, plastic and synthetic materials tend toburn faster than ordinary or natural materials suchas cardboard. In this respect, we need to differen-tiate between:

a. Stored goods, including their packaging (paper,plastic, etc.). Consideration needs to be given towhether the warehouse is located in high-riskpremises, as would be the case where activitiessuch as painting and varnishing take place. Thisrepresents a considerably higher risk of fireand/or explosion.

If the warehouse contains a high-risk product (forexample, paint, oils or aerosols) in a small quan-tity in relation to the overall products stored, it isrecommended that this product is isolated andgiven specific protection. External storage orconfinement by the use of segregation devices orpartitions providing at least one hour’s resistanceto fire is advisable.

b. Construction materials, including those used tobuild the warehouse structure, (concrete, wood,metallic structures, and so on), those used tocover the structure, (fibre cement, sheet metal,fibreglass, and so on) and those used to insulateor finish off the roof and walls (plaster, polyure-thane, and so on). The use of insulation materialssuch as polyurethane or polystyrene increases thefire load due to their high degree of combustibility.

To prevent fires related to the fire load occurring, werecommend the following measures, many of whichare related to good housekeeping and practices atthe warehousing facilities:

• Products that represent risks which may causeexceptional damage (such as dense smoke) orcorrosive atmospheres should be stored separa-tely from products which are especially vulnerableto such risk.

• The aisles and corridors separating goods can provi-de considerable advantages when faced with a firefighting and rescue operation. The most appropriateaisle width depends on the foreseeable seriousnessof possible fires, but in general terms, aisles of 2.4metres will suffice. If possible, aisles should lead tothe doors or windows in order to facilitate access.

• A separation distance of at least 60 cm should existbetween the stored goods and the walls of the buil-ding. This is particularly important if the productexpands when wet.

• Goods should not be stored so that they are higherthan the lower part of roof beams or too close toroof trusses. If there are automatic sprinklers, it isadvisable to ensure that a 1 metre separation dis-tance exists between the highest storage point andthe sprinkler heads. The minimum separation dis-tance required is 60 cm. In the case of fire detec-tors, the recommended distance from storedgoods is also at least 1 metre.

• Empty pallets must be stored outside productionand warehouse buildings and be placed so that anadequate distance separates them from externalwalls of the building.

• The correct location of highly hazardous products,such as toxic, corrosive or flammable materials, isalso important to reducing fire load. Such productsmust always be placed in specifically designatedareas and sectioned off from other areas.

• In external storage areas, it is necessary to ensurethat no additional risk arises due to the proximityof the stored goods to external equipment (trans-formers, refrigeration towers, fuel tanks, etc.),buildings or power lines.

[11]

Storage reaching the ceiling


3.1.3. Oxygen

The most influential factors which can cause a fire tostart and then spread are:

a. Type of storage. Generally, indoor warehouses

are designed with a specific storage capacity.However, financial reasons mean that the stora-ge space is used to a maximum, leading to highstacks with minimum separation distances bet-ween them and, sometimes, the accumulation oflarge quantities of material in one area.

In the case of “block stack” storage2, the morefree space there is inside the stacks, the moreserious the fire becomes because the air can cir-culate more freely, favouring combustion.Conversely, the denser the stacks are packed, theless serious the fire. Fire intensity will also increa-se in line with the height and the stability of thestacks. Stable stacks are unlikely to collapse andtherefore present fixed surface areas, which favourfire spread. On the contrary, stacks which fall orcollapse will generally help to control the fire.

Waste must be classified and deposited in suita-ble containers. If possible, these should be loca-ted outside the production and warehouse buil-dings and separated from the external walls ofthe building. In all cases, waste must be appro-priately dealt with or removed periodically.

Concentration of combustible materials must beavoided in areas used for packing, unpacking,classification, and so on.

The seriousness of a fire is also affected by theamount of free space, such as that found betwe-en the different layers of storage on pallets3.Such spaces allow the fire to spread, but unfortu-nately are not normally reached by the waterused in fire fighting.

Both shelf and rack storage4 is common in warehou-ses. An explanation of both types is provided below:

1. Shelving, in which the stored loads are gene-rally packaged goods placed on solid metalshelves or boards.

2. Pallet racking, in which the palletised loads areplaced on supporting beams using mechanicallifting equipment (such as forklifts) or hand-operated equipment (such as pallet trucks)

2 “Block stack” storage refers to storage without free horizontal spaces and/or with spaces located at heights above 2m3 Palletised storage is that in which the use of pallets creates free spaces at intervals of less than 2m in height.4 Shelf and rack storage refers to the use of fixed shelving or racking where the goods are placed on pallets, solid shelves or in boxes

Paper rolls stacked vertically

Stacks stored on pallets

Pallet racking

Shelving

[13]

As outlined below, shelf and rack storage can alsobe classified according to the quantity of goods

handled and the degree of warehouse automation:

- Automated warehouses are suitable for bothboxed and palletised goods stored on shelves orracks. Loads are handled automatically by retrie-val equipment which brings them to the operatorstation. The warehouse consists of a central aislein which the retrieval robot moves. The load han-dling area is situated at one end of the shelves orracks. The entire system is controlled by mana-gement software, which records the location ofall the goods in the warehouse. The advantagesof this type of warehouse are:

* Automation of the product entry and exit ope-rations.

