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CONJUNCTIONS
Definition
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right
out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't
happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and
they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects
(conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click
on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):
Coordinating Conjunctions
and but or yet for nor so
(It may help you remember these conjunctions by
recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also,
remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-
Yet-So. Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a
coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating
conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not
apply to those two words.)
When a coordinating conjunction connects two
independent clauses, it is often (but not always)
accompanied by a comma:
• Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had
trouble meeting the academic requirements.
Click on "Conjunction
Junction" to read and hear Bob Dorough's "ConjunctionJunction" (from Scholastic
Rock, 1!#$Schoolhouse Rock% and its
characters and other elements are trademarks and
ser&ice marks of mericanBroadcasting Comanies, )nc$
*sed +ith ermission$
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When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely
balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
• Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connectedby a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses for
further help.
A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although
many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
• Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading
comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma
is not used:
• Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant
congregations in Oklahoma.
A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
• This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that
is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a
comma.
• Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the
between-the-wars era.
• Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American
notions of male identity.
• It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting
cultural icon of his day.
• Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal
of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some
sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.
Beginning a Sentence with And or But
freuentl- asked uestion about conjunctions is +hether and or but
can be used at the beginning of a sentence$ .his is +hat R$/$
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Burchfield has to sa- about this use of and 0
.here is a ersistent belief that it is imroer to begin a
sentence +ith And , but this rohibition has been cheerfull-
ignored b- standard authors from ngloSa2on times
on+ards$ n initial And is a useful aid to +riters as the
narrati&e continues$ uthorit-0 The New Fowler's Modern English Usage
edited b- R$/$ Burchfield$ Clarendon 3ress0 42ford, 5ngland$ 16$
*sed +ith the ermission of 42ford *ni&ersit- 3ress$
The same is true with the conjunction but . A sentence beginning with and or
but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers
should examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) would the
sentence and paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction?
(2) should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If
the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and , but ,
and or . It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples
below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
ANDa. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda
sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather
report and promptly boarded up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but
in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage):
"Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually
the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and
you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became
addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."
BUTa. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost
a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite
comfortably."
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b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied
in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never
invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then
the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is
trying out for the team."
ORa. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the
other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken
on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier
all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College
alumnae."
d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence:
"There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the
rather grim "Live free or die."
f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use
of and above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep
electing him mayor."
uthorit- used for this section on the uses of and, but , and or 0 A University Grammar of English b- Randolh7uirk and Sidne- 8reenbaum$ 9ongman 8rou0 5sse2, 5ngland$ 1$ *sed +ith ermission$ 52amles
our o+n$
The Others . . .The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other
conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or
writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor
(see below):
• He is neither sane nor brilliant.
•
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be used with other negative expressions:
• That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an
admission of guilt.
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• Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister,
and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a
semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is
acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the
task:
• Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or
transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
• So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his
parents.
The Case of Then and Than
)n some arts of the *nited States, +e are told,
then and than not onl- look alike, the- sound
alike$ 9ike a teacher +ith t+ins in her classroom,
-ou need to be able to distinguish bet+een these
t+o +ords: other+ise, the-'ll become
mischie&ous$ .he- are often used and the-should be used for the right uroses$
Than is used to make comarisons$ )n the sentence "3igg- +ould
rather be rescued then sta- on the island," +e ha&e emlo-ed the
+rong +ord because a comarison is being made bet+een 3igg-'s
t+o choices: +e need than instead$ )n the sentence, "4ther than
Pinher Martin, 8olding did not +rite another oular no&el," the
ad&erbial construction "other than" hels us make an imlied
comarison: this usage is erfectl- accetable in the *nited States
but careful +riters in the *; tr- to a&oid it (Burchfield#$
Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide
whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a
preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then
the word that follows it should be in the object form.
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• He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me.
• Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play
better than him.
<ost careful +riters, ho+e&er, +ill insist that than be used as aconjunction: it's as if art of the clause introduced b- than has been
left out0
• He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am
handsome].
• You can play better than he [can play].
)n formal, academic te2t, -ou should robabl- use than as a
conjunction and follo+ it +ith the subject form of a ronoun (+here a
ronoun is aroriate#$
Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the little conjunctions listed
at the to of this age$ /e can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to
connect t+o indeendent clauses: usuall-, the- +ill be accomanied
(receded# b- a comma$ .oo man- students think that then +orks the
same +a-0 "Caesar in&aded 8aul, then he turned his attention to
5ngland$" =ou can tell the difference bet+een then and a coordinating
conjunction b- tr-ing to mo&e the +ord around in the sentence$ /e
can +rite "he then turned his attention to 5ngland": "he turned his
attention, then, to 5ngland": he turned his attention to 5ngland then$"
.he +ord can mo&e around +ithin the clause$ .r- that +ith a
conjunction, and -ou +ill uickl- see that the conjunction cannot
mo&e around$ "Caesar in&aded 8aul, and then he turned his attention
to 5ngland$" .he +ord and is stuck e2actl- there and cannot mo&e
like then, +hich is more like an ad&erbial conjunction (or conjuncti&e
ad&erb > see belo+# than a coordinating conjunction$ 4ur original
sentence in this aragrah > "Caesar in&aded 8aul, then he turned
his attention to 5ngland" > is a comma splice, a fault- sentence
construction in +hich a comma tries to hold together t+o indeendent
clauses all b- itself0 the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to
hel out, and the +ord then siml- doesn't +ork that +a-$
Subordinating Conjunctions
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A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or
subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and
establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It
also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its
meaning.
• He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his
life.
• Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the
movies.
• Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after,
before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to
introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in
the sentence.
