1

COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING STUDY OF CLIMATE SMART

AGRICULTURE POLICIES IN SWAZILAND

BY

A.M. MANYATSI

&

N. MHAZO

DRAFT REPORT

Submitted to Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Network

(FANRPAN)

January 2014

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Geographic setting ................................................................................................................ 4

1.2 Climate of Swaziland ............................................................................................................ 4

1.3 Population and socio-economic conditions .......................................................................... 5

1.4 Socio-economic conditions ................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Vulnerability of sectors to climate change............................................................................ 6

1.6 Agro-ecologies and agriculture in Swaziland ....................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE AND BEST PRACTICES ................ 10

2.1 The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture ......................................................................... 10

2.2 Policies and institutional setup for successful climate smart agriculture ........................... 11

2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland .......................................................... 11

2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland .......................................................... 13

CHAPTER 3: INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES FOR CSA ................................................. 23

3.1 Institutional setup for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture issues..... 23

3.2 National Policy and legislative framework for climate change and CSA .......................... 32

CHAPTER 4: CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENT CSA AND OPPORTUNITIES ............................. 43

4.1 Key challenges to implementing CSA in Swaziland .......................................................... 43

4.2 Opportunities....................................................................................................................... 43

4.3 Proposed actions for climate smart agriculture ................................................................... 46

CHAPTER 5: REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 49

APPENDICES: Summary of relevant legislation and policies ..................................................... 52

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List of Tables

1: Profile of hydro meteorological hazards experienced in Swaziland ........................................... 7

2: Climate Smart Agriculture techniques ...................................................................................... 10

3: Crops that had been introduced and those that were no longer produced in different RDAs .. 17

4: National development programmes with implications to climate smart agriculture ................ 22

5: Key institutions for climate smart agriculture .......................................................................... 24

List of Boxes

1: Some success stories of climate smart agriculture from around the world .............................. 12

2: Reasons why farmers were no longer producing some crops ................................................... 18

3: Advantages of using organic manure........................................................................................ 19

4: Types of agroforestry ................................................................................................................ 20

5: Land use and land management activities undertaken by NGOs in Swaziland. ....................... 30

6: Key challenges in implementing climate smart agriculture ...................................................... 43

7: Opportunities for climate smart agriculture .............................................................................. 45

8: Proposed adaptation strategic actions for the agriculture sector ............................................... 47

9: Proposed mitigation strategies for agriculture sector ............................................................... 48

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Geographic setting

The Kingdom of Swaziland is a monarchy and land-locked country located in the south eastern

part of Africa covering an area of 17,363 km2. It is bounded by the Republic of South Africa on

the north, west and south and by the Republic of Mozambique to the east. It is classified into six

physiographic zones: Highveld, Upper Middleveld, Lower Middleveld, Western Lowveld,

Eastern Lowveld and Lubombo Range (Sweet and Khumalo, 1994). The altitude ranges from

250 m above sea level in the Lowveld, to 1400 m above sea level in the Highveld. The Lowveld

is predominantly gentle undulating plain as opposed to the Highveld that has steep slopes on

steeply dissected escapement. The natural vegetation ranges from short sour grasslands with

forest patches in the cooler and moist Highveld to Acacia savanna in the hotter and dry Eastern

Lowveld.

1.2 Climate of Swaziland

The general climatic characterization of Swaziland is subtropical with wet hot summers (October

- March) and cold dry winters (April-September). The physiographic zones show clearly

different climatic conditions, ranging from sub-humid and temperate in the Highveld to semi-

arid and warm in the Lowveld. Swaziland lies at the transition of major climatic zones, being

influenced by air masses from different origin: equatorial convergence zone (summer rains),

subtropical eastern continental moist maritime (onshore flow with occasional cyclones), dry

continental tropical and marine west Mediterranean (winter rains, with rare snow). Mean annual

rainfall ranges from about 1,500 mm in the northern Highveld to 500 mm in the southern

Lowveld. About 75% of the annual rainfall is received in the summer period. Precipitation varies

considerably from year to year, which either may lead to periods of flash flooding or drought.