* Savings in space and time devoted to storagetasks.

* Elimination of manual handling errors.

* Easy inventory management, updating andcontrol.

* Retrieval equipment guided by managementsoftware which coordinates all warehousemovement operations.

- Self-supporting warehouses, which are desig-ned so that the shelves and racks form part ofthe structure of the building itself, along with theroof and warehouse walls. They facilitate varyingdegrees of automation in storage processes andthey tend to be very high warehouses.

- Gravity flow racks, consisting of racks withslightly inclined roller-form pallet supporting

beams. Pallets are loaded in one side and thenflow under their own weight to the opposite sidefor picking. They work well for products whereFIFO (first-in-first-out) rotation is necessary.

- Shelves for light loads, designed for use inmanual goods handling. This wide-ranging andvaried system is applied in many different sec-tors, ranging from the storage in small scaleoperations to storage in complex industrial sites.

Storage on shelves presents considerablecomplications from the point of view of fireprotection. Normally, this arrangement incre-ases the number of surfaces that can burnand allows a greater inlet of air, causing grea-ter combustion. The stored goods are alsomaintained in a stable position, which is an“ideal” burning arrangement. Additionally,this storage configuration, particularly atgreat heights, means that water from sprin-kler systems fails to enter the free spaces orgaps, which are often narrow. The narrowerand higher the spaces are, the more difficult itis for the water to enter. The final result is amore long-lasting fire.

A further aggravating factor in these cases isthe lack of anchoring or tethering of shelves toa solid and stable point of the building. In theevent of a fire breaking out on one of the shel-ves, it will deform and may collapse, leading toa domino effect which causes the other shel-ves to fall.

b. The design and layout of vertical and horizontal

hollow spaces and openings in the building.Vertical spaces include stairwells, lift shafts,interior courtyards, and so on and horizontal onesinclude openings such as doors, forklift truckaccess and windows. The existence and layout ofthese spaces can favour fire spread once a fire isstarted. Fire spread will also be favoured by alack of appropriate compartmentalisation orsectorisation5 between the storage and produc-tion areas, or even between different storageareas in the case of large warehouses.

3.1.4. Risk vulnerability

In addition to the factors outlined above, other fac-tors which lead to increased vulnerability to riskinclude the fragile nature of certain valuable mer-chandise and the severity of the damage that may becaused to the warehouse or merchandise by certainbuilding materials. The following are includedamong these factors:

Metal shelves for light loads

5 Compartmentalisation or sectorisation: the space enclosure system designed to eliminate or prevent the possibility of fire, smoke, fumes andgases spreading to other fire area.


a. The existence of electronic or precision equip-ment of great importance to the company.

b. The existence of documents or files of high stra-tegic value to the company.

c. Products liable to suffer damage due to combus-tion gases or as a result of environmental condi-tions producing rust.

d. Luxury or valuable goods.

e. Food products, such as fruit, vegetables and meatwhich can suffer irreparable damage due to com-bustion fumes. Further complications exist withthese products due to the use of refrigerated

chambers to store such goods prior to shipment tothe final user. The sandwich panels6 used to cons-truct these chambers present an added risk factor.

Highly-combustible organic material, such aspolyurethane or polystyrene, is normally foundinside the panels and if a fire starts in their inte-rior, it generally spreads quickly.

In addition, a large amount of toxic fumes is alsoproduced. Controlling and extinguishing this typeof fire is a complex matter because the organicmaterial is confined between sheet metal. Even ifwater is constantly sprayed on the panels, thecooling effect is not sufficient to put the fire outand it continues to burn on inside.

There are other factors which can increase risk,such as those arising from the use of flammableand/or explosive refrigerating gases, such as etha-ne or propane. A leak in the refrigeration circuitcan produce a flammable atmosphere whichresults in an explosion.

These types of refrigerants are not normally used inthe food industry. Instead, refrigerants of high andmedium safety are generally used. A typical exam-ple of this is ammonia. While its intrinsic risk of igni-tion is low, its toxicity is high. It has a suffocatingeffect and it is estimated that the maximum risk-free exposure level for humans is 25 ppm. It repre-sents an increased risk not only for people in thesurroundings of the refrigerated chamber, but alsofor the stored goods, which can be contaminated.

In these cases, if staff members are constantlypresent, current regulations require either the ins-tallation of one or more ammonia detectors with a2% detection sensibility, or the installation ofemergency stop buttons, which should be locatedoutside.

3.1.5. Added risks due to external factors

External factors are those that can increase risklevels due to situations which are foreign to thewarehouse itself. They are usually found in the ware-house surroundings. Significant examples of theseexternal factors are the following:

a. Adjacent buildings. Sometimes, the origin of afire is not in the warehouse itself but in an adja-cent building.

The presence of a firewall between buildings or dif-ferent zones can prevent a fire from spreading fromthe roof of one building to the adjacent building.

b. Roofs of different heights on adjacent buildings.

c. The presence of trees or undergrowth around thewarehouse can cause a fire to spread to the insi-de of the warehouse. Ideally, the warehousesurroundings should be kept free of undergrowth.