Coon Subordinating Conjunctions
after
althoughas
as if
as long as
as though because
beforeeven if
even though
if
if onlyin order that
now that
once
rather thansince
so thatthan
that
though
tillunless
until
when
whenever where
whereaswherever
while
The Case of Like and As
Strictl- seaking, the +ord li!e is a reosition, not a conjunction$ )t
can, therefore, be used to introduce a reositional hrase ("<-
brother is tall like m- father"#, but it should not be used to introduce a
clause ("<- brother can't la- the iano like as he did before the
accident" or ")t looks like as if basketball is uickl- o&ertaking
baseball as merica's national sort$"#$ .o introduce a clause, it's a
good idea to use as, as though, or as if , instead$
• Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
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• It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.
• Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had
someone waiting for him.
)n formal, academic te2t, it's a good idea to reser&e the use of li!e forsituations in +hich similarities are being ointed out0
• This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
?o+e&er, +hen -ou are listing things that ha&e similarities, suh as is
robabl- more suitable0
• The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as
the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut
Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.
Oitting That
.he +ord that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate
clause to a receding &erb$ )n this construction that is sometimes
called the "e2leti&e that"# )ndeed, the +ord is often omitted to good
effect, but the &er- fact of eas- omission causes some editors to take
out the red en and strike out the conjunction that +here&er it
aears$ )n the follo+ing sentences, +e can hail- omit the that (or
kee it, deending on ho+ the sentence sounds to us#0• Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
• She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported
her.
• I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flo+ of a
sentence, a break that can be adeuatel- bridged +ith the use of a
comma0
• The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
• Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she
started working here.
s a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good +ithout the that, if
no ambiguit- results from its omission, if the sentence is more
efficient or elegant +ithout it, then +e can safel- omit the that"
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.heodore Bernstein lists three conditions in +hich +e should maintain
the conjunction that 0
• When a time element intervenes between the verb and the
clause: "The boss said yesterday that production in this
department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of"yesterday.")
• When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report
revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the
third quarter of last year were worse than previously thought."
(Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb,
"were.")
• When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The
CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that
production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Didthe CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of
what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes
the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by
Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples
our own.
Beginning a Sentence with Because
Someho+, the notion that one should not begin a sentence +ith the
subordinating conjunction beause retains a m-sterious gri on
eole's sense of +riting rorieties$ .his might come about because
a sentence that begins +ith beause could +ell end u a fragment if
one is not careful to follo+ u the "because clause" +ith an
indeendent clause$
• Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our
communications industry.
/hen the "because clause" is roerl- subordinated to another idea
(regardless of the osition of the clause in the sentence#, there is
absolutel- nothing +rong +ith it0
• Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our
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communications industry, the postal service would very much
like to see it taxed in some manner.
Corre!ati"e Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative
conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should
be treated as grammatically equal.
• She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
• Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
• Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your
best.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for
help with those problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
both . . . and
not only . . . but also
not . . . buteither . . . or
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as
Conjuncti"e Ad"erbsThe conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently,
as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on
Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs
categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application
within sentences (including punctuation issues).
S#NT#NC# SUBJ#CTS
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The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being
something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. Ask the
question, "Who or what 'verbs' or 'verbed'?" and the answer to that question is the subject.
For instance, in the sentence "The computers in the Learning Center must be replaced,"
the verb is "must be replaced." What must be replaced? The computers. So the subject is
"computers." A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers. The
simple subject of the following sentence is issue:
The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations,
is the morality of the nation.Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire
clause. In the following sentence —
What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes,—the simple subject is not "computer repair," nor is it "what he had forgotten," nor is it
"he." Ask what it is that "could fill whole volumes." Your answer should be that the
entire underlined clause is the simple subject.
In English, the subject of a command, order, or suggestion — you, the person being
directed — is usually left out of the sentence and is said to be the understood subject:
• [You] Step lively there or I'll leave you behind!
• Before assembling the swingset, [you] read these instructions carefully.
For purposes of sentence analysis, the do-er or the initiator of action in a sentence is
referred to as the agent of the sentence. In an active sentence, the subject is the agent:• The Johnsons added a double garage to their house.
• The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter.
In a passive sentence, the agent is not the subject. In fact, sometimes a passive sentence
will not contain an agent.
• The dean's report was reviewed by the faculty senate.
• Three cities in the country's interior were bombed.
Subject$%erb In"ersionThe normal English order of subject-verb-completer is disturbed only occasionally
but under several circumstances. Burchfield* lists about ten situations in which the
subject will come after the verb. The most important of these are as follows (subjects in
blue):
1. In questions (routinely): "Have you eaten breakfast yet?" "Are you ready?"
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2. In expletive constructions: "There were four basic causes of the Civil
War." "Here is the book ."
3. In attributing speech (occasionally, but optionally): "'Help me!' cried Farmer
Brown."
4. To give prominence or focus to a particular word or phrase by putting thepredicate in the initial position: "Even more important is the chapter dealing
with ordnance."
5. When a sentence begins with an adverb or an adverbial phrase or clause:
"Seldom has so much been owed by so many to so few."
6. In negative constructions: "I don't believe a word she says, nor does my
brother. Come to think of it, neither does her father."
7. After so: "I believe her; so does my brother."
8. For emphasis and literary effect: "Into the jaws of Death, / Into the mouth of
Hell / Rode the six hundred."**
There are other uses of inversion, but most of those result in a strained or literary
effect.
@The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited b- R$/$ Burchfield$ Clarendon 3ress0 42ford, 5ngland$
16$ *sed +ith the ermission of 42ford *ni&ersit- 3ress$ 52amles our o+n$
@@from lfred 9ord .enn-son's "Charge of the Light Brigade" (1A#$
ARTIC&#S' D#T#R(IN#RS'AND )UANTI*I#RS
Definition
Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that
precede and modify nouns:
the teacher, a college, a bit of hone-, that erson, those eole,
whatever urose, either +a-, your choice
Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a
specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a
Ju+ toArtic!es
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horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great
deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or
noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English,
nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance
language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle
on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European
countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different
system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create
problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.
Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be
followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three
articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless
as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however,explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a
modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new
adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are
well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories
of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns
(Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.);
numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both,
some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these,
those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the
possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often
accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's
life."
.his categoriation of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar b- <artha ;olln$ rth
5dition$ <ac<illan 3ublishing Coman-0 Ee+ =ork$ 1$
Soe Notes on )uantifiers
Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us
how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding
the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose
the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:
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The following $uantifiers will wor! with ount nouns% many trees
a few trees few trees
several trees
a couple of trees none of the trees
The following $uantifiers will wor! with non&ount nouns% not much dancing
a little dancing little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing
The following $uantifiers will wor! with both ount and non&ount nouns% all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing a lack of trees/dancingIn formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases
such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of .
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-
count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that
Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no
great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for
our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that
she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin
American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but
probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin
American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better
go to the library.
Unless it is combined with of , the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and
negative statements:
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• Much of the snow has already melted.
• How much snow fell yesterday?
• Not much.
Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it
modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the
instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a
general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the"
is dropped:
• Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
• Most students apply to several colleges.
uthorit- for this last aragrah0 The ott, Foresman (andboo! for )riters b- <a2ine ?airston and John J$
Ruskie+ic$ th ed$ ?arerCollins0 Ee+ =ork$ 16$ 52amles our o+n$
An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many,
thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):
• Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
• Many an apple has fallen by October.
This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or
archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.
Basic Quiz on Choosing Quantifiers
Quiz on Quantifiers
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,redeteriners
The predeterminers occur prior to other determiners (as you would probably guess
from their name). This class of words includes multipliers (double, twice, four/five times .
. . .); fractional expressions (one-third, three-quarters, etc.); the words both, half, and all;
and intensifiers such as quite, rather, and such.
The multipliers precede plural count and mass nouns and occur with singular count
nouns denoting number or amount:
• This van holds three times the passengers as that sports car.
• My wife is making double my / twice my salary.
• This time we added five times the amount of water.
In fractional expressions, we have a similar construction, but here it can be replaced
with "of" construction.
• Charlie finished in one-fourth [of] the time his brother took.
• Two-fifths of the respondents reported that half the medication was
sufficient.
The intensifiers occur in this construction primarily in casual speech and writing and
are more common in British English than they are in American English. The intensifier
"what" is often found in stylistic fragments: "We visited my brother in his dorm room.
What a mess!"
• This room is rather a mess, isn't it?
• The ticket-holders made quite a fuss when they couldn't get in.
• What an idiot he turned out to be.
• Our vacation was such a grand experience.
Half, both, and all can occur with singular and plural count nouns; half and all can
occur with mass nouns. There are also "of constructions" with these words ("all [of] the
grain," "half [of] his salary"); the "of construction" is required with personal pronouns
("both of them," "all of it"). The following chart (from Quirk and Greenbaum) nicelydescribes the uses of these three predeterminers:
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Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will
continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.
Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using
any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article
altogether.
• A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
• An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
• The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
• Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun
is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle
will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.
Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
• Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West,
the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper
noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We
went swimming at the Ocean Park)
•
Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, theBahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
• Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the
Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
• Newspapers: the Hartford Courant , the Times
• Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of
the gang, the president of our club
Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are
sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:
• The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of
mind.
• Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the
judge to correct the injustice.
• Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.
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Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with
the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers
to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get
the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and
academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used
without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses
for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We
adore the music of the Baroque." Also when a generic noun is used without an article and
then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a
definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this
summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomaticexpressions
using be and go
We'll go by train. as opposed to !We'll ta"e the train.#$e must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we li"e to clean the house.
with institutions $e's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals%rea"fast was delicious.
$e's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases
$e's dying of pneumonia.
&ppendicitis nearly "illed him.
he has cancer (ou will sometimes hear !the measles,! !the mumps,! but these,too, can go without articles.#
with time of dayWe traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.
,rinci+!es of Choosing an Artic!eChoosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-
marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There
is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word
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or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an
image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.
Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that
kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.
If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.
Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an
"unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you
will hear the difference between these two:
• That is SOME car you've got there!
• I don't want to hear ANY excuse!
&s opposed to. . .• We have some cars left in the lot.
• Isn't there any furniture in the living room?
In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify
singular count nouns.
Quiz on A, An, and The
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Acti"e / ,assi"e %erb *ors
Sentences can be acti&e or assi&e$ .herefore, tenses also ha&e "cti&e Forms" and "3assi&eForms"$ =ou must learn to recognie the difference to successfull- seak 5nglish$
ACTI%# *OR(
)n acti&e sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thingrecei&ing the action is the object$ <ost sentences are acti&e$
G.hing doing actionH I G5RBH I Gthing recei&ing actionH
#0A(,&#S1
.he rofessor teaches the students$ (subject# (acti&e &erb# (object#(doing action# (recei&ing action#
John +ashes the dishes$(subject# (acti&e &erb# (object#(doing action# (recei&ing action#
PASSIVE FO!
In some sentences, spea"ers use the passive form. In the passive form, the thing receiving the action isthe subject and the thing doing the action is the object. (ou can use the passive form if you thin" the thingreceiving the action is more important or should be emphasi)ed.
