Cowen -- Sociological Analysis and Comparative Education

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parts of the world; in the twentieth century the USA and the Soviet Union

have become world models in education. The impact of educational ideas

from the various metropolitan centres is now increasingly analysed, and in

various parts of the world increasingly resisted. But at the time of initialexportation, whether in the nineteenth century or after the Second World

War, there was considerable conviction among the exporting nations and

among important groups of people in the importing nations, that the best

educational practice was being made available. Education everywhere would

be improved.

That some of Jullien's vision has come about through the historical and

economic facts of classical and neo-colonialism, through cultural imperial-

ism, was maybe not his hope of the way to establish a universal com-

monwealth. He sought the creation of beneficial and positive educationallaws by questionnaire and research. It is perhaps more in accord with his

aspirations and assumptions that some of the vision has come about through

the ameliorative intent of international agencies, working from the best facts

which they are able to collect.

Educationists and others have, then, changed the world. But academic

educationists insist on understanding it.

The academic element in comparative education in the nineteenth century

after Jullien was weak. Comparative education was the practical activity of

practical men. In inventing, for example, the new elementary education

systems of the nineteenth century, what could be learnt from foreign practice?

The method of research, when it was not the collection of statistics, was

visitation. Personal, eclectic, and frequently very sensible observation was

undertaken. Many of the men who made the visits- Mann, Arnold, and so on

- were administrators. It was neither their defined task nor their inclination to

devise academic ways of understanding the world. They remained intent on

changing it.

However, at the turn of the century, Sir Michael Sädler, both an education-

al administrator and an academic, formulated a question which permitted

both a practical and an academic answer. In a lecture at Guildford, Sadler

raised the question, 'How far can we learn anything of practical value from

the study o f foreign systems of education? 2 His answer suggested that

piecemeal borrowing ofindividual educational practices was impractical, and

even when possible, unwise. Each educational system had its own 'intangible,

impalpable, spiritual force'. In a biological, ecological or (as Sadler) horticul-

tural analogy, transplantation was dangerous.

But these propositions provided a clear academic problem. How might thespiritual forces which supported educational systems be understood? How

does one delineate the impalpable? Which pat ts of the social context, within

which educational systems are located, should be analysed? - and how? In



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o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t w e r e r e l e v a n t d a t a a n d w h a t w e r e t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t

i n te l le c t u a l p e rs p ec t iv e s t h ro u g h wh i ch t o s eek u n d e r s t an d i n g o f ed u ca t i o n a l

p h en o m en a , c ro s s -n a t i o n a l l y ?

Th e an s wers o f th o s e l ik e F r i ed r ich Sch n e id e r , I s aac Kan d e l an d Ni ch o l a sHans , who in the 1920 ' s and 1930 ' s occup ied academic pos i t ions which

p e rm i t t ed t h em t o s p ec ia l is e i n t h e i n t e rn a t io n a l co m p ar i s o n o f ed u ca t i o n a l

s y s tem s , we re : t h e p e r s p ec t iv e s o f h i st o ry an d p h i l o s o p h y . T h ey s o u g h t

co l lec t iv e l y, t h o u g h i n i n d iv i d u a l way s , t o u n d e r s t an d t h e fo rm a t i v e fo rce s

an d f ac t o r s wh i ch h ad p ro d u ced u n i q u en es s i n n a t i o n a l ed u ca t i o n s y s t em s .

Th e i r an s wer s we re h i s t o r i ca l . Each p a i d g rea t a t t en t i o n t o p h i l o s o p h i c

t rad i t ions . Al l in te rna t iona l i s t s in persona l ph i losophy , they were each in

t h e ir d i f f e ren t way s ex p l o r in g i n ed u ca t i o n a l t e rm s t h e c o n cep t o f n a t i o n a l-

is m . Ex p l i c it i n t h e ir w o rk a re v a r i o u s l y t h e t h em es o f wh a t h o l d s a n a t i o n

t o g e t h e r , wh a t m ak es a d em o cra t i c n a t io n , an d w h a t a r e t h e ch a rac t e ri s ti c s o f

an idea l na t ion . They , wi th Sadler~ f ixed the s tudy o f com para t ive ed uca t ion

fi rmly in a search fo r nat io na l d ifferenc es rath er tha n s imilarit ies , in the na t ion

s ta te as a u sefu l un i t o f ana lys i s , and in the pers i s t ing s ign if icance o f h is to r ica l

an d p h i l o s o p h i c cau s es fo r co n t em p o ra ry ed u ca t i o n a l ev en t s .