6 Sandwich panel: a structure containing insulating material enclosed between two outer panels which are generally made of metal.

Adjacent buildings, which may or may not be communicating

A dividing wall separating two buildings

d. Fires caused by third parties foreign to the ware-house, which is called arson. This may occur dueto the burning of pallets placed outside the ware-house, crates, and so on in agricultural coopera-tives.

e. Outdoor storage in warehousing facilities.Generally, the use of such facilities is not advisa-ble due to their exposure to a large number ofpossible ignition sources of external origin, suchas direct impact by lightning, fires caused by per-sons foreign to the warehousing facilities, thepresence of undergrowth which may cause a fireto spread, and so on. The installation of automa-tic protection measures is not feasible in suchcircumstances. Despite this, the use of exteriorwarehousing or storage facilities is justified incertain cases:

* Products with low fire-risk levels (such asempty metallic drums) which do not require fireprotection, even when inside buildings.

* Products of low value that do not justify the useof indoor storage areas.

* Products of low value with high fire-risk levels(such as empty pallets).

* Bulky products stored in amounts that makecovered storage impractical (such as paper,wood, etc.).

However, even in these cases of apparently littleimportance, it is necessary to evaluate and consi-der certain conditions to ensure proper protection.

The first assessment necessary is to ensure thatgoods stored outdoors do not represent a hazardwhich could cause an interruption in normal busi-ness activity, production stoppage, or any damageto third parties such as adjacent companies.

The second consideration refers to the location ofthe stored goods. You must ensure that this doesnot create the possibility of exposure to fire riskto external equipment (transformers, refrigera-tion towers, etc.), buildings, power lines, pipes,channelling ducts, and so on.

The area must be well lit and, if possible, providedwith a protective fence to prevent intrusion.

You must also consider the characteristics of thestored goods. Stacks of materials must have a spe-cific volume and height. It is not advisable to havevolumes greater than 700 m3 or heights of more than6 metres.

Empty pallets should be arranged in rectangularareas, in an orderly fashion and observing the follo-wing parameters for each rectangle:

• Maximum storage height: h = 7 m

• Maximum length of the longest side of the rectan-gle: L max. = 2h = 14 m

• Maximum surface area of the rectangle: S max. =

100 m2

• Minimum separation distance between storageareas (aisle width): h/2= 3.5 m

• Minimum separation from walls of the building:the same as the storage stack height, or if this isnot possible, at least 3m.

It is also necessary to ensure that adequate aislewidth exists between the stacks to allow manual firefighting with hoses.

In respect of manual fire fighting, it is advisable tohave portable fire extinguishers strategically distri-

[15]

Undergrowth outside the warehouse increases risk of fire

Outdoor pallet arrangement

3,5 m

14 m

3,5 m

buted and to have hydrants with a separation distan-ce of no more than 80 m between each one.

Good housekeeping and periodic inspections of thearea are essential to ensure minimum safety condi-tions are met. Site security patrols should includethese outdoor storage areas to detect any anomaliesas soon as they appear.

3.1.6. Fire protection measures

The fire protection measures installed at the premisesinfluence the ability to control fires and to extinguishthem with the minimum possible consequences.

The first measure to consider in this respect con-cerns warehouse construction characteristics.

Given their high heat-resistance levels, the most advi-sable construction materials are concrete and steelcoated with plaster or fibrous silicate panels, or evensprayed with a layer of perlite or vermiculite mortar.

When steel is protected with intumescent paint,firstly it is important to ensure that its applicationcovers the entire structure. No less important ismaintenance, particularly in areas which could beaffected by knocks. In any event, such coatings formetallic structures are not effective against lastingor intense fire, as is foreseeable in the case of ware-house fires.

The next preferred choice in terms of constructionmaterials involves the use of large, heavy woodenbeams because of their slow combustion and struc-tural stability compared to an uncoated metallicstructure.

Metallic structures without additional protectionagainst fire are not advisable. Steel begins to beco-me unstable when subjected to temperatures above538 ºC, even if only for a few minutes. Heat deforma-tion of the structure can lead, among other pro-blems, to the roof collapsing or falling in and to thepipes of the fire protection installations breaking.The resulting water loss will lead to the fire protec-tion installations malfunctioning, leaving any firecompletely beyond control.

Constructions with combustible materials, includinglight wood, are not advisable in view of their rapidcombustion.

Another important factor is warehouse ventilation.Under "normal conditions", a fire spreads in twodirections: horizontally (following the distribution ofthe combustible material) and vertically. As the fireadvances, the heat rising vertically steadily increases

and hot combustion gases accumulate under the cei-ling. When the heat spreading from these gases tothe roof and the structural elements of the buildingbecomes intense enough, the building may collapse.

Experience gained of fires inside buildings showsthat this problem can be overcome if the windows ofthe building are located near the roof. This meansthat when their glass breaks due to the temperaturechange, the combustion gases and generated heatdissipate through the openings. As a consequence,the heat exchange with both structural elements andthe roof is minimal and, therefore, the damage cau-sed by the fire is also minimal. This effect is morepronounced in buildings with metal structures thanin those with concrete structures, given the higherheat conductivity of the former.