*Thing receiving action+ *%-+ *past participle of verb+ *by+ *thing doing action+
E"A!P#ES$
The students are taught by the professor.subject# passive verb#
receiving action# doing action#
The dishes are washed by ohn.subject# passive verb#
receiving action# doing action#
,resent Conditiona!s
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3resent Real Conditional *OR(
G)f K /hen $$$ S)<395 3R5S5E.$$$, $$$ S)<395 3R5S5E. $$$ H
US#
.he 3resent Real Conditional is used to talk about +hat -ou normall- do in reallife situations$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) go to a friends house for dinner, ) usuall- take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$
/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) often go to the beach$
)f the +eather is nice, she +alks to +ork$
Jerr- hels me +ith m- home +ork +hen he has time$
) read if there is nothing on .$
/hat do -ou do +hen it rainsL
) sta- at home$
/here do -ou sta- if -ou go to S-dne-L
) sta- +ith m- friends near the harbor$
I(,ORTANT If / 2hen
Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the 3resent Real Conditional$ *sing "if" suggests that something
haens less freuentl-$ *sing "+hen" suggests that something haens regularl-$
#0A(,&#S0
/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- go to the beach$
() regularl- ha&e da-s off from +ork$#
)f ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- go to the beach$
() rarel- ha&e da-s off from +ork$#
3resent *nreal Conditional *OR(
G)f $$$ S)<395 3S. $$$, $$$ +ould I 5RB $$$ H
US#
.he 3resent *nreal Conditional is used to talk about +hat -ou +ould do in imaginar- situations in
general$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) had a car, ) +ould dri&e to +ork$ But ) don't ha&e a car$
She +ould tra&el around the +orld if she had more mone-$ But she doesn't ha&e muchmone-$
) +ould read more if ) didn't ha&e a .$
<ar- +ould mo&e to Jaan if she soke Jaanese$
)f the- +orked harder, the- +ould earn more mone-$
/hat +ould -ou do if -ou +on the lotter-L
) +ould tra&el$
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/here +ould -ou li&e if -ou mo&ed to the *$S$L
) +ould li&e in Seattle$
#0C#,TION If I were ...
)n the 3resent *nreal Conditional, the form "+as" is not considered grammaticall- correct$ )n
+ritten 5nglish or in testing situations, -ou should al+a-s use "+ere$" ?o+e&er, in e&er-da-con&ersation, "+as" is often used$
#0A(,&#S0
)f he +ere French, he +ould li&e in 3aris$
)f she +ere rich, she +ould bu- a -acht$
) +ould la- basketball if ) +ere taller$
) +ould bu- that comuter if it +ere cheaer$
) +ould bu- that comuter if it +as cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT 3But often said in
con"ersation.4
#0C#,TION Conditiona! with (oda! %erbs.here are some secial conditional forms for modal &erbs in 5nglish0
+ould I can M could
+ould I shall M should
+ould I ma- M might
.he +ords "can," "shall" and "ma-" must be used in these secial forms: the- cannot be
used +ith "+ould$"
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) +ent to 5g-t, ) +ould can learn rabic$ NOT CORR#CT
)f ) +ent to 5g-t, ) could learn rabic$ CORR#CT
)f she had time, she +ould ma- go to the art-$ NOT CORR#CT
)f she had time, she might go to the art-$ CORR#CT
.he +ords "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so -ou cannot
combine them +ith "+ould$"
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) had more time, ) +ould could e2ercise after +ork$ NOT CORR#CT
)f ) had more time, ) could e2ercise after +ork$ CORR#CT
)f he in&ited -ou, -ou reall- +ould should go$ NOT CORR#CT
)f he in&ited -ou, -ou reall- should go$ CORR#CT
I(,ORTANT On!5 use 6If6
4nl- the +ord "if" is used +ith the 3resent *nreal Conditional because -ou are discussing
imaginar- situations$ "/hen" cannot be used$
#0A(,&#S0
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) +ould bu- that comuter +hen it +ere cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT
) +ould bu- that comuter if it +ere cheaer$ CORR#CT
52ercises and Related .oics
7o to ,resent Conditiona! #8ercises
.est -our kno+ledge of 3resent Real Conditional &s$ 3resent *nreal Conditional
,ast Conditiona!s
3ast Real Conditional *OR(
G)f K /hen $$$ S)<395 3S.$$$, $$$ S)<395 3S.$ H
US#
.he 3ast Real Conditional describes +hat -ou used to do in articular real life situations$ )t
suggests that -our habits ha&e changed and -ou do not usuall- do these things toda-$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) +ent to a friend's house for dinner, ) usuall- took a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$ ) don't
do that an-more$
/hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) often +ent to the beach$ Eo+, ) ne&er get time off$
)f the +eather +as nice, she often +alked to +ork$ Eo+, she usuall- dri&es$
Jerr- al+a-s heled me +ith m- home+ork +hen he had time$ But he doesn't do that
an-more$
) usuall- read if there +as nothing on .$
/hat did -ou usuall- do +hen it rainedL
) usuall- sta-ed at home$
I(,ORTANT Used to
.he form "*sed to" is often used to emhasie that the ast action +as a habit$ )f -ou are not
familiar +ith the form "*sed to," -ou can read about it in the 5nglish 3age's 6Used to ,age.6
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) +ent to a friends house for dinner, ) used to take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$ ) don't
do that an-more$ /hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) used to go to the beach$ Eo+, ) ne&er get time off$
)f the +eather +as nice, she used to +alk to +ork$ Eo+, she usuall- dri&es$
Jerr- used to hel me +ith m- home+ork +hen he had time$ But he doesn't do that
an-more$
/hat did -ou do +hen it rainedL
) used to sta- at home$
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I(,ORTANT If / 2hen
Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the 3ast Real Conditional$ *sing "if" suggests that something
haened less freuentl-$ *sing "+hen" suggests that something haened regularl-$
#0A(,&#S0
/hen ) had a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- +ent to the beach$