Mean annual temperature varies from 17°C in the Highveld to 22°C in the Lowveld. The country

is prone to a number of hydrological disasters, with drought being the most common. The most

severe ones occurred in 1983, 1992, 2001, 2007 and 2008. It was reported that over 500 people

lost their lives due to drought of 1983, and in 2007, close to 50% of the population needed food

aid, as they did not have sufficient food due to failure of their crops (Manyatsi et al., 2010). The

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other hydrological disasters in recent years include incessant lightning during rainy seasons,

cyclone Domonia in 1984, and torrential rains and floods in 2000 (IRIN, 2007).

1.3 Population and socio-economic conditions

The population of Swaziland was 1,018,449 in 2007, with annual growth rate of 0.9%

Government of Swaziland, 2007).). The distribution between male and female is 47.3% versus

52.7%. Over half of the population was below 20 years old, implying that the population had a

potential to grow at a much higher rate, and the demand for resources was likely to outstrip the

supply. Majority of the people (75%) live in communal land and they strongly depend on

subsistence agriculture and natural resources for livelihoods. Swaziland is classified as a lower

middle-income country with a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of US$ 5,300 in 2012

yet about 63% of the population fell below the national poverty line in 2010 (World Bank, 2012).

The urban population is 21%, with annual rate of urbanisation being 1.5% (IndexMundi, 2012).

1.4 Socio-economic conditions

The GDP growth was 1.2% in 2011, lower than the 1.9% in 2010. This was attributed to

government cash flow problems and rising fuel prices which impacted transport negatively

(African Economic Outlook, 2012). The low GDP growth compromised the capacity for the

country to provide employment and to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs. The

country’s economy is predominantly agricultural-based and agriculture provides livelihoods and

income for the majority of the population. It is highly dependent on South Africa, which

accounts for 90% of Swaziland's imports, 60% of exports and supplies 50% of electricity

(Central Bank of Swaziland, 2012). Climatic conditions are the driving forces for agriculture,

and climate change will have a major effect on the sector. The high rate of poverty makes the

majority of the population prone to climate change and compromises their adaptation capacity. In

an effort to reduce the poverty and to assist the elderly to meet their basic needs, and Elderly

Social Grant (ESG) was introduced in 2005 to people who have reached the age of 60 years. The

ESG is paid every three months at a rate of E200 per month (Government of Swaziland, 2012).

Prevalence estimates for HIV stood at 26% of adults (31% in adult women and 20% in adult

men; (UNDP, 2011). HIV/AIDS has the potential to impact on the household by reducing the

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sources of income and by increasing household expenditure. It also leads to loss of labour for

economic activities (including agriculture and other livelihood activities), and loss of

productivities due to absenteeism. The resilience to climate change is weakened. The National

Emergency Response Council on HIV and AIDS (NERCHA) was created under the Prime

Ministers Office in 2001 to coordinate and facilitate the response and oversee the

implementation of the national strategic plans and frameworks (NERCHA, 2012).

1.5 Vulnerability of sectors to climate change

Today, climate change is considered one of the major threats to the sustainability of the world’s

environment, society and the global economy. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC 2007), the effects of climate change have already been observed, and a

majority of Scientists believe that precautionary and prompt action is necessary to reduce the

build up of green house gases such as carbon dioxide, caused by human activities. Downscaled

global climate change models (GCMs) predict a temperature increase of 1-1.5oC across

Swaziland for the average daily maximum between 2000 and 2050, and a decrease of up to

200mm in annual precipitation over much of the country (Manyatsi et al., 2013). Climate change

impacts are already being witnessed in Swaziland in the form erratic rainfall and changing

temperatures which have a direct influence to availability of water, agriculture production,

energy sources and supplies, waste management, environmental management and sustainability.