Th e i r i n te l le c t u al i m p ac t o n t h e f ie ld o f co m p ara t i v e ed u ca t i o n co n t i n u ed

i n t o t h e p o s t - 1 94 5 p e r i o d . T h ey t h em s e l v es co n t i n u ed w o rk an d t h e ir s t r a teg i c

i d ea s w e r e p a rt l y s u s ta i n ed i n t h e s u b s t a n ti v e w o r k o f J . A . L a u w e r y s , R o b e r t

U l i c h a n d V e r n o n M a l l in s o n. S o m e o f th e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k in c o m -

p a ra t i v e ed u ca t io n b y Ni g el Gran t an d A r t h u r He a rn d en is co m p reh en s ib l e

wi t h in t h is m a j o r t r ad i t io n , a s is b o t h s o m e o f th e s u b s t an t i v e w o rk an d

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o m m e n t a r ie s o f P a u l N a s h , A n d r e a s K a z a m i a s a n d W . D .

H a l l s ?

In fac t , un t i l the mid-s ix t ies , th i s h i s to r ica l and ph i losoph ic t rad i t ion was

the m a j o r t r a d it i o n o f w o r k in E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r ic a . T h e w o r k d e a l t

w i t h t h e s o c i a l an d co n t a i n ed s o c io l o g ica l p ro p o s i t i o n s ; b u t i t was n o t i n-

fo rmed by exp l ic i t ly espoused soc io log ica l theory , iden t i f i ed soc io log ica lm o d e l s o r t h e s u rv ey tech n i q u es o f s o c i o lo g y .

Ho we v e r , in t h e 1 96 0's , t hi s m a j o r t r ad i t i o n wi t h i n co m p a ra t i v e ed u c a t i o n

cam e u n d e r a t t a ck . In t h e Un i t ed S t a re s , C . Arn o l d An d e r s o n , Geo rg e

B e r e d a y, H a r o l d N o a h a n d M a x E c k s te i n a ll o f fe r e d n e w d e fi n it io n s o f h o w

w o rk i n co m p a ra t i v e e d u ca t i o n s h o u l d b e u n d e r t ak en . 4 Th e i r r ev o l u t i o n

ca l led fo r the app l ica t ion o f soc ia l sc ience techn iques and o f the theor ies o f the

s o c ia l sc ien ces t o t h e i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f d a t a ab o u t fo re i g n ed u ca t i o n a l s y s t em s

- i n d eed , fo r t h e u s e o f s o ci a l s c ien ce t h eo ry i n d e f in i ng wh a t d a t a s h o u l d b e

co l lec ted in the f i r st p lace . And ers on wa s the mo s t spec i fi c and pers i s ten t inc l a im i n g an d i n d em o n s t r a t i n g t h e p ro b ab l e u s e fu ln es s o f s o c i o lo g y . B e red ay

en tered a c la im fo r the use o f a range o f soc ia l sc iences (po l i t i ca l sc ience ,

an t h ro p o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , e co n o m i cs , e tc . ) to i n t e rp re t p ed ag o g i ca l d a t a .