In general, the ventilation provided by windows or ope-nings located in the higher sections of the façade orroof is enough to dissipate hot gases generated by fire.Nevertheless, national, regional or local regulationsmay require the installation of smoke and heat vents.

Lastly, another factor affecting the capacity to con-trol and extinguish fires is the presence of active

protection measures. Among the most importantmeasures are:

• Automatic detection systems installed to allowfire fighting to begin as soon as a fire starts. Thesesystems must be connected to a 24-hour alarmreception system.

Another point to consider when installing detectors isthat an obstacle-free radius of at least 1 metre mustbe left between the detector and the stored goods.

• Automatic extinguishing systems. The best way toprevent a warehouse fire from spreading is by ins-talling sprinklers.


Obstructed automatic detectors

When a decision is made to use sprinklers to pro-tect a building used for warehousing or storagepurposes, it is important to ensure that the entirebuilding and any communicating buildings are alsoprotected. Buildings are not considered to be com-municating when the division between the buil-dings consists of a wall with a fire resistance levelof at least 60 minutes. Doors or openings must bedesigned to close by themselves, or automatically,in the event of fire. Their fire resistance must be atleast half that of the dividing wall.

To guarantee the effectiveness of a sprinklersystem, the recommended distance between anycombustible materials stored outdoors and thebuilding(s) protected by the automatic sprinklersmust be at least 10 m or 1.5 times the height of thestored goods. This recommendation can be igno-red if the materials are segregated from the buil-ding by an exterior wall with a fire resistance levelof at least 60 minutes and there are no openingswhich could allow the fire to penetrate.

Automatic sprinkler installations normally provideadequate protection for metallic structures.However, for certain high-intensity or severe fires,such as those occurring with plastics or flamma-ble liquids, additional protection for the structuremay be required (paint, coating, and so on).

The calculation and design of a sprinkler systemmust comply with the current Standards. For thedesign to be considered adequate, the system onlyneeds to provide protection for the shelf and rackstructures and, therefore, it will not provide protec-tion for the materials stored in the spaces or gapsinside them. Obviously, this represents a fire risk.

In general, it should be noted that the water fromthe sprinklers provides fire control for a specifiedarea and additional measures in the form of hoses

will always be required to extinguish the fire. OnlyESFR (Early Suppression Fast-Response) sprin-klers are designed and approved to extinguishfires, but always within specific design limitsaccording to the height of the storage space andthe slope of the roof, among other factors.

• Manual extinguishing equipment. This includes fireextinguishers, fire hose cabinets equipped with 45mm hoses, and fire hydrants. Although the use of 45mm hoses involves greater difficulty, this does notjustify the use of 25 mm hoses, which have a muchsmaller capacity. This drawback can be overcome byappropriate staff training in emergency procedures.

Layout of the storage space and goods must notinvolve an increase in the safe distances specifiedfor manual fire protection systems, which are asfollows for any occupied area:

- 25 m to the nearest fire hose cabinet.

- 25 m to the nearest alarm button.

- 15 m to the nearest extinguisher containing sui-table extinguishing agents.

On one hand, the effectiveness of fire protectionsystems depends on adequate equipment and insta-llation maintenance and, on the other hand, on the-oretical and practical training of warehouse staff inthe use of the equipment.

Proper maintenance requires keeping access to fireprotection equipment visible and obstacle-free.

Stored products must never obstruct the fire pro-

tection measures.

[17]

Pallet storage segregated by an exterior wall

Extinguishers obstructed by loading equipment


Maintenance of fire protection equipment and insta-llations must be carried out in accordance with theRegulations on Fire Protection Installations.Investment in safety measures is sometimes rende-red useless by improper maintenance. The best wayto avoid this is by providing adequate training and byinvolving plant maintenance staff in the maintenanceof fire protection devices. Although certain mainte-nance operations must be performed by an authori-sed company, other less complex but equally impor-tant operations can be carried out by warehouse staff.

As regards training, one must consider that in gene-ral the most important factor for detecting and con-trolling fire is the human factor. It is therefore essen-tial to train staff to enable them to fight a fire at itsinitial stages. In addition, it is equally important todevelop an updated and correctly implementedemergency plan which incorporates training activi-ties involving real fires and annual fire drills.

For the most part, environmental risk associated withwarehouses is limited to the presence of materialswhich are potentially toxic for the general environ-ment or the workplace environment.

In this respect, the following hazards can be identified:

a. Hazards related to the stored materials. If theyconsist of chemicals or toxic, corrosive or flam-

mable materials, the main risk concerns emer-gency situations resulting from accidental spilla-ge. In addition, there is increased environmentalrisk of toxic fume emissions being released intothe atmosphere due to a fire in a warehouse con-taining such products. Some examples of the pro-ducts involved include household cleaning pro-ducts, home improvement products, cosmeticsand personal hygiene products.

b. Hazards related to equipment used for loadingand transportation activities. The main environ-mental risks are those arising from the noise andexhaust fumes from lifting equipment or vehicleswith diesel or petrol engines. The vehicles may befor indoor use, such as forklift trucks, or outdooruse, such as lorries in loading bays.

One must also consider the possibility of acciden-tal acid spillage from batteries during rechargingoperations.

Basic environmental risk safety measures initiallyinvolve the suitable classification of the storedgoods.