() regularl- had da-s off from +ork$#)f ) had a da- off from +ork, ) usuall- +ent to the beach$
() rarel- had da-s off from +ork$#
3ast *nreal Conditional *OR(
G)f $$$ 3S. 35RF5C. $$$, $$$ +ould ha&e I 3S. 3R.)C)395 $$$ H
US#
.he 3ast *nreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginar- situations in the ast$ =ou can
describe +hat -ou +ould ha&e done differentl- or ho+ something could ha&e haened differentl-
if circumstances had been different$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) had had a car, ) +ould ha&e dri&en to +ork$ But ) didn't ha&e one, so ) took the bus$
She +ould ha&e tra&eled around the +orld if she had had more mone-$ But she didn't ha&e
much mone-, so she ne&er tra&eled$
) +ould ha&e read more as a child if ) hadn't had a .$ *nfortunatel-, ) did ha&e a ., so )
ne&er read for entertainment$
<ar- +ould ha&e gotten the job and mo&ed to Jaan if she had studied Jaanese in school
instead of French$
)f the- had +orked harder, the- +ould ha&e earned more mone-$ *nfortunatel-, the- +erela- and the- didn't earn much$
/hat +ould -ou ha&e done if -ou had +on the lotter- last +eekL
) +ould ha&e tra&eled$
/hat cit- +ould -ou ha&e chosen if -ou had decided to mo&e to the *nited StatesL
) +ould ha&e chosen Seattle$
#0C#,TION Conditiona! with (oda! %erbs
.here are some secial conditional forms for modal &erbs in 5nglish0
+ould ha&e I can M could ha&e
+ould ha&e I shall M should ha&e+ould ha&e I ma- M might ha&e
.he +ords "can," "shall" and "ma-" must be used in these secial forms: the- cannot be
used +ith "+ould ha&e$"
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) had gone to 5g-t, ) could ha&e learned rabic$ CORR#CT
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)f she had had time, she might ha&e gone to the art-$ CORR#CT
.he +ords "could," should," "might" and "ought to" include conditional, so -ou cannot
combine them +ith "+ould$"
#0A(,&#S0 )f ) had had more time, ) +ould ha&e could e2ercise after +ork$ NOT CORR#CT
)f ) had had more time, ) could ha&e e2ercised after +ork$ CORR#CT
)f he had in&ited -ou, -ou +ould ha&e might go$ NOT CORR#CT
)f he had in&ited -ou, -ou might ha&e gone $ CORR#CT
I(,ORTANT On!5 use 6If6
4nl- the +ord "if" is used +ith the 3ast *nreal Conditional because -ou are discussing imaginar-
situations$ "/hen" cannot be used$
#0A(,&#S0 ) +ould ha&e bought that comuter +hen it had been cheaer$ NOT CORR#CT
) +ould ha&e bought that comuter if it had been cheaer$ CORR#CT
52ercises and Related .oics
,ast Conditiona! #8ercises .est -our kno+ledge of 3ast Real Conditional &s$ 3ast *nreal
Conditional &s$ 3resent Real Conditional
*uture Conditiona!s
Future Real Conditional *OR(
G)f K /hen $$$S)<395 3R5S5E.$$$, $$$ S)<395 F*.*R5$ H
Eotice that there is no future in the ")f" or "/hen" clause$
US#
.he Future Real Conditional describes +hat -ou think -ou +ill do in a secific situation in the
future$ )t is different from other real conditional forms because unlike the resent or the ast, -ou
do not kno+ +hat +ill haen in the future$ lthough this form is called a "real conditional," -ou
are usuall- imagining or guessing about the future$ )t is called "real" because it is still ossible
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that the action might occur in the future$ Carefull- stud- the follo+ing e2amles and comare
them to the Future *nreal Conditional described belo+$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) go to a friend's house for dinner tonight, ) +ill take a bottle of +ine or some flo+ers$
() am still not sure if ) +ill go to his house or not$#
/hen ) ha&e a da- off from +ork, ) am going to go to the beach$() ha&e to +ait until ) ha&e a da- off$#
)f the +eather is nice, she is going to +alk to +ork$
()t deends on the +eather$#
Jerr- +ill hel me +ith m- home+ork +hen he has time$
() ha&e to +ait until he has time$#
) am going to read if there is nothing on .$
()t deends on the . schedule$#
/hat are -ou going to do if it rainsL
) am going to sta- at home$
I(,ORTANT If / 2hen
Both "if" and "+hen" are used in the Future Real Conditional, but the use is different from other
real conditionals$ )n the Future Real Conditional, "if" suggests that -ou do not kno+ if something
+ill haen or not$ "/hen" suggests that something +ill definitel- haen at some oint: +e are
siml- +aiting for it to occur$ Eotice also that the Simle Future is not used in "if' clauses or
"+hen" clauses$
#0A(,&#S0
/hen -ou ca!! me, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$
(=ou are going to call me later, and at that time, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$#
)f -ou ca!! me, ) +ill gi&e -ou the address$
()f -ou +ant the address, -ou can call me$#
Future *nreal Conditional *OR(
G)f $$$ S)<395 3S. $$$, $$$ +ould I 5RB $$$ H
Eotice the form looks the same as 3resent *nreal Conditional$
US#
.he Future *nreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginar- situations in the future$ )t is not ascommon as the Future Real Conditional because most 5nglish seakers lea&e oen the
ossibilit- that an-thing <)8?. haen in the future$ )t is onl- used +hen a seaker needs to
emhasie that something reall- is imossible$
#0A(,&#S0
)f ) had a da- off from +ork ne2t +eek, ) +ould go to the beach$
() don't ha&e a da- off from +ork$#
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)f Sarah should haen to sho+ u late to the birthda- art-, it +ould ruin the surrise$
Comare Both Forms
.o hel -ou understand the difference bet+een the t+o forms abo&e, comare the e2amles
belo+0
#0A(,&#S0
)f -ou hel me mo&e tomorro+, ) +ill bu- -ou dinner$ *UTUR# R#A& CONDITIONA&
() don't kno+ if -ou can hel me$#
)f -ou heled me mo&e tomorro+, ) +ould bu- -ou dinner$ *UTUR# UNR#A&
CONDITIONA&
(=ou can't hel me, or -ou don't +ant to hel me$#
52ercises and Related .oics
*uture Conditiona! #8ercises .est -our kno+ledge of Future Real Conditional &s$ Future *nreal
Conditional
$
CONDITIONA& O%#R%I#2 2IT9 #0A(,&#S
,resent Rea! Conditiona! ,resent Unrea! Conditiona!