This undermines Swaziland’s effort to eradicate poverty and meet the Millennium Development

Goals. Like other countries in the region, Swaziland is vulnerable to climate change, with the

sectors of particular concern being agriculture, water resources, forest, ecosystem and

biodiversity, energy, health, tourism and human settlement. The hydro meteorological hazards

experienced in Swaziland over the past 15 years include drought, strong winds and windstorms,

hailstorms, thunder and lightning with large populations being affected (Table 1).

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Table 1: Profile of hydro meteorological hazards experienced in Swaziland

Hazard Year Population affected

Drought 2001 347 000

2007 410 000

2008 287 634

2009 256 283

2010 170 000

2011 88 511

Strong winds/Windstorms 1984 632 500

2005 1 150

2006 6 535

2010 1 000

2011 + 200 families

Hailstorms, thunder and lightning 2000 No data

2011 + 200 families

Floods 2008 272 000

Source: National Multi-Hazard Contingency Plan 2012-2013, (Government of Swaziland,

2012).

1.6 Agro-ecologies and agriculture in Swaziland

Swaziland is divided into four agro-ecological zones based on elevation, landforms, geology,

soils and vegetation. These are the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld and Lubombo Plateau. The

Highveld and the Middleveld are further subdivided into Upper and Lower Highveld, and wet

and dry Middleveld, respectively. The agro-ecological zones run almost parallel from north to

south. Altitude and rainfall decrease from west to east, while temperatures are higher in the east

than the west.

Agriculture in Swaziland is dualistic divided into commercial estates on Title Deed Land (TDL)

and subsistence farms on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). The commercial sector which occupies

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about 40 % of the cultivated land produces mostly export crops such as irrigated sugarcane,

citrus and pine apples. Commercial estates are characterised by high levels of mechanisation and

irrigation infrastructure. This sector generates >81% of agricultural commodity value (8.6% of

GDP). The smallholder farming sector predominantly produces food crops such as maize (staple

cereal), sorghum, grain legume crops and vegetables and raise livestock, mostly cattle, goats and

chickens. This sector takes about 60 % of the arable land. Agricultural activities on SNL are

predominantly characterised by low-input practices that are largely dependent on natural rainfall

and local resources. As a result smallholder farming only contributes 11 % of the agricultural

commodity value (1.2 % of GDP). Limited access to irrigation facilities is undoubtedly the major

constraint to land productivity on SNL. Despite the network of rivers available in the country,

smallholder farmers remain unable to finance irrigation development.

Land productivity on SNL is continuously threatened by a myriad challenges emanating from

climate change (FAO/WFP, 2007). The country faces, and is likely to continue experiencing

agricultural production obstacles because of the high reliance on natural rainfall (Mabuza et al.,

2009). Abnormal changes in rainfall patterns are experienced across the country. The frequency

and intensity of droughts is increasing (particularly in the eastern region) and this threatens

viability of agro-ecosystems (FAO, 2005) thus frustrating government efforts to attain national

food self-sufficiency. Since the prolonged drought of the early 1990s that ravaged most of the

southern African regions, there has been more frequent droughts, low, erratic and unevenly

distributed rainfall (FANRPAN, 2007), fluctuating rainfall patterns, delayed rains, intra-

seasonal dry spells, floods, increased ambient temperatures and shifting of growing seasons

(FANRPAN, 2003). The rainy seasons are often characterised by intense storms at the start and

prolonged intra-seasonal dry spells that can last up to four weeks (FANRPAN, 2003). The

heavy storms lead to excessive runoff losses due to reduced infiltration. These adverse weather

conditions are exacerbated by inherent low soil fertility, soil structural degradation, crop pests

and diseases, high costs of inputs, lack of draught power, delayed planting, inadequate local

research and extension information, and loss of labour due to HIV and AIDS. According to the

2004/05 crop and food supply assessment mission, jointly conducted by the Food and

Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations World Food

Programme (UNWFP), production of the country’s staple food crop, maize, had dropped by

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about 70% over a period of five years. In 2005/2006, about 30% of the population faced food

shortages and relied on food handouts.