Potentially toxic chemical substances, such aspetroleum products, solvents and dyes must be ade-quately labelled and safety data sheets must be pro-vided for each product in order to enable their use inthe event of an emergency. The provision of informa-tion and training for workers handling the products is

an effective way to reduce risk. This is particularlytrue since in the event of spillage and subsequentcleaning, it is essential that staff are aware of therisks to which they are exposed and the possible con-sequences for their own health and the environment.

In certain circumstances, it may be appropriate toinstall safety guards or rails on shelving and rackingto protect them against being knocked or struck byforklift trucks.

Adequate planning and maintenance of the areaswhere materials are stored is necessary to preventtheir loss and/or accidents. The location of differentchemical products must be shown on a warehousemap and a record of product entries and exits mustbe kept. Special attention should be given to thelocation of mutually incompatible substances whichcould provoke dangerous chemical reactions.

In general, warehouses in this category must becompartmentalised or adequately sectioned off fromother buildings occupied by persons, from otherwarehousing facilities, and from manufacturingareas. In addition, it is advisable to install collectionsystems and/or systems for limiting potential dama-ge caused by accidental spillage. Basic examplesinclude containment vats and floors which have beentreated to improve resistance to products that maybe spilled in the protected area in question.

With respect to the battery-charging areas or pre-

mises found in many warehouses, the main environ-mental risks arise from acid splashes or spillage.These can be reduced by installing a waterproof,acid-resistant floor with a slope which allows easierremoval of cleaning water and acid spills.Recommendable maintenance tasks include fre-quent cleaning of the premises and the use of suc-tion to eliminate dust from battery chambers, whiletaking care not to suction the electrolyte.

3.2. Environmental risk

[19]

Environmental pollution must also be considered.Adequate safety conditions should be maintainedwith regard to noise and exhaust fumes produced byforklift trucks with diesel engines. Whenever possi-ble, it is advisable to use electric forklift trucks for

indoor warehousing activities, not only for the envi-ronmental advantages this offers but also because itreduces fire risk. Forklift trucks with thermal engi-nes (whether diesel, petrol or liquefied gas) shouldonly be used in outdoor, well-ventilated areas.

Natural risks are those caused by natural forces. Themagnitude of the losses caused by these forcesdepends on:

• The intensity of the natural phenomenon.

• Construction methods.

• Protection mechanisms against catastrophes ofthis type.

Although these type of loss events occur less fre-quently than fire, their damage potential is usuallygreater.

3.3.1. Wind

Modern lightweight roofs can have entire roof panelstorn off by wind. Walls and wall enclosures can alsobe affected, leading to the collapse of the building ifthese are designed only to enclose the structurewithout providing resistance to excess pressure orexcess loads.

Design regulations exist to enable calculation ofthe wind loads exerted on a building and its roof.Factors influencing design choices include thewind regime and the topographical location of thebuilding.

To prevent wind suction from tearing the roof off,sufficient anchoring provision must be incorpora-ted at the design stage. In addition, the buildingdesign must consider possible vibrations causedthe dynamic forces produced by the effect of chan-ges between wind pressure and wind suction onthe roof.

As a general construction rule, it is advisable toemploy systems which distribute wind loads down tothe foundations. Such systems include, for example,the use of supporting or load-bearing walls.

To obtain a stronger enclosing structure withoutintroducing excessive weight, steel bar reinforce-ments can be used.

3.3.2. Flooding, rain, hail and snow

Flooding can be caused by the following:

• As a direct result of water from excessive rainfall.

• Water from the melting of ice and snow.

• Water overflowing from lakes with natural outlets,rivers or estuaries, and other natural surfacewaterways.

• Water from rough seas along coastlines.

• Water from burst dams.

At times, the effects of such phenomena are worse-ned by the effect of human actions on our environ-ment. These can include:

• The waterproofing effect of laying tarmac on largesurface areas of land.

• Cutting down trees and crops, leaving the landbare and facilitating erosion.

• The practice of channelling water, which can wor-sen flooding by increasing the quantity of waterwhich flows into rivers in short periods of time.

• The building of constructions in rivers or water-ways.

3.3. Natural risks

Flooding due to torrential rain

Flooded land can lead to landslides and the collapse

of buildings if their structures have not been effi-ciently designed to withstand land movements.

Other possible types of water damage to buildings

are those resulting from rain, hail or snowfall on theroof. Damage caused by these phenomena includesleaks, burst water pipes or drains, collapsing roofs,smashed skylights and windows, and so on. Asidefrom building damage, there may also be damage tothe stored goods, which could prove costlier thanthat to the building itself.

In addition to the above, it is important to rememberthat flooding can cause environmental pollution bydamaging stored goods and then carrying hazardoussubstances into the public water supply system.High temperatures can also cause products todecompose and they may then be carried by the flo-wing water, causing contamination of land or naturalwaterways.

To prevent environmental and other damage occu-rring (such as that to stored goods), warehouses canbe fitted with sloping floors and underground draina-ge for the collection of water. If drains are connectedto the general sewer system, the possibility of waterentering the warehouse from the sewer system mustbe considered. This can occur due to the sewersystem becoming blocked or overflowing. The bestsolution to prevent this is to install a sewer back-flow valve in the warehouse drainage collector.