)f ) ha&e time, ) stud- 5nglish$ (Sometimes ) ha&e time$#
)f ) had time, ) +ould stud- 5nglish$ () don't ha&e time$#
,ast Rea! Conditiona! ,ast Unrea! Conditiona!
)f ) had time, ) studied 5nglish$ (Somtimes ) had time$#
)f ) had had time, ) +ould ha&e studied5nglish$
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() didn't ha&e time$#
*uture Rea! Conditiona! *uture Unrea! Conditiona!
)f ) ha&e time, ) +ill stud- 5nglish$ )f ) ha&e time, ) am going to stud-
5nglish$ () don't kno+ if ) +ill ha&e time or not$#
4ther forms ossible$
)f ) had time, ) +ould stud- 5nglish$ () +on't ha&e time$#
4ther forms ossible$
)f -ou ha&e an- conditional uestions go to #ng!ish ,age *A)
(oda! %erb
Introduction
<odals are secial &erbs +hich beha&e &er- irregularl- in 5nglish$ 5nglishage$com hascreated one of the most indeth modal tutorials in rint or online$ Stud- the modal e2lanationsand comlete the associated e2ercises and take another ste to+ard 5nglish fluenc-$ )f -ou +antto use the <odal erb 3ages as a reference onl- and do not +ant to comlete the tutorial C!ic-9ere$
The tutoria! shou!d be co+!eted as fo!!ows1
1$ Read this "<odal )ntroduction" comletel-$ 5ach <odal 52ercise has associated grammare2lanations to hel -ou imro&e -our kno+legde of the <odal erbs and related e2ressions$
N$ .he first e2ercise, (oda! :, focuses on the basic modals can, cou!d, ha"e to, ust,
ight and shou!d$
$ 52ercise (oda! ; focuses on the differences bet+een ha"e to and ust$
$ 52ercise (oda! < first focuses on ight, ust and shou!d$ fter+ards, -ou can reeat
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Can Could
<a-
<ight
<ust
4ught to Shall Should
/ill
/ould
I(,ORTANT0 For the uroses of this tutorial, +e ha&e included some e2ressions +hich
are not <odal erbs including had better , ha"e to and ha"e got to$ .hese e2ressions are
closel- related to <odals in meaning and are often interchanged +ith them$
Can
<odal *se1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms=ou canalsouse0
can
general abilit-
1$ ) can seak Chinese
N$ S?)F.S .4
"C4*9D" ) could seak Chinese +hen
) +as a kid$
$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
) +ill be able to seak
Chinese b- the time ) finish
m- course$
1$ ) can't seak S+ahili$
N$ S?)F.S .4"C4*9D"
) couldn't seak S+ahili$
$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
) +on't be able to seak
S+ahili$
to beable
can abilit- during asecific e&ent
1$ /ith a burst ofadrenaline, eole can icku cars$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
/ith a sudden burst of
1$ 3eole can't ick ucars$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
5&en the +eight lifter,
couldn't lift the car off the
to beable
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adrenaline, he +as able to
lift the car off the child's leg$
$ S?)F.S .4 "B5 B95 .4"
/ith a sudden burst of
adrenaline, he +ill be able
to lift the car$
child's leg$
$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
5&en three men +orking
together +on't be able to lift
the car$
can
oortunit-
1$ ) ha&e some free time$ )can hel her no+$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
) had some free time
-esterda-$ ) +as able to hel
her at that time$
$ )'ll ha&e some free
time tomorro+$ ) can hel
her then$
1$ ) don't ha&e an- time$ )can't hel her no+$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
B95 .4"
) didn't ha&e time
-esterda-$ ) +asn't able to
hel her at that time$
$ ) +on't ha&e an-
time later$ ) can't hel her
then$
to beable
can
ermission
1$ ) can dri&e Susan's car+hen she is out of to+n$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
994/5D"
) +as allo+ed to dri&e
Susan's car +hile she +as
out of to+n last +eek$
$ ) can dri&e Susan's
car +hile she is out of to+n
ne2t +eek$
1$ ) can't dri&e Susan's car+hen she is out of to+n$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "B5
994/5D"
) +asn't allo+ed to dri&e
Susan's car +hile she +as
out of to+n last +eek$
$ ) can't dri&e Susan's
car +hile she is out of to+n
ne2t +eek$
ma-
can
reuest
Can ) ha&e a glass of+aterL
Can -ou gi&e me a lift
to schoolL
Can't ) ha&e a glass of+aterL
Can't -ou gi&e me a lift
to schoolL
could ma-
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(Reuests usuall- refer
to the near future$#
(Reuests usuall-
refer to the near future$#
can
ossibilit- Kimossibilit-
n-one can become rich
and famous if the- kno+ theright eole$
9earning a language
can be a real challenge$
(.his use is usuall- a
generaliation or an
suosition$#
)t can't cost more than a
dollar or t+o$
=ou can't be P )
thought -ou +ere about 1A
-ears old$
(.his use is usuall- a
generaliation or an
suosition$#
could
Cou!d
<odal *se1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms=ou canalso use0
could
ossibilit-
1$ John could be the one+ho stole the mone-$
N$ John could ha&e been
the one +ho stole the
mone-$
$ John could be
charged +ith the crime +hen
the olice finish the
in&estigation$
1$ <ar- couldn't be the one+ho stole the mone-$
