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![Page 1: Con 1 units The Scientific Method 1. Observe the problem 2. collect data 3. search for laws that describe the problem 4. form a hypothesis 5. form a.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062718/56649e795503460f94b793b6/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Con 1 units
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The Scientific Method
• 1. Observe the problem
• 2. collect data
• 3. search for laws that describe the problem
• 4. form a hypothesis
• 5. form a theory
• 6. test or modify the theory.
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Steps for the Scientific Method
Step # 1 – Observation
• Observation – the act of gathering information (data)– Qualitative data – information with NO
numbers • (hot, blue, rainy, cold)
– Quantitative data – information with numbers
• (98°F, 80% humidity, 0°C)
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Steps for the Scientific Method
Step # 2 – Form a Hypothesis
• Hypothesis – tentative explanation for what has been observed
– There is no formal evidence at this point
– It is just a gut feeling
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Steps for the Scientific MethodStep # 3 – Experimentation
Experimentation – a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis
– Independent variable – the thing that you change in the experiment
– Dependant variable – the thing that changes because you changes the independent variable
– Constant – something that does not change during the experiment
– Control – the standard for comparison
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For example…
• Let’s say we are going to do an experiment testing what happens when you heat and cool a balloon…
We will start with a balloon at room temperature
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Now we will change something…
I will add heat to one balloon
What will happen to the balloon’s
size?
It will expand
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Now let’s cool things down
I will add cool down the balloon
What will happen to the balloon’s
size?
It will get smaller
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So what is what?• What variable did YOU change?
– Temperature
• What variable changes BECAUSE you changed the temperature?– Size of the balloon
• What is did not change in the experiment?– Amount of air in the balloon, what the balloon is
made of…
• What balloon did you use to compare the others to?– The room temperature balloon
(Independent Variable)
(Dependent Variable)
(Constant)
(Control)
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Steps for the Scientific Method
Step # 4 – Conclusion
• Conclusion – judgment based on the information obtained
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• There are seven base units in SI.
Base Units
• A base unit is a defined unit in a system of measurement that is based on an object or event in the physical world.
• A base unit is independent of other units.
• Some familiar quantities that are expressed in base units are time, length, mass, and temperature.
Topic 3Topic 3
Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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Base Units
Topic 3Topic 3
Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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Time
Topic 3Topic 3
Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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• Not all quantities can be measured with base units.
Derived Units
• For example, the SI unit for speed is meters per second (m/s).
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• Notice that meters per second includes two SI base units—the meter and the second. A unit that is defined by a combination of base units is called a derived unit.
Derived Units
• Two other quantities that are measured in derived units are volume and density.
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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• Volume is the space occupied by an object.
Volume
• The derived unit for volume is the cubic meter, which is represented by a cube whose sides are all one meter in length.
• For measurements that you are likely to make, the more useful derived unit for volume is the cubic centimeter (cm3).
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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• Scientists use two temperature scales.
Temperature Scales
• .
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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Temperature Scales
• THe defined the freezing point of water is 0 and the boiling point as 100.
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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Temperature Scales• The Kelvin scale was devised
by a Scottish physicist and mathematician, William Thomson, who was known as Lord Kelvin.
• A kelvin (K) is the SI base unit of temperature.
• On the Kelvin scale, water freezes at about 273 K and boils at about 373 K.
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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Significant Figures
• Scientist use significant figures to determine how precise a measurement is
• Significant digits in a measurement include all of the known digits plus one estimated digit
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For example…• Look at the ruler below
• Each line is 0.1cm• You can read that the arrow is on 13.3 cm• However, using significant figures, you must
estimate the next digit• That would give you 13.30 cm
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Let’s try this one
• Look at the ruler below
• What can you read before you estimate?