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Noah and Eckstein, in a pair ofclassical texts, demonstrated the strengths and

weaknesses of quantitat ive, especially correlational, methods in creating a

science of comparative education. Without doubt , an historically important

text with a strong comparative element was Educa tion, Econo my an d Society,edited by A. H. Halsey, J. Floud and C. A. Anderson, o f 1961. » The text was a

mid-Atlantic one in that the editors were American and British, and mid-

Atlantic also in its use of the perspectives of economic and sociological

theory, and ofcase studies, from both sides of the Atlantic. Arguments for the

application of the social sciences generally to comparative education had

been made. The precise claims for the application of sociologieal analysis

were yet to be refined, a task about which Anderson wrote incisively and with

considerable intellectual power.

A contemporaneous but different attack on the major historical and philo-sophic tradition in comparative education was also launched in Britain. From

the 1960's onwards both Brian Holmes and E.J. King sought to improve the

usefulness of comparative studies to educational policymakers. With differ-

ent vocabularies ('critical points of decision', and 'an applied science') and

with differences about how comparative studies should be conducted, meth-

odologically, they destroyed the monopoly of an historical approach to

comparative education, and rewrote, separately, the terms on which national

philosophic and cultural assumptions about education should be understood.

Both have expressed a willingness to use (and both have used in their

substantive work) models and techniques from the social sciences, including

sociology.õ But both have been more cautious than the Americans in making

claims that one or the other of the social sciences, if properly applied, would

revolutionise comparative education. Major claims for, and a few demon-

strations of, the usefulness of academic sociology for studies in comparative

education have had to wait until the 1970's in Britain. 7

Why it is that the 1960's should have seen these revolutions in comparative

education remains hypothesised rather than demonstrated. A definitive inter-national history of contemporary, i.e., post-war, comparative education

studies remains to be written. In terms ofworld events, it is probably the case

that post-war educational reconstruction - in Europe, in Japan, and in

colonial empires - highlighted, once immediate emergencies were over, the

need for a useful, utilisable, body of theory and more exact propositions that

would have application in recreating educational systems. Certainly the

situation of the first Unesco consultants and advisors in the educational

bureaucracies of the major powers in the late forties must have been unen-

viable, despite, for example, the work of the Conference of Allied Ministers ofEducation during the war. The gradual growth of the international and

regional organisations concerned with education also released comparative

educationists from two pressing problems: how to get up-to-date information



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t i o n wi t h a d e t a i led acc o u n t i n g o f th e l i t e r a tu re an d o f cen tr e s o f s t u d y i n si d e

and ou ts ide the US A . By 1971 , i t w as c lear ly d i ff i cu lt to su rvey in te rna t iona l ly

the research l i t e ra tu re a lone . 12

As wei l as ins t i tu t iona l expans ion , ins t i tu t iona l spec ia l i sa t ion occurred .Th a t is , t h e l a rg e cen t r e s fo r th e s t u d y o f co m p a ra t i v e ed u c a t i o n g rad u a l l y

b eg an t o s p ec i a l i s e i n g eo g rap h i c a r ea s o r p a r t i cu l a r t h em es wi t h i n co m -

p a ra t i v e ed u ca t i o n . Fo r ex am p l e , t h e C h i cag o C en t r e , u n d e r C . Arn o l d

A n d e r s o n , a n d w i t h M a r y J e a n B o w m a n a n d P h i li p F o s t e r, b e g a n t o g ai n a

r ep u t a t i o n n o t o n l y fo r d ev e l o p i n g a s o c i o l o g i ca l ap p ro ach t o co m p ara t i v e

e d u c a t i o n b u t a l s o f o r i m p o r t a n t w o r k i n d e v e l o p m e n t e d u c a t i o n . T h e

C o m p a r a t i v e D e p a r t m e n t i n L o n d o n t e n de d , m o s t ly , to c o n c e n t r a te ( e x c e pt

in the World Yearbook o f Educat ion) o n s t u d ie s o f h ig h per capita i n c o m e

co u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g W es t e rn -Eas t e rn Eu ro p e an d t h e USSR , J ap an , USAan d C an a d a . D i f f e ren t ia t i o n a l so o ccu r red wi th i n i n st it u ti o n s. In L o n d o n , fo r

ex am p l e , t h e re we re two s ep a ra t e d ep a r t m en t s s t u d y i n g ed u ca t i o n i n i nt e r-

n a t i o n a l p e r s p ec ti v e , Ed u ca t i o n i n Tro p i ca l Areas , l a te r n am e d E d u ca t i o n i n