N$ <ar- couldn't ha&e
been the one +ho stole the
mone-$
$ <ar- couldn't ossibl-
be charge +ith the crime after
the olice e2amine the
e&idence$
might, ma-
could
conditional (can, could#
1$ )f ) had more time, ) couldtra&el around the +orld$
N$ )f ) had had more
time, ) could ha&e tra&eled
1$ 5&en if ) had more time, )couldn't tra&el around the+orld$
N$ 5&en if ) had had more
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around the +orld$
$ )f ) had more time this
+inter, ) could tra&el around
the +orld$
time, ) couldn't ha&e tra&eled
around the +orld$
$ 5&en if ) had more timethis +inter, ) could tra&el
around the +orld$
could
suggestion
1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<
N$ =ou could ha&e sent
-our &acation in ?a+aii$
$ =ou could send -our
&acation in ?a+aii$
E4 E58.)5 F4R<S
could
ast abilit-
) could run ten miles in m-t+enties$
) could seak Chinese
+hen ) +as a kid$
) couldn't run more than a milein m- t+enties$
) couldn't seak S+ahili$
be ableto
could olitereuest
Could ) ha&e something todrinkL
Could borro+ -ourstalerL
(Reuests usuall- refer
to the near future$#
Couldn't he come +ith usL
Couldn't -ou hel me +ith
this for just a secondL
(Reuests usuall- refer to
the near future$#
can, ma-, might
9a"e to
<odal*se
1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms
=oucan
alsouse0
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ha&e to
certaint-
1$ .hat has to be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith brightred hair$
N$ .hat has to ha&e
been the right restaurant$
.here are no other
restaurants on this street$
$ E4E5
1$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S."
.hat must not ha&e been Jerr-+e sa+$ ?e +as suosed toha&e red hair$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S." .hat must not ha&e been the
right restaurant$ ) guess there is
another one around here
some+here$
$ E4E5
must, ha&egot to
ha&e to
necessit-
1$ She has to read four
books for this literatureclass$
N$ She had to finish the
first book before the
midterm$
$ She +ill ha&e to finish
the other books before the
final e2am$
1$ She doesn't ha&e to read"8raes of /rath$" )t's otional
reading for e2tra credit$
N$ She didn't ha&e to +rite a
critiue of ".he Scarlet 9etter$"
She had to gi&e a resentation to
her class$
$ She +on't ha&e to take
an- other literature classes$
merican 9iterature 1O1 is the
onl- reuired course$
must
don'tha&e to
choiceK no
obligation
1$ ) don't ha&e to take an-tests$ .he course is just forfun$
N$ ) didn't ha&e to take
the test$ .he teacher let me
do a reort instead$
$ ) +on't ha&e to takethe test$ )t's going to be for
e2tra credit and ) don't need
the oints$
R#(#(B#R1 6Do not ha"e to6 "s. 6(ust not6
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"Do not ha&e to" suggests that someone is not reuired to do something$ "<ustnot" suggests that -ou are rohibited from doing something$
(ust
<odal *se1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms=ou canalso use0
must certaint-
1$ .hat must be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith bright
red hair$
N$ .hat must ha&e
been the right restaurant$
.here are no other
restaurants on this street$
$ E4 F*.*R5 F4R<
1$ .hat must not be Jerr-$?e is suosed to ha&ered hair$
N$ .hat must not ha&e
been the right restaurant$ )
guess there is another one
around here some+here$
$ E4 F*.*R5
F4R<
ha&e to
must not rohibition
=ou must not s+im in that
ri&er$ )t's full of crocodiles$
=ou must not forget to
take -our malaria
medication +hile -our are
in the troics$
(3rohibition usuall-
refer to the near future$#
must strong recommendation
(mericans
refer
the form
1$ =ou must take some timeoff and get some rest$
N$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou should ha&e taken
some time off last +eek to
1$ =ou mustn't drink somuch$ )t's not good for-our health$
N$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou shouldn't ha&e drunk
should
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"should$"#
get some rest$
$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou should take some time
off ne2t +eek to get some
rest$
so much$ .hat caused the
accident$
$ S?)F. .4"S?4*9D"
=ou shouldn't drink at the
art-$ =ou are going to be
the designated dri&er$
must necessit-
(mericans
refer
the form
"ha&e to$"#
1$ =ou must ha&e a ermitto enter the national ark$
N$ S?)F. .4 "?5
.4"
/e had to ha&e a ermit to
enter the ark$
$ /e must get a
ermit to enter the ark
ne2t +eek$
1$ S?)F. .4 "?5 .4" /e don't ha&e to get aermit to enter thenational ark$
N$ S?)F. .4 "?5.4"
/e didn't ha&e to get a
ermit to enter the
national ark$
$ S?)F. .4 "?5
.4"
/e +on't ha&e to get a
ermit to enter the
national ark$
ha&e to
(ight
<odal *se
1$ 3resent
N$ 3ast $ Future Eegati&e Forms
=ou can
also use0
might ossibilit-
1$ She might be on the bus$ )think her car is ha&ingroblems$
N$ She might ha&e taken
1$ She might not be on thebus$ She might be +alkinghome$
N$ She might not ha&e
could, ma-