• 12.8 cm
• Now estimate the next digit…
• 12.85 cm
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The same rules apply with all instruments
• The same rules apply
• Read to the last digit that you know
• Estimate the final digit
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Let’s try graduated cylinders
• Look at the graduated cylinder below
• What can you read with confidence?• 56 ml• Now estimate the last digit• 56.0 ml
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One more graduated cylinder
• Look at the cylinder below…
• What is the measurement?
• 53.5 ml
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Rules for Significant figuresRule #1
• All non zero digits are ALWAYS significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
•274274
•25.63225.632
•8.9878.987
•3 Significant Figures3 Significant Figures
•5 Significant Digits5 Significant Digits
•4 Significant Figures4 Significant Figures
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Rule #2
• All zeros between significant digits are ALWAYS significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
504
60002
9.077
3 Significant Figures
5 Significant Digits
4 Significant Figures
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Rule #3
• All FINAL zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
32.0
19.000
105.0020
3 Significant Figures
5 Significant Digits
7 Significant Figures
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Rule #4
• All zeros that act as place holders are NOT significant
• Another way to say this is: zeros are only significant if they are between significant digits OR are the very final thing at the end of a decimal
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Rule #5
• All counting numbers and constants have an infinite number of significant digits
• For example:
1 hour = 60 minutes
12 inches = 1 foot
24 hours = 1 day
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How many sig. Figs. Are in the following
numbers?
• 56784• 40002• 600• 34081000.00• 123.4005• 38726.000• 7162534• 100• 200.0004
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Scientific Notation
• When numbers larger than 1 are expressed in scientific notation, the power of ten is positive.
• When numbers smaller than 1 are expressed in scientific notation, the power of ten is negative.
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Data Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic ConceptsData Analysis: Basic Concepts
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• Remove the extra zeros at the end or beginning of the factor.
• Multiply the result by 10n where n equals the number of places moved.
Convert Data into Scientific Notation
• Remember to add units to the answers.
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Significant Digits in Calculations
• Now you know how to determine the number of significant digits in a number
• How do you decide what to do when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing?
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Rules for Addition and Subtraction
• When you add or subtract measurements, your answer must have the same number of decimal places as the one with the fewest
• For example:
20.4 + 1.322 + 83
= 104.722
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Addition & Subtraction Continued
• Because you are adding, you need to look at the number of decimal places
20.4 + 1.322 + 83 = 104.722 (1) (3) (0)
• Since you are adding, your answer must have the same number of decimal places as the one with the fewest
• The fewest number of decimal places is 0• Therefore, you answer must be rounded to have 0
decimal places• Your answer becomes• 105
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Rules for Multiplication & Division
• When you multiply and divide numbers you look at the TOTAL number of significant digits NOT just decimal places
• For example:
67.50 x 2.54
= 171.45
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Multiplication & Division
• Because you are multiplying, you need to look at the total number of significant digits not just decimal places
67.50 x 2.54 = 171.45
(4) (3)
• Since you are multiplying, your answer must have the same number of significant digits as the one with the fewest
• The fewest number of significant digits is 3
• Therefore, you answer must be rounded to have 3 significant digits
• Your answer becomes
• 171
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Accuracy vs. precision
• The quality of a measurement depends on the measuring instrument and the person making the measurement.
• Accuracy = how close the measurement is to the actual value.
• Precision = the agreement among the values for the measurement.
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For Example…
• Let’s say we had the following dart board
Is the accuracy good or bad? Accuracy - GOOD
Is the precision good or bad? Precision - GOOD
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Try this one
• Let’s say we had the following dart board
Is the accuracy good or bad? Accuracy - BAD
Is the precision good or bad? Precision - GOOD
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Try this one
• Let’s say we had the following dart board
Is the accuracy good or bad? Accuracy - BAD
Is the precision good or bad? Precision - BAD
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• Ways to determine density
• 1. regularly shaped objects – direct volume measurement.
• 2. Irregularly shaped objects- use water displacement method to fine volume.
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• Density is a ratio that compares the mass of an object to its volume.