D e v e l o p i n g C o u nt ri e s, a n d t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m p a r a t i v e E d u c a t io n . I n

Teach e r s ' C o l leg e , C o l u m b i a , t h e wo rk w as d i v id ed , ad m i n i s t ra t i v e ly a t l e a st ,

in to sec t ions which concen t ra ted on educa t ion in As ia ; in Afr ica ; in Indus -

t r ia l i sed C oun t r ies ; in L a t in A me r ica , an d so on . Spec ia l i st sub-f ie lds wi th in

co m p ara t i v e ed u ca t i o n , s u ch a s ad u l t ed u ca t i o n o r h i g h e r ed u ca t i o n i n

co m p ara t i v e p e r s p ec t i v e b eg an t o d ev e l o p o f t en in i n s ti t u ti o n s o t h e r t h an t h e

m a j o r n a t i o n a l c en t r e s. A cad em i c d iv i s io n o f l ab o u r i n c rea s ed wi t h in co m -

p a ra t i v e e d u ca t i o n i ts elf . A n d t h e re was a l s o s o m e d eg ree o f an i n t e rn a ti o n a l

d i v i si o n o f lab o u r . Th e J ap an es e , fo r ex am p l e , we re am o n g t h e f ir s t t o u s e

co m p ara t i v e t e ch n iq u es t o i n v es ti g a te m o ra l ed u ca t i o n .

To t h e s e i n s t it u t io n a l p ro ces s e s s h o u l d b e ad d ed a b i o g rap h i ca l t h em e . T h e

ex t en s io n o f th e i n t e ll e c tu a l b a s e o f co m p ara t i v e ed u c a t i o n w as p a r t l y a

fu n c t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l i n t e ll e c tu a l b i o g rap h i e s o f th o s e wh o m o v ed i n t o t h e

f ie ld in the ear ly f if ti es . A cons i s ten t t ra in ing in com para t ive e duc a t ion in the

f if ti es wa s d i f fi cu lt to ob ta in . A sequence o f degree s t ruc tu res w as ava i lab le

m a i n l y i n N ew Y o rk an d Lo n d o n ( t h o u g h t h e re ex i s ted e l sewh e re t h e p o s s i-

b i l i ty o f a tra in ing in research und er an ind iv idua l p ro fesso r , such as Fr ied r ich

Schneider ) . Thus , t ak ing a t ra in ing whe re they cou ld , the wo rke rs in the f ie ld

in the mid-s ix t ies b ro ugh t a range o f ba ckg rou nd in te ll ec tua l tra in ing w i th

them. H olm es was b y f ir s t degree t ra in ing a phys ic i s t and K ing a c lass ic is t.

B e red ay , Fo s t e r an d N o a h h ad b ack g ro u n d s i n t h e s o ci a l s ciences . Th u s , i n

the in te l l ec tua l b iograph ies o f these and o thers , the po ten t ia l s fo r a majo r

rev i s ion o f the assu m pt ions o f the f ie ld were l a id .A l l o f th e s e d ev e l o p m en t s , i n co m b i n a t i o n , g o s o m e way t o w ard l o ca t i n g

t h e r ev o l u t i o n i n co m p ara t i v e ed u ca t i o n a f t e r 1 9 6 0 . Th e ex p an s i o n an d

i n ten s i ty o f ed u ca t i o n a l e f fo r t ( in t h e r en eg o t i a t i o n o f a i m s b y p o l i cy -m ak e r s