Until recently, agriculture was regarded as a victim of climate change yet agricultural activities

are a major source of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions. In the realization that

agriculture was a major contributor to climate change it became apparent that farming systems

had to adapt accordingly to the unfavourable changes in climatic factors such as reduced

precipitation, floods, hailstorms and increased temperature. It is common knowledge that food

production has to keep pace with the growing population. At global scale, it is projected that

agricultural productivity must increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the food and fibre demands of

the ever increasing population. There is, therefore, a need to invest in farming techniques that are

responsive to changes in climatic factors thus enhancing climate change resilience. To that

effect, the new paradigm in agriculture advocates adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA)

practices.

The Food Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Network (FANRPAN) is implementing a

CSA policy programme that aims to increase agricultural productivity and strengthen the

resilience of vulnerable smallholder farmers to the impact of climate change. The programme

seeks to:

a. Conduct comprehensive reviews of the existing CSA policy context in the country;

b. Analyze gaps in the existing policy frameworks;

c. Identify relevant policy recommendations; and

d. Develop and share policy recommendations (briefs) at national and regional level.

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CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE AND BEST PRACTICES

2.1 The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture

Climate Smart Agriculture seeks to increase sustainable productivity, strengthen farmers’

resilience, reduce agriculture greenhouse gas emissions and increase carbon sequestration

(Grieg-Gran, 2010). It strengthens food security and delivers environmental benefits. Climate

Smart Agriculture promotes agricultural best practices, particularly integrated crop management,

conservation agriculture, intercropping, improved seeds and fertilizer management, improved

livestock management, improved grazing land management, agroforestry, as well as supporting

increased investment in agricultural research. While adaptation is key, CSA is broader and calls

for more innovation and pro-activeness in changing the way farming is done in order to adapt

and mitigate while sustainably increasing productivity. Climate Smart Agriculture practices

propose the transformation of agricultural policies and agricultural systems to increase food

productivity and enhance food and nutrition security while preserving the environment and

ensuring resilience to a changing climate. Table 2 shows some CSA practices

Table 2: Climate Smart Agriculture techniques

Strategy Example methods

Restore cultivated organic

soils

Increased vegetation cover, reduced tillage, use of crop residues or

manure or compost

Improve cropland

management

Agronomy, nutrient management, reduced tillage, water

management (including irrigation and drainage), crop rotation,

agroforestry

Improve grazing land

management

Increased cover of high-productivity grasses and overall grazing

intensity, nutrient management, fire management and species

introduction

Improve livestock

management

Better feeding practices, dietary additives, breeding and other

structural changes, improved manure management

Restore degraded lands Erosion control and organic and nutrient changes

Agroforestry Tree crops, integrating trees into fallow cycles, forest fragments and

trees integrated onto agricultural systems (e.g. silvopastoral

systems)

Improved water

management

Improved irrigation and water conservation techniques

Innovative practices Weather forecasting, more resilient food crops and risk insurance

Source: Grieg-Gran, N (2010). Beyond forestry: Why agriculture is key to success of REDD+

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2.2 Policies and institutional setup for successful climate smart agriculture

Time and again promising technical interventions in agriculture have failed to deliver the

benefits they promise. Often this seems to be exacerbated by the policy environment which does

not encourage farmers to take up these proven interventions. Institutions such as land tenure

discourage farmers from investing in infrastructural developments for fear of failure to reap the

gains. Inappropriate policies and weak institutions may result in farmers adopting practices that

are unsustainable (CTA, 2013). Several counties are piloting policies and creating institutions to

manage current as well as future climate risks in the agriculture sector. There are important

lessons to be learned from each other’s experiences as shown in Box 1.

2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland

The current agricultural production challenges such as climate variability and climate change and

land degradation need technological solutions. In addition, the changes in consumer eating

habits, food choices and preferences and industrial demand on agricultural commodities require

responsive farming systems. Various technologies have been developed and promoted by various

institutions to support crop and livestock production in Swaziland dating back into the 1920s.