Flooding can also cause damage to the stored goods,including the packaging. This presents problems forelectronic goods such as cameras or mobile tele-phones, where water damage to the packaging canaffect product quality or even destroy the items.

To prevent damage to goods, it is advisable to placethem in an area which is least exposed to such risks.In buildings with several floors, goods should be sto-red on the upper floors. Under no circumstancesshould warehousing facilities be located in base-ments. Another way to prevent or reduce water dama-ge is to store products on pallets, boards or blockswhich hold them at least 10 cm above floor level.

As regards water damage to buildings, a number ofpreventative measures can be adopted, including thefollowing:

• Construction measures aimed at containing andtransporting water in a controlled manner, such aswalls or drainage channels around the building.

• Measures to elevate structures and buildings.These should be considered at the building designstage.

• Waterproofing and/or the sealing of openings inthe building structure, such as doors and windows.

Water which enters buildings in an uncontrolledmanner can affect machinery and stored goods.For this reason, it is important to keep the goods10 cm or more above floor level. This can be doneby stacking the goods on wooden or plastic palletsrather then directly on the floor, thereby can redu-ce possible damage due to rain, leaking pipes, andso on.

Most damage to buildings or goods is preventable byproper maintenance of roofs, ceilings, drainpipesand drains. Periodic checks and controls should beintroduced and special attention should be paid tomaintenance during periods when such damage ismore likely, for example, in periods associated withheavy rainfall.

Roofs can collapse due to structural faults resultingfrom poor design or an excessive accumulation ofhailstone or snow on the roof. This is particularlylikely in the case of flat roofs or at the junction ofbuildings of different heights, where snow or watercan accumulate.

Proper design of sloping roofs and guttering plus sui-table maintenance of guttering and drainage systemsare the only ways to prevent damage occurring.

3.3.3. Lightning strikes

Lightning produced in storms is directly or indirectlyresponsible for frequent harm to persons and dama-ge to goods. Among the most common types ofdamage caused to warehouses are:

• Perforation of electrical installations.

• Fire and dangerous sparks.

• Damage to highly sensitive computer or electronicequipment.


An electrical storm

[21]

Although natural hazards are in general unpredicta-ble, statistical data is available from lightning-strikerecords and it can be used to make risk estimates. Itis possible to predict if a particular geographicalarea is at risk of suffering a lightning strike to a gre-ater or lesser degree.

Lightning protection systems are based on a simpleconcept which involves intercepting the lightningbefore it strikes a specific object so that the currentcan enter or leave the ground without causing harmto people or damage to objects in its path. This ispossible thanks to the use of pointed air terminalswhich allow the electrical current to travel easilyalong their length and to be discharged by thisroute.

Such systems must be installed in all buildingswhere toxic, radioactive, highly flammable or explo-sive substances are stored or handled, as well as inany buildings higher than 43 m.

In other cases, the need for a lightning protectionsystem is evaluated by estimating the lightning-stri-ke rate and comparing it to the risk level of the buil-ding requiring protection. Consideration must begiven to the type of construction, its use, occupationrate and the activities performed in it. When theestimated strike rate is higher than the acceptablerisk level, a lightning protection system must beinstalled.

The basic elements of lightning protection systemsand the requirements which should be fulfilled toensure effective installation are the following:

• An air terminal installed on the warehouse roof. Itmust extend a minimum of 2 m above the highestpoint of the structure to be protected. The zone ofprotection must be such that even the most vulne-rable point of the warehouse falls within it, withina maximum radius of 100 m. The zone of protectionmust be guaranteed by the manufacturer.

• Down Conductors. These are made of metal, prin-cipally copper, and allow the electric current to tra-vel down from the air terminal to the earth connec-tion. They must lead as directly and vertically aspossible to the ground and, in addition, special careshould be taken to ensure their proper maintenan-ce and to avoid knocks and electrolytic corrosion.

• Earth connection. This is comprised of a set of ear-thing rods of suitable diameter and with the lowestpossible electrical resistance level (ideally 10 ohms).They must be connected to the main earthing systemfor the site where the warehouse is located.

All systems require annual checks and furtherchecks immediately following any lightning dischar-ge because poorly maintained systems or ones withdefective components entail greater hazards. Forthis reason, the installation of a lightning event

counter is essential to verify lightning strikes andtherefore allow the necessary system checks to becarried out immediately.

Naturally, the most important factor when installing alightning protection system is to ensure that it provi-des adequate cover for the buildings to be protected.This may be easier to verify at the initial buildingdesign stage. It must also be given careful considera-tion when expanding the warehousing facilities sincethe existing system may not provide sufficient protec-tion for the expanded facilities. In such cases anaccredited installation company should be asked tocheck the system and issue a certificate proving that itprovides adequate protection against lightning strikes.

Lightning rod with feeder device (Source: CIRPROTEC)

Theft and intrusion are other risks to which ware-houses are exposed.

As regards the risk of intrusion, this can have highlydamaging consequences for warehouses in the formof arson or intentionally setting fire to property.Warehouses have high combustible loads and aretherefore prime targets for such crimes, particularlywhen there are no people in the building. The rea-sons are wide and varied and experience shows thatpersonal grudges or revenge can play a part.