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and publics , in the resources devoted to education, in the consumption of

educat ion and in the s tudy of education) in the pos t-war wor ld provided a

frame within which educational pro blem s had increased salience. Am ong the

beneficiaries of the increased anxiety to understand education and of theprovision o f increased resources, was com parative education. The m ovem ent

into the f ield of able you ng scholars with varying academ ic backgrou nds, and

the institutional expansion, institutional specialisation and personal creden-

tialling, which th e new resources permitted, laid the bas e for rapid ch ange in

the definition o f the field internationally by the fities and early sixties. The

biographical fact for the individual was that a career was possible in com-

parative education. The sociological fact, internal to the field, was that

insti tutional differentiation encou raged intellectual diversity. The sociolog-

ical fact, external to the field, was that in the 1950's social sciences such asanthro polog y, e conomics, sociology and polit ical science were also expand-

ing institutionally. As the practitioners of the various social sciences redefined

the theories of their f ields and in the post-war p eriod increased the volu me o f

their substantive work, the social sciences generally grew in prestige, both

inside and outside university systems. The new academics in comparative

educ ation were prepared to use a range o f perspectives from the social

sciences, at about the t ime that the spectrum of legit imate topics in com-

parative ed ucation w as i tself expanding. F or exam ple, the econom ics of

education , educ ational planning, technical assis tance to developing countries

all drew c om par ativ e analysis during the 1960's. 13

Overall , then, the insti tutional and biographical b ase was in existence by

the early sixties for a rapid chang e in the intellectual conce rns and intellectual

perspectives of compa rative education. Fr om the s ixties , the f ield has grown

increasingly complex and a w hole range of social science perspectives have

been used in comparat ive educat ion. Had the Edi tor ia l Board of I R E so

wished, it could have asked that this Issue be devoted to the significance of

economic, or psychological, or political science or historical analyses forcomparative education. Such Issues could have been as readily compiled.

I t is not, therefore, the intention here to diminish ac know ledgem ent of the

first-rate w ork don e in social science mo des o ther than sociology, which have

direct ly improved the qual i ty of comparat ive educat ion. Fo r example, the

argum ent has been presented that the domina nce o f an historical perspective

in comparative education was broken in the 1960 's . But the historical per-

spective s ti l l sustains some of the best comparative analyses of education

which are in print . 14 The poin t is imp ortan t because if yo u go looking for

snarks 15 yo u are l ikely to f ind them. But a te mp ora ry search for snarks sh ouldnot lead to the illusion that the universe is snark-centric. It is not. Nor is

comparative education sociology-centred.

Com parati ve education is, however, influenced by the modes o f sociolog-



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ical analysis and, increasingly, by the direct contributions of sociologists whohave been excited by the pressures and problems of the cross-national analysisof educational systems. This Issue investigates some of the influences.

The editorial charge to the authors was relatively simple and may besuccinctly phrased as, 'Please delineate and discuss those sociologicaltheories, concepts and methods, including as necessary assumptions aboutphilosophies of science, with examples of substantive studies, which have hadan impact on comparative education.'

Two general papers were requested. The first by Brian Holmes is acomparativist's view of the issue. Among the reasons why it is especiallyvaluable in this Issue, is the role it performs in locating the particular debateof the 1960's about sociological analysis and comparative education in a

rauch broader philosophie perspective, which traces assumptions andepistemological positions in the natura l sciences as well as sociological ana-lysis and comparative education. Roger Woock's paper, offering asociologist's view, counterpoints the Holmes' paper well by focussing theparticular issue of sociological analysis and comparative education in theUnited States and especially around the sixties, to date. Woock outlines theassumptions of at least two sociologies and the points of conflict betweenthem and offers an interpreta tion oftheeffects they have had, or may yet have,on comparative edueation. He traces, as it were, three moments of a revolu-

tion, and wonders whether a fourth moment impends.The two essays following Holmes ' and Woock's were also intended to be

seen as a pair: Richard Heyman critically reviews work on curriculum andKeith Simkin investigates analyses of the Third World. The intention herewas to permit two authors to investigate in some depth particular topicswhich, in the expectation of the Editor, would show considerable shift inanalytic perspective and which would be likely to demonstrate the importanceof sociological concepts, theories and methods for comparative work. Theauthors demonstrate both themes rather thoroughly.