These ranged from application of hardware (tools and equipment for farming, agrochemicals,

and crop varieties) to software technologies (crop production methods and practices, information

and communication technologies). Improved agricultural technologies have always been the

nucleus for advancement in agricultural and natural resources management and productivity,

food security and improved livelihoods. Some of the technologies like animal-drawn ploughs

have stood the test of time and are still applicable up to now, some have been overcome by

changes in farming systems and have been dropped along the way and others remain unused for

perceived irrelevance. However, as climate change effects become more evident in Swaziland

and the whole sub region, most farmers see the wisdom of trying out new climate-smart

agricultural innovations to maximize land productivity, minimize environmental degradation

thus sustainably increasing crop yields.

Climate-smart technologies that are being promoted in the country and have potential of

adoption include; conservation agriculture (CA), irrigation, rainwater harvesting, agroforestry,

new crop varieties.

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Box 1: Some success stories of climate smart agriculture from around the world

Reducing Danish agriculture’s contribution to climate change: Denmark’s Green growth

Policy has helped reduce the agriculture sector’s carbon footprint while ensuring the sector

remains vibrant. This included improved use of manure and 40% reduction in the use of

inorganic fertilisers. It has contributed to a 28% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions between

1990 and 2009.

Carbon farming initiative for climate change mitigation in Australia: This is an initiative

that was launched by the Australian Government in December 2011 to generate carbon credits

for trading or to satisfy mandatory or voluntary carbon commitments. The Carbon Farming

Initiative (CFI) allows farmers to earn “carbon credits” by implementing practices that sequester

carbon or reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The credits may be sold by the farmers to

individuals and businesses that want or need to offset the greenhouse gas emissions of their

business operations. Eligible activities for reducing emissions include altered livestock

management, increasing fertilizer use efficiency and reforestation.

Kenyan farmers selling carbon credits to BioCarbon Fund: In November 2010, the Kenya

Agricultural Carbon Project signed an Agricultural Reduction Purchase Agreement (ERPA) with

the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund. The project is implemented by Vi Agroforestry, a Swedish

non-governmental organization, and it helps farmers adopt sustainable agricultural land

management (SALM) practices such as reduced tillage, use of cover crops, green manure,

mulching and agroforestry. Some 15000 farmers in 800 farmer groups have adopted SALM

practices, which have been applied to around 12000 ha of degraded land. The project will bring

direct benefits of US$350000 to the local communities.

Bottom up development planning in Niger: Local communities in Niger have been playing

leading role in the country’s development with support of a Community Action Plan (CAP)

financed by the World bank, the Global Environmental Facility (GEP) and the International Fund

for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The project has implemented initiatives that have

contributed to mitigating climate change and enhancing the resilience of the country’s agriculture

to the effects of climate change.

Forest management in Tanzania: Uncontrolled exploitation of Tanzania’s forest in the 1990s

and the early 2000s led to over 400000 ha of forest being lost each year. The Forest Policy of

1998 and the Forest Act of 2002 provided a legal basis for the communities to own and manage

forest resources on village lands and jointly manage forest resources in government forest

reserves. By end of 2011, more than 2 million ha of forest were under community-based

management and more that 1.6 million ha were under joint management, involving over 1800

villages,

Source: CTA, 2013

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2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland

The current agricultural production challenges such as climate variability and climate change and

land degradation need technological solutions. In addition, the changes in consumer eating

habits, food choices and preferences and industrial demand on agricultural commodities require

responsive farming systems. Various technologies have been developed and promoted by various

institutions to support crop and livestock production in Swaziland dating back into the 1920s.