As for theft, although it exists as a risk factor in allwarehouses, assessment of the degree of risk itvaries from one warehouse to the next. In general,two key factors require consideration:

• To what degree are the products attractive to thieves?

• Theft vulnerability or the ease with which thegoods can be stolen.

To estimate the first factor, it is necessary to knowthe value of the stored goods:

• What is their market value?

• Can they be sold or placed in the market easily?

As regards the vulnerability of the goods, one mustfirst know who to protect the goods against:

• Someone external to the company?

• Company staff?

• Someone external with help from inside thecompany?

Next, an assessment must be made of the ease ordifficulty involved in transporting the products.Valuable goods that are heavy or difficult to trans-port are not as attractive as those that are easilytransported.

Finally, the warehouse surroundings require assess-ment. Location in an unpopulated area is quite diffe-rent to location in an urban environment. The risk ofsuffering a theft which cannot be prevented is grea-ter in the first case than in the second.

In short, product vulnerability to theft is evaluatedaccording to the time factor, which refers to the timenecessary to delay the intrusion or the reaction timeafter an alarm is set off.

The anti-intrusion and anti-theft measures employedin warehouses to reduce risk to acceptable levels canvary as widely as the products stored in them. For thisreason, providing an exhaustive list of valid protectionmeasures for all warehouses is not feasible here.

Protection systems need to be looked at on an individualbasis, selecting the most suitable measures accordingto each risk and according to the minimum level of pro-tection necessary. However, general recommendationscan be divided into the following categories:

• Passive protection measures intended to delayintrusion.

• Active protection measures intended to detect theintruder and raise the alarm in the event of intrusion.

• Organisational measures, which include the rela-tionships between the agents involved in intrusionprotection.

Choice of the most appropriate anti-intrusion pro-tection system requires careful balancing of thethree types of measures outlined above.

3.4.1. Passive protection measures


3.4. Theft and intrusion risk

Lockable metal shutter warehouse door

In general, thieves want to break into warehouses andescape with the stolen goods as quickly as possible.The main aim of passive protection measures is todelay entry into the warehouse for as long as possible.

Access is usually gained through openings in thestructure of the building, such as doors or windows.Implementing suitable security measures in theseareas can be one of the most simple and effectiveways to prevent thefts in warehouses.

Door locks should be sturdy and preferably made ofsteel. However, such locks frequently will not resista break-in attempt involving metal cutters orhydraulic jacks and, therefore, additional securitymeasures must be adopted.

Industrial buildings used as warehouses often havelarge folding metal entrance doors or sliding metalshutters over doors where vehicles enter and exit tocarry out merchandise loading and unloading. Suchdoors usually have a hook or catch on one side tosecure the door but often they do not have fittedlocks or padlocks. In such cases, it is advisable toinstall such devices and, if possible, a locking devicein the central part of the door or gate to ensure thatit is secure.

Sometimes these entrances also incorporate a sma-ller door for people to enter. Another sturdy lockshould be installed here.

Although door and lock security is important, contro-

lling the keys is equally important. If anyone can obtainaccess to the keys, the locks are useless. A recommen-ded security measure is to keep keys in a place withaccess restricted to individuals authorised by the com-pany management team. It is advisable to keep a recordof all individuals who have access to keys and, in addi-tion, locks should be changed as often as deemednecessary in order to maintain warehouse security.

Windows and skylights constitute another openingwhich thieves can use to break into warehouses.Windows must have a secure lock fitted, along withreinforced safety glass.

However, the best option for delaying access throughsuch openings by a thief is the installation of window

bars, preferably on the outside rather than on theinside. This protection measure is recommended forboth windows at street level and on higher floors, aswell as for skylights in roofs.

Window bars should be made of solid steel, beembedded or anchored to the wall and be the

[23]

Folding metal door

Security padlock

Access door for people

Window bars

correct size in order to prevent access to the pre-mises.

All possible access routes to the building must be madesecure. This includes emergency staircases leading toaccess doors and even peripheral fences and gates.

3.4.2. Active protection measures

Active or electronic protection measures are thoseintended to detect and raise the alarm if any intrusioninto the premises takes place.

Anti-Intrusion protection in warehouses is often basedon the use of presence detectors, particularly passive

infrared detectors. These detectors analyse an infra-red image of the premises and react in the event oftemperature differences caused by a potential intruderin the protected area.

They are generally installed in rooms, corridors ortransit areas and are located near the openingsthrough which an intruder will probably enter, suchas doors, gates and windows. Failure to protectthese points would result in a failure to detect intru-ders using these means of access.

Sometimes additional protection is introduced tocomplement the presence detectors. This involvesthe installation of magnetic contact sensors on

doors and windows. These are based on the activa-tion of an alarm when the two halves of the detectorare separated. When the door or window in questionis opened, the two halves of the detector (one is atta-ched to the frame and the other attached to the door)are separated and the alarm signal is activated.

It should be noted that such detectors will only beactivated when the door or window is opened and notwhen the glass is broken. Therefore, they should becombined with breakage sensors or, as is morecommon, the use of indoor presence detectors loca-ted near the window.