The next two shÒrter essays by Abdul Osman and Marek Zelazkiewicz werebased on the expectation that in various parts of the world the assumptionsabout what sociology and comparative education - and their interrelations -Were, might demonstrate interesting differences. Finally, as the theme of theIssue falls somewhat between two academic fields, and there can be noreasonable a p r i o r i assumption that eren specialists in sociology of educationand comparative education have accorded the area much attention, it wasdecided to include an English-language bibliography and review essays of

selected texts which combined sociological and comparative perspectives.Review essays of texts in English, and in French and German were commis-sioned. The continental Europe essay was not, unfortunately, completed, butthe Trusz and Trusz-Parks review of important English-language texts isincluded, as is also Leslie Bash's bibliographie essay.



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T h e I s su e i s, o f co u r s e , i n c o m p l e te . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h p o t e n t i a l

a u t h o r s i n J a p a n , I n d i a , B r a z i l a n d A f r i c a a n d t h e W e s t I n d i e s e m p h a s i s e s

t h a t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r ' r e v o l u t i o n ' o r ' e v o l u t i o n ' u n d e r w a y - t h e e f fo r t t o

r e w ri te t h e m e t r o p o l i ta n m o d e l s o f b o t h c o m p a r a t iv e e d u c a t i o n a n d s oc i-o l o g y . S u c h a r ti c le s a re n o t , a p p a r e n t l y , e a s y o f c o m p l e t i o n a t t h e m o m e n t .

H o w s o o n t h e y m a y b e i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n t o w h i c h S i m k i n a c c o r d s

s o m e a t t en t i o n . T h e I s s u e is a ls o i n co m p l e t e i n f a i li n g t o g i v e d i r ec t

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a g e n d a s f o r c o m p a r a t i v e w o r k w h i c h a r e b e g i n n i n g t o

d e v e l o p a m o n g B r i ti sh s o c io l og i st s. M u c h o f t h e i r t h i n k i n g i s, h o w e v e r , l is te d

an d b r i e f l y d i s cu s s ed i n B as h ' s b i b l i o g r ap h i c e s s ay , an d s p ec ia l a t t en t i o n i s

d r a w n w i t h i n th i s t r a d i t i o n to t h e w o r k o f M a r g a r e t S . A r c h e r , w h o s e

s o c i o l o g i ca l , h i s t o r i ca l an d co mp ar a t i v e an a l y s e s h av e i l l u mi n a t ed a l l t h r ee

f i e lds . The f i na l dec i s ion no t t o p ress fo r a spec i a l a r t i c l e cover ing t hese

d e v e l o p m e n t s w a s t i p p e d b y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e r n o f th e I R E t o a v o i d

n a t i o n a l i mb a l an ce i n co n t r i b u t i o n s t o S p ec i a l I s s u es . Th e I s s u e i s s o me-

w h a t A n g l o - A m e r i c a n in a n y c a se .

F i n a l l y , i t i s a ccep t ed t h a t t h e I s s u e is l ik e l y t o i n c r ea s e an a l r ea d y h i g h

i r r i t a t i o n l ev e l, a s v a r i o u s p r ac t i t i o n e r s o f a v a r i e t y o f so c i a l sc i en ces co m p e t e

t o d e f i n e c o m p a r a t i v e p e r s p e c ti v e s a n d s e e k t o t o l e ra t e t h e c o n t i n u i n g c o n -

c e r n s o f m a n y c o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n i s t s f o r t h e n a t io n - s p ec i fi c , th e c a s e

s t u d y , t h e i m p a l p ab l e , t h e ' cu l t u r a l en v e l o p e ' a n d t h e ' s p ec if ic i n i ti a l co n -

d i t io n s ' . B u t t h is is a ls o a n e x p r e s s io n o f d e e p c o n c e r n b y c o m p a r a t i v e