Density
• The units for density are often grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
• You can calculate density using this equation:
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density
• D=m/v
• Density units always is g/cm3
• Mass is always in g
• Volume is always in cm3
• If it is not you must convert
• Note 1ml = 1cm3 ; 1 L = 1 dm3
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Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is just a big word for going from one unit to another.
• Have you ever converted inches into feet or years into days?
• If so, then you have done dimensional analysis
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Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional Analysis – method of problem-solving that focuses on changing units
• Conversion Factor – a ratio of equal values used to go from one unit to another– Example: 1 foot = 12 inches– Can be written as 1 foot
12 inches
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Rules for Dimensional Analysis
1. ALWAYS start with the given!!!2. Draw a multiplication sign and a line3. Place the unit to be canceled on the bottom4. Place a conversion factor on the line you have
drawn5. Cross out units and see what you have left. 6. You must have one on top & one on the bottom
A x B
A
//
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% error
• % error – the deviation from the accepted value during an experiment. Usually caused by human error.
• % error = your value - literature value x 100
• literature value
• It is always a positive number
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• A graph is a visual display of data.
Graphing
• Using data to create a graph can help to reveal a pattern if one exists.
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Circle graphs
• A circle graph is sometimes called a pie chart because it is divided into wedges like a pie or pizza.
• A circle graph is useful for showing parts of a fixed whole.
• The parts are usually labeled as percents with the circle as a whole representing 100%.
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Circle graphsTopic 3Topic 3
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Bar graph• A bar graph often is used to show how a
quantity varies with factors such as time, location, or temperature.
• In those cases, the quantity being measured appears on the vertical axis (y-axis).
• The independent variable appears on the horizontal axis (x-axis).
• The relative heights of the bars show how the quantity varies.
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Bar graphTopic 3Topic 3
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Line Graphs• In chemistry, most graphs that you create and
interpret will be line graphs.
• The points on a line graph represent the intersection of data for two variables.
• The dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis.
• Remember that the independent variable is the variable that a scientist deliberately changes during an experiment.
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Line GraphsTopic 3Topic 3
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Line Graphs
• Sometimes points are scattered, the line cannot pass through all the data points.
• The line must be drawn so that about as many points fall above the line as fall below it.
• This line is called a best fit line.
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Line GraphsTopic 3Topic 3
Data Analysis: Additional ConceptsData Analysis: Additional Concepts Data Analysis: Additional ConceptsData Analysis: Additional Concepts
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Line Graphs
• If the best fit line is straight, there is a linear relationship between the variables and the variables are directly related.
• This relationship can be further described by the steepness, or slope, of the line.
• If the line rises to the right, the slope is positive.
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Line Graphs
• A positive slope indicates that the dependent variable increases as the independent variable increases.
• If the line sinks to the right, the slope is negative.
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Line Graphs
• A negative slope indicates that the dependent variable decreases as the independent variable increases.
• Either way, the slope of the graph is constant. You can use the data points to calculate the slope of the line.
• The slope is the change in y divided by the change in x.
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Interpreting Graphs• An organized approach can help you
understand the information on a graph.
• First, identify the independent and dependent variables.
• Look at the ranges of the data and consider what measurements were taken.
• Decide if the relationship between the variables is linear or nonlinear.
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Interpreting Graphs
• If the relationship is linear, is the slope positive or negative?
• If a graph has multiple lines or regions, study one area at a time.
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Interpreting Graphs
• When points on a line graph are connected, the data is considered continuous.
• You can read data from a graph that falls between measured points.
• This process is called interpolation.
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Interpreting Graphs
• You can extend the line beyond the plotted points and estimate values for the variables.
• This process is called extrapolation.
• Why might extrapolation be less reliable than interpolation?
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convert
• Convert the following• 8m to cm• 15 g to Kg• 85 Dm to mm• 6.7 cm to mm• 14.50 mm to m• 25 g to mg• 18 dg to mg• 200 Hm to cm• 52Km to dm