These ranged from application of hardware (tools and equipment for farming, agrochemicals,

and crop varieties) to software technologies (crop production methods and practices, information

and communication technologies). Improved agricultural technologies have always been the

nucleus for advancement in agricultural and natural resources management and productivity,

food security and improved livelihoods. Some of the technologies like animal-drawn ploughs

have stood the test of time and are still applicable up to now, some have been overcome by

changes in farming systems and have been dropped along the way and others remain unused for

perceived irrelevance. However, as climate change effects become more evident in Swaziland

and the whole sub region, most farmers see the wisdom of trying out new climate-smart

agricultural innovations to maximize land productivity, minimize environmental degradation

thus sustainably increasing crop yields.

Climate-smart technologies that are being promoted in the country and have potential of

adoption include; conservation agriculture (CA), irrigation, rainwater harvesting, agroforestry,

new crop varieties.

2.2.1 Conservation agriculture

Although the CSA concept is not directly visible in major agriculture policies in Swaziland,

some components of CSA such as conservation agriculture have been promoted both at national

and practical levels. Conservation agriculture is an agricultural crop production concept that

strives to achieve profitable and sustainable yield levels while concurrently conserving the

environment that influences production (Dumanski et. al., 2006; FAO, 2010). The sustainability

of CA is enshrined in its three main principles which are; (1) minimum mechanical soil

disturbance, (2) maintaining a permanent soil cover through retention of crop residues and

growing cover crops, and (3) promoting a healthy soil through practicing crop rotations, cover

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crops and application of integrated pest management strategies (Dumanski et. al., 2006; FAO,

2010).

Various tillage, planting and soil moisture conservation innovations form components of the

rubric of conservation agriculture. The philosophy behind CA is to promote those cultural

practices, more often a combination of different innovations, which conserve fragile soils, retain

organic matter and extend the period of water availability to crops. Crops are planted in previous

crop residues of at least 30% surface cover, which are deliberately left on the soil surface after

harvesting. Conventional land preparation practices that incorporate crop residues into the soil,

such as ploughing are reduced to minimum and external inputs such as inorganic fertilisers and

pesticides are judiciously applied to minimize their interference with biological processes. The

goal of CA is to strike a balance between agricultural sustainability and efficient use of natural

resources.

Conservation agriculture allows nature to regenerate and retain soil structure thus improving

water and nutrients availability to plants and reducing soil erosion. Additional benefits include

reduced costs of machinery use, reduced need for agro-chemicals, reduced soil compaction, and

improved timing of planting and improved farm labour productivity (World Bank, 2012; FAO,

2013). It also increases water use efficiency, reduces land and water pollution and leads to

reduced emission of greenhouse gases (Dumanski et. al., 2006), builds up soil organic matter,

improves soil fertility and stimulates soil microbial activity (FAO, 2001).

Advocacy for the CA concept is aimed at improving food security and livelihoods of farmers

through minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining permanent soil cover and practicing crop

rotations (FAO, 2001; FAO, 2010). Over the last few decades, CA technologies have evolved to

suite a wide range of farm sizes, soil and crop species, farming systems, climatic conditions and

farmer resources. Conservation agriculture is gaining popularity among farmers throughout the

world. Dumanski et. al., 2006, reported that CA is practiced successfully on approximately 95

million hectares worldwide of which 47% is practiced in South America, 39% in North America,

9% in Australia and 3.9% in Europe, Asia and Africa. The main reasons that could have led to

higher adoption of this tillage evolution by farmers in the Americas may be increased

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profitability due to reduced crop production costs as well as increased and stabilized crop yields.

In stallholder farms, CA eliminates draught power-intensive soil tillage and reduces labour

required for crop production by 50% (FAO, 2013). This is important for countries ravaged with

HIV and AIDS, such as Swaziland, where children and/or the elderly provide labour for farming

(FAO, 2005). Many families living with HIV and AIDS can no longer manage to till enough land

to meet their own food needs (FAO, 2005). A study conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture

and Cooperatives (Government of Swaziland, 2003), indicated that loss of labour due to HIV and

AIDS related illnesses and deaths forced 38.5 % of households to reduce the area under

cultivation and changing cropping systems leading to 47% decline in crop production.

