Creating an Academic Argument

By Sarah MattheyDissertation Editor

The Master Plan

• Define the different types of papers

• Explore how to organize a paper

• Avoiding rhetorical devices and fallacies

• Questions

What is the Scholarly Voice?

Types of Papers

Type of Communication

• Exposition papers

• Argumentative papers

• Descriptive papers

• Narrative papers

Types of Papers

Exposition Papers

• To inform or explain something.

• Examples include PDP, DDP, reflection papers, informational essays, LA’s.

Exposition Papers

• Not argumentative in nature

• May include personal or professional examples

• May include emotional language or pathos.

• Foundation for argumentative papers

Argumentative Paper

• Argumentative paper uses logic, evidence, and reasoning to help persuade your reader of something.

• Relies on ethos as an argumentative tool.

• Relies less on personal experience or feelings.

APA 3.07

• APA 3.07 states that arguments should be presented “in a professional, noncombative manner” (p.66).

• You should speak as an objective social scientist.

Evidence

Science equals evidence

• Everything you say must be supported by evidence.

• Evidence should be tested within the field. Use peer reviewed journals, books, and scholarly websites.

Organizing Your Paper

Organizing Your Paper

• All papers should include introduction with thesis statement, a body, and a conclusion.

• There are many ways to organize the body. We will focus on that in a minute…

Prewriting

• Before you do anything, conduct some prewriting.

• Freewriting

• Notecards

• Concept map

• Outline

Quick Notes About Introduction and Conclusion

Introduction

• Begin your introduction with an attention getting sentence or lead-in sentence:

• A statistic related to your topic• A statement of a problem or popular

misconception related to your topic• A factual statement or a summary of an

interesting event related to your topic

Introduction

• At the end of your introduction, include a thesis statement.

• The thesis statement declares the main points of the paper and explains why the topic is significant. Why should the reader care?

• The thesis statement should not be a question. After all, how can the reader know what your paper is about if you are asking the reader that very question?

Skip to the End…

Conclusions

Conclusions

• Synthesize the thesis with results and information from the body of the paper (In other words, bring together what and so what?)

• Return to topics and ideas from the introduction • Look forward to the future. What needs to

happen next?• Avoid bringing in new evidence, ideas, or

questions in your conclusion.

Back to the Body and Constructing Academic Arguments

MEAL Plan

• Main points of the paragraph.

• Evidence to support main points.

• Analyze the evidence.

• Link ideas in this paragraph to the ideas in the next paragraph.

Compare and Contrast Model

• You can construct your paper using the compare and contrast model to persuade your reader.

• This model includes what you are trying to convince your reader of (arguments) and the opposition’s side to your claim (counter arguments)

• All issues have two sides and good scientists do not ignore counter arguments.

Compare and Contrast

Pattern A• Introduction and Thesis• Body paragraph 1: You present your first point

and supporting evidence.• Body paragraph 2: You present your second

point and supporting evidence.• Body paragraph 3: You refute opposition’s first

point (counter argument).• Body paragraph 4: You refute opposition’s

second point (counter argument).• Conclusion

Compare and Contrast

Pattern B• Introduction to your paper• Body paragraph 1: You refute opposition’s first

point (counter argument).• Body paragraph 2: You refute opposition’s

second point (counter argument).• Body paragraph 3: You present your first

argument.• Body paragraph 4: You present your second

argument.• Conclusion

Compare and Contrast

Pattern C• Introduction to your paper.• Body paragraph 1: Present first argument

and evidence and refute one counter argument.

• Body paragraph 2: Present second argument and evidence and refute another counter argument.

• Conclusion

Toulmin Model

• Steven Toulmin, philosopher and logic expert, concluded that every argument should have 6 parts:

• Claim• Grounds• Warrant• Backing• Qualifiers• Rebuttals

Toulmin Model

• The claim is the assertion you are trying to prove. Your claim will include your position on the argument and may include a proposal for change.

Toulmin Model

• The grounds are the supporting evidence to your claim: statistics, research studies, facts, logic, and reasoning.

Toulmin Model

• The warrant is the generalization(s) that explain why the evidence support your claim.

• All arguments must have some accepted warrants in order for the reader to be persuaded.

Toulmin Model

• Backing are the reasons that show your warrants are accepted. Backing indicates that the warrants are reliable for this particular argument.

Toulmin Model

• Qualifiers are the words that show when, how, and why your claim is reliable.

• These words include might, may, can, and could.

• Example: Teaching students English in school may help them learn more efficiently in other subjects.

Toulmin Model

• Rebuttals include the exceptions to the claims.• Acknowledging rebuttals and refuting them

strengthens your argument.

• Some argue that teaching English in schools may be culturally insensitive; however, American citizens must understand English to be economically and financially successful.

Avoiding Fallacies or Rhetorical Devices

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• A logical fallacy is an error in logic. It means to deceive.

• No matter how you create your argument, you should avoid fallacies and rhetorical devices

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• Ad hominem- personally attacking the person instead of addressing the argument.

• Smith was a horrible researcher.

• Band-wagon appeal. Everyone is doing something, so the reader should as well.

• All teachers are participating in this program, so this district should too.

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• Begging the question- passes off as true an assumption that needs to be proven.

Teacher leadership will increase student achievement.

• False analogy-when two things compared do not match up feature for feature.

• HIV rates are increasing. There needs to be more police to prevent crime.

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• False dilemma- the simplification of complex into either/or choices.

• If Smith’s findings are false, so are all the other researcher’s.

• False use of authority- occurs when an expert in a particular field is used as an authority in another unrelated field.

• I have been a nurse for 30 years. There needs to be more fire prevention in the community.

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• Post hoc- an argument that establishes a cause/effect relationship that has not been proven to be true.

• Students who listen to heavy metal music will all commit suicide.

• Red herring- something that is used to distract the reader from the true argument.

• Crime rates are rising. Drug addiction rates are down in the community.

Fallacies and Rhetorical Devices

• Slippery slope- presumes one evidence will lead to a chain of events.

• If this new drunk-driving law is not passed, everyone who drives on the road will die.

• Stacking the deck- when writers only give evidence to support their claim, and not include counter arguments.

• Smoking relaxes someone, and that means it is good for your health.

Wrap Up

• Before you write something, ask yourself the following:

• Is this objective?

• Am I speaking as a social scientist?

• Could this be offensive to someone?

• Could this limit my readership?

Fin

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