e d u c a t i o n i s t s to u n d e r s t a n d , i n a v a r i e ty o f w a y s , t h e m o r a l a n d n o r m a t i v e

u n i v e r s e o f m e n o f m a n y n a t i o n s . T h e f i e ld tr a d i t i o n a l l y h a s s t r u g g l e d w i t h a n

i n t r a c t a b l e m o r a l p r o b l e m a t t h e b a s e o f J u l li e n 's a s p i r a ti o n : I n w h i c h i n-

t e ll e c tu a l p e r s p ec t iv e s a n d o n w h a t t e r m s w i l l y o u c h o o s e t o u n d e r s t a n d m e n

o f fo r e i g n n a t i o n s ? O n w h a t p o t i ti c a l a n d m o r a l t e r m s d a r e y o u i n te r fe r e ? T h i s

I s s u e t r ace s s ev e r a l s h i f t s i n , an d d i s cu s s i o n s ab o u t , t h e p e r s p ec t i v e s w e

s h o u l d u s e in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d .

R O B E R T C O W E N

No t e s

1. See Stewart E. Fra ser. M . A . Ju l li en 's P l an o r C om para t ive E duca t ion , 1816 -1817 .

New York: Teachers College, Co lumb ia, 1964.2. F or a specialised collection of the work o f Sir M ichael Sadler, see J.H . H igginson

(compiler). Selee t ions f r o m M ichae l Sadler: S tudies in W orld Ci ti zenship .

Liverpool: Dejall and Meyorre, 1979.3. Se e, for example, J.A. Lauw erys. 'Gen eral educ at ion in a chang ing wo rld ' .In t e rna ti ona l R ev i ew o f E du ca t i on . 11 (1965), No . 4; Ro be rt Ulich. The E d uea t ion

o f N a t i o n s . Cam bridge, M ass.: Ha rva rd U niversity Press, 1967 (revised edition);



3 9 4

V e r n o n M a l l i n s o n . An Introduetion to the Study of Comparative Education.

L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1 95 7; P a u l N a s h , A n d r e a s K a z a m i a s a n d H e n r y J.

Perk inson (eds . ) The Educated Man: Studies in the History of Educational

Thought. N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i le y a n d S o n s , 1 9 65 ; N i g e l G r a n t . Soviet Education.

H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1 9 7 9 ; W . D . H a l l s . Education, Culture andPolitics in Modern France.O x f o r d : P e r g a m o n , 1 9 7 6; A r t h u r H e a r n d e n . Education

in the Two Germanies. O xf or d: Blackwell , 1974.4 . S ee L es li e B ash . ' A B r i e f B i b l i og raph i ca l B a ckg rou nd ' , i n th i s S pee ia l I s sue o f

th e International Review of Education, pp . 507 -516 .

5 . Ib id . , pp . 500 , 513-5 14.

6 . S ee, fo r exam pl e , E d m un d K i ng . Comparative Studies and Educational Decision.

L o n d o n : M e t h u e n , 1 9 6 8 ; E . J . K i n g , C . H . M o o r a n d J . A . M u n d y . Post-

Compulsory Education I: A New Analysis in Western Europe. L o nd on : S age , 1974 ,

a n d P ost-Compulsory Education II: The Way Ahead. L o nd on : S age , 1975 . S ee a l so ,

B r i a n H o l m e s . Comparative Education: Some Considerations of Method. L o n d o n :G e o r g e A ll e n a n d U n w i n , 1 98 1.

7. See Leslie Ba sh, op. ci t . , pp . 507-5 16.

8 . F o r exam pl e , B e re day ' s Comparative Method in Education appea red i n 1964 ;

H o l m e s ' Problems in Education i n 1 9 6 5 ; a n d H a r o l d J . N o a h a n d M a x A .

E cks t e i n ' s Towards a Science of Comparative Education i n 1 9 6 9. A m o n g t h e

c l a ss i ca l i n t rod uc t o ry t ex t books , o n l y t hose o f S chne ide r , H an s , M a l l in son and

K i n g w ere pub l i shed i n the po s t -w a r pe r i od b e fo re t he m i d - si x ti e s.