This is also the case with intrusion which takes placeas a result of making holes in the walls of adjacentbuildings or in concealed places on the outside of thepremises. For this type of intrusion the most effecti-ve protection measure involves installing vibration orseismic sensors in the walls, floors or ceilings whichare most vulnerable to this risk.

Active protection measures must be combined withan alarm connected to an alarm reception centre.The volume and duration of the acoustic signal must


Recommended measurements for window bars

max. 300 mm

max. 600 mm

max. 100 m

m

max. 100 m

mM

in. diameter 16 m

m

max. 80 m

m

max. 600 mm

External emergency staircase

Peripheral fence with sliding gate

Presence detector

comply with current legislation, which is generallycontained in local ordinances applicable in the townor region where the warehouse is located.

Connection to the alarm reception centre must be bymeans of a system which guarantees communica-tion between the alarm signal and the reception cen-tre. This type of transmission can be achieved via aSwitched Telephone Network (STN) or by a GlobalMobile System (GMS), which is the standard commu-nication system between mobile telephones. Furtherprotection may be achieved by using an additionalsystem which lies dormant until required. Such asystem will activate in the event of sabotage or mal-functioning of the line and will guarantee that analarm signal is still sent to the reception centre.

Despite the protection offered by the above systems,one should still keep in mind that when the alarmhas been set off, the intruder is already inside thepremises and has a time window which may be suf-ficient to enable the theft of items of considerablevalue.

3.4.3. Organisational measures

Organisational measures comprise all relationshipsbetween the various agents, particularly people, incharge of ensuring the implementation and properoperation of the security measures.

If it is obvious that someone is watching, it is unlikelythat thieves will think that they can carry out a rob-bery and escape with stolen items. Therefore, sur-veillance is considerably effective as a protectionmeasure.

Formal warehouse surveillance is carried out byprofessional security staff such as police officers orsecurity guards and, in some cases, it also involves

the use of Closed Circuit Television Cameras (CCTV)

to record images.

Informal surveillance can be provided by companyemployees who are suitably trained in the perfor-mance of such tasks and in the procedure to be follo-wed in the event of intrusion.

In warehouses where employees work round-the-clock in three shifts during the whole year, sufficientprotection may be offered by locating a security sta-tion at the site entrance to control staff access and,in addition, designating employees with responsibi-lity for informal surveillance.

In the case of warehouses with a high risk of theftand intrusion, a suitable system of protection is pro-vided by having a security station at the entrance tocontrol access during the working shift and a survei-llance service during inactive periods, incorporatingscheduled security patrols and possibly combinedwith monitoring by CCTV cameras.

A good way to encourage informal building survei-llance is to install adequate external lighting, eitherpermanent or connected to a motion sensor whichwill turn on floodlights when people approach thebuilding. External warehouse lighting is generally aneffective deterrent to potential intruders since mostthefts occur at night.

Another aid to surveillance involves maintaininggood visibility conditions in the warehouse surroun-dings by eliminating obstacles that may offer thievesa place to hide from surveillance measures.

As regards the risk of arson by an external intruder,the most effective protection measures are conti-nuous control of site access and adequate maintenan-ce of automatic protection devices to ensure that theyfunction correctly in the event of an intentional fire.

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The volume of goods stored in warehouses meansthat the material losses suffered in the event of a firecan be considerable. In addition, damage to profes-sional image may occur, which hinders recovery andthe achievement of a return to normal business acti-vity. As a consequence, the warehousing sector ishighly sensitive to fire risk and adequate protectionrequires exceptional safety measures which mayeven surpass those required in law.

However, risks are not limited to those related tofire. It is also important to protect warehousesagainst theft, natural catastrophes and environmen-tal damage that may be caused by stored goods.

Given the wide range of potential threats, warehousesafety management requires corporate managers tohave a comprehensive vision of risk. In addition, thecompany must have a proper maintenance policy forits warehousing facilities and the best housekeepingand cleaning practices must be followed. The existen-

ce of a safety management policy alone will be of littleuse unless it is complemented by the involvement ofall parties. Naturally, leadership is essential in orderto achieve good results in this area. Managerial actionsand decisions send clear messages to all levels of theorganisation regarding which actions are consideredimportant and which are considered unacceptable.

The principal purpose of a well-designed and ade-quately maintained warehouse is to ensure that thereceipt, protection and dispatch of goods are carriedout as efficiently as possible. To achieve this goal, theimportant requirements do not only include factorssuch as location near the final customer, ease oftransport, flexible storage spaces and proper sizingof the warehouse. It is also vital to guarantee thesafety of the stored goods and in doing so, of thewarehouse itself.

For this reason, warehouse safety represents anadded value in the services offered to clients.

[27]

> Appendix

Title: Warehouse Safety Guide.Published by: Mapfre RE© ITSEMAP Servicios Tecnológicos MAPFRE, S.A.© MAPFRE RE Compañía de Reaseguros, S.A.Printed by: Imagen Gráfica de Ávila, S.L.Printed in SpainSpanish legal deposit: AV-118-2008

All rights reserved. This publication may not be reproduced, recorded nor transmittedin any manner or by any means without the publisher's consent.

Pº Recoletos, 2528004 Madridwww.mapfre.com M

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