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the bus$ )'m not sure ho+ she
got to +ork$
$ She might take the busto get home$ ) don't think Bill
+ill be able to gi&e her a ride$
taken the bus$ She might
ha&e +alked home$
$ She might not takethe bus$ She might get a
ride from Bill$
might conditional (ma-, might#
1$ )f ) entered the contest, )might actuall- +in$
N$ )f ) had entered the
contest, ) might actuall- ha&e
+on$
$ )f ) entered the contest
tomorro+, ) might actuall- +in$
*nfortunatel-, ) can't enter it$
1$ 5&en if ) entered thecontest, ) might not +in$
N$ 5&en if ) had
entered the contest, )
might not ha&e +on$
$ 5&en if ) entered
the contest tomorro+, )
might not +in$
might suggestion
1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<
N$ =ou might ha&e tried the
cheese cake$
$ =ou might tr- the
cheesecake$
1$ E4 3R5S5E. F4R<
N$ 3S. F4R<
*EC4<<4E
$ =ou might not +ant
to eat the cheese cake$ )t's
&er- calorific$
could
might reuest
(British
form#
<ight ) ha&e something todrinkL
<ight ) borro+ the stalerL
(Reuests usuall- refer to
the near future$#
E58.)5 F4R<S*EC4<<4E
could, ma-, can
R#(#(B#R1 6(ight not6 "s. 6Cou!d not6
"<ight not" suggests -ou do not kno+ if something haens$ "Could not" suggeststhat it is imossible for something to haen$
Shou!d
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<odal *se 1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms=ou can also use0
should
recommendation ad&isabilit-
1$ 3eole +ith high cholesterolshould eat lo+ fat foods$
N$ Frank should ha&e
eaten lo+ fat foods$ .hat might
ha&e re&ented his heart
attack$
$ =ou reall- should start
eating better$
1$ Sarah shouldn'tsmoke so much$ )t'snot good for herhealth$
N$ Sarah
shouldn't ha&e
smoked so much$
.hat's +hat caused
her health roblems$
$ Sarah
shouldn't smoke
+hen she &isits
<artha ne2t +eek$
<artha hates +hen
eole smoke in her
house$
ought to
should
obligation
) should be at +ork before0OO$
/e should return the &ideo
before the &ideo rental store
closes$
("Should" can also e2ress
something bet+een
recommendation andobligation$ "Be suosed to"
e2resses a similar idea and
can easil- be used in the ast
or in negati&e forms$#
E4 E58.)5F4R<S
besuosed,to
should 1$ Susan should be in Ee+=ork b- no+$
1$ Susan shouldn'tbe in Ee+ =ork -et$
ought to, be
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assumtionK e2ectationK robabilit-
N$ Susan should ha&e
arri&ed in Ee+ =ork last +eek$
9et's call her and see +hat she
is u to$
$ Susan should be in Ee+
=ork b- ne2t +eek$ ?er ne+ job
starts on <onda-$
N$ Susan
shouldn't ha&e
arri&ed in Ee+ =ork
until -esterda-$
$ Susan
shouldn't arri&e in
Ee+ =ork until ne2t
+eek$
suosedto
9a"e to
<odal*se
1$ 3resent N$ 3ast $ Future
Eegati&e Forms
=oucan
alsouse0
ha&e to
certaint-
1$ .hat has to be Jerr-$ .he-said he +as tall +ith bright
red hair$
N$ .hat has to ha&e
been the right restaurant$
.here are no other
restaurants on this street$
$ E4E5
1$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S." .hat must not ha&e been Jerr-+e sa+$ ?e +as suosed to
ha&e red hair$
N$ S?)F.S .4 "<*S."
.hat must not ha&e been the
right restaurant$ ) guess there is
another one around here
some+here$
$ E4E5
must, ha&egot to
ha&e to necessit-
1$ She has to read fourbooks for this literatureclass$
N$ She had to finish the
first book before the
1$ She doesn't ha&e to read"8raes of /rath$" )t's otionalreading for e2tra credit$
N$ She didn't ha&e to +rite a
critiue of ".he Scarlet 9etter$"
She had to gi&e a resentation to
must
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restaurants on this street$
$ E4 F*.*R5 F4R<
around here some+here$
$ E4 F*.*R5
F4R<
must not rohibition
=ou must not s+im in thatri&er$ )t's full of crocodiles$
=ou must not forget to
take -our malaria
medication +hile -our are
in the troics$
(3rohibition usuall-
refer to the near future$#
must strong
recommendation
(mericans
refer
the form
"should$"#
1$ =ou must take some timeoff and get some rest$
N$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou should ha&e taken
some time off last +eek to
get some rest$
$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou should take some time
off ne2t +eek to get some
rest$
1$ =ou mustn't drink somuch$ )t's not good for-our health$
N$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou shouldn't ha&e drunk
so much$ .hat caused the
accident$
$ S?)F. .4
"S?4*9D"
=ou shouldn't drink at the
art-$ =ou are going to be
the designated dri&er$
should
must necessit-
(mericans
refer
the form
"ha&e to$"#
1$ =ou must ha&e a ermitto enter the national ark$
N$ S?)F. .4 "?5
.4"
/e had to ha&e a ermit to
enter the ark$
$ /e must get a
1$ S?)F. .4 "?5 .4" /e don't ha&e to get a
ermit to enter thenational ark$
N$ S?)F. .4 "?5
.4"
/e didn't ha&e to get a
ermit to enter the
ha&e to
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ermit to enter the ark
ne2t +eek$
national ark$
$ S?)F. .4 "?5
.4" /e +on't ha&e to get a
ermit to enter the
national ark$