9 . F o r som e acco un t o f t he p ro fe s s i ona l soc ie tie s, a l t hou gh w i t h a concen t r a t i on on

E u r o p e , s ee R . C o w e n : 'C o m p a r a t i v e e d u c a t i o n i n E u r o p e : a n o t e '. Cornparative

Education Review. 24 (1980), No. 1.

10. F o r exam pl e , t he International Review of Education was re-es t ab l i shed in 1953,Comparative Education Review w as foun ded i n 1957 , and Comparative Education

bega n i n 1964.

1 1. M o s t o f t h is i n f o r m a t i o n is d r a w n f r o m G e o r g e Z . F . B e r e d ay . Cornparative

Method in Education. N e w Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 6 . T h e t e x t

con t a i n s an i nc rea s i ng l y va l uab l e su rvey o f t he h i s t o r ica l con d i t i on o f com -

par a t ive e du cat io n in the l a t e f it ies and ear ly s ix ti es .

12. S ee T e t suya K ob ayas h i . Survey on Current Trends in Comparative Education.

H a m b u r g : U n e s c o I n s t i tu t e f o r E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 7 1.

13. A use fu l i ndex o f som e o f t he conce rns o f the f ie ld i s the t i tl e s and sequence o f

t h e m e s c h o s e n f o r The (World) Year Book of Education, ed i t ed va r i ous l y by

R o b e r t K i n g H a l l a n d N i c h o l a s H a n s , b u t m o s t f r e q u e n t l y b y G . Z . F . B e r e d a y

a n d J . A . L a u w e r y s , a n d p u b l i s h e d i n L o n d o n a n n u a l l y b y E v a n s B r o s . T h e

i n t e r n a ti o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w h i c h w e h t i n t o t h e c o n c e p t u a l i s a ti o n o f t h e v o l u m e

b y e d i to r s a n d a n e d i to r i al b o a r d d r a w n f r o m b o t h T e a c h e r s C o l le g e , C o l u m b i a ,

a n d t h e I n s ti tu t e o f E d u c a t i o n , L o n d o n , e n s u r e d t h a t t h e t o p ic s w e r e r a r e ly

pa roc h i a l ; t hey w ere f r equen t l y nove l . F o r exam pl e , t he 1954 yea rbo ok w as on t he

sub j ec t o f t e chn ica l a s s is t ance; 1955 on g u i dance and counse l li ng ; 1956 on educa -

t i on and eco nom i cs ; 1957 on t he i n s t i tu t i ona l i s a ti on o fph i l o soph i e s o f educa t i on ;

1958 on t he s econ da ry scho o l cu r r icu l um ; 1959 on h i ghe r educa t i on . In so f a r a s a

Y ea rbo ok open ed up a new t op i c , i t de f ined , po t en t i a l ly a t l e as t, a new spec i a li s a-

t i o n w it h in c o m p a r a t i v e w o r k .14. For example, Michelina Vaughan and Margaret Scotford Archer. Social Conflict

and Educational Change in England and France, 1789-1848. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i-

ty Press , 1969; Fr i t z Ringer . Education and Society in Modern Europe.



3 9 5

B l o o m i n g t o n a n d L o n d o n : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i ty P re s s, 1 97 9; o r R u p e r t W i lk i n s o n .

The Prefects: British Leadership and the Public Sc hoo l Tradition. O x f o r d U n i v e r-

si ty Press, 1964.

1 5. T h e w o r d , ' s n a r k , " s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e i n v e n ti o n o f o n e m a n , L e w i s C a r r o ll .

T h e Concise O xfor d Dictionary of fe r s the de f i n it ion , ' C h i m er i ca l an i m a l o f i ll-

de f i ned cha rac t e r i s t i c s a nd po t en t i a li t ie s . '

Cowen -- Sociological Analysis and Comparative Education

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