Conservation agriculture may contribute towards breaking the HIV and AIDS –food security

vicious cycle as it reduces the amount of labour traditionally required in land preparation and

weeding. Conservation agriculture also alleviates the food and nutritional security crisis in rural

communities by offering means to grow a diversified diet on the same land. Though not a

panacea, CA seems to offer sustainable options for improving food security in the country

compared to conventional agricultural practices.

Conservation agriculture was first formerly introduced in Swaziland in 2002 by the Ministry of

Agriculture (MOA) through support from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United

Nations (FAO) and the Cooperation of the Development of Emerging Countries (COSPE). Two

sites were selected for the initial introduction of the concept; Shewula community in the north-

east of the country and Kambhoke community in the south. A roll out programme, to cover the

whole country, was implemented in 2006 in which participating farmers were supplied with the

necessary CA equipment and related inputs.

Conservation agriculture is being adopted by more farmers as they realise its benefits. The

advocates for conservation agriculture in the country include the Swaziland Agricultural

Development Programme (SADP), International Relief & Development (IRD) and World Vision

International (WVI). SADP has trained 2118 farmers in sustainable agriculture, with 1141 (54%)

of those trained being females. Fifty youth groups were trained in vegetable and poultry

production. A total of 1600 farmers were trained and 1200 prepared 288 ha using conservation

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agriculture techniques through the assistance of IRD. The farmers produced maize, sorghum and

cowpeas under CA.

2.3.2 Drought-tolerant varieties

Maize is the staple food for more than 300 million people in Africa. By 2030s’ drought and

rising temperatures could render 40% of the continents’ current maize-growing area unsuitable

for maize varieties available today (CTA, 2012). New drought and heat tolerant varieties have to

be developed and grown in farmers’ fields in the next few years to avoid widespread famine in

Africa, including Swaziland. The Harmonised Seed Security Project (HASSP) which is being led

by FANRPAN aims to increase the production and uptake of drought and heat tolerant seeds in

the country, for use by those at risk. Four open pollinated maize varieties have been released in

Swaziland. They are ZM 309 (extra early duration), ZM 521/523 and ZM 611 (medium duration)

and ZM 721 (long duration). It is estimated that about 50% of the farmers in Swaziland use

recycled seeds (which are in most cases open pollinated varieties). The open-pollinated maize

varieties have an advantage in that the seed can be recycled. They are also cheaper that the

hybrids and better post-harvest handling qualities. The two main companies that produce and

distribute hybrid seeds in the country are Seed Company Limited and Pannar Seed. Some of their

seed varieties are reported to be drought and heat tolerant.

2.3.3 Irrigation for small-holder farmers

Out of the 52000 ha under irrigation in Swaziland, only about 1300 ha is under small-scale

farming (excluding those under commercial irrigation schemes). Results from a survey

conducted by FAO in 2007 indicate that more male [55.0] small-scale farmers were irrigating

their crops than female [44.3%] farmers in SNL. The main factor preventing farmers from

irrigating their crops was the lack of access to water [36.9%]. This was followed by high cost of

irrigation [20.7%] and the least factor was labour cost [0.6%]. Lack of access to water was

reported more as a constraint by female [42.1%] than by male [31.6%] farmers. The lack of

water and high cost of irrigation facilities were the main bottlenecks to irrigation of crops by

farmers. Irrigation of vegetables was ranked highest by both male [44.3%] and female [38.1%]

farmers. Green maize ranked a very distant second by male farmers [11.8%], compared to dry

maize that came second for female farmers [6.5%]. While green maize ranked second for male

17

farmers, it ranked third for female farmers. This is important from the food security point of

view. While male farmers are more interested in growing green maize under irrigation, possibly

as a cash crop, female farmers preferred to grow dry maize under irrigation to meet the

household food needs. The main sources of water for irrigation were rivers/streams [22.8%]

followed by dams [7.4%] and lastly, wetlands [0.8%]. Slightly more male farmers [24.0%] used

river/stream water for irrigation than female farmers [21.5%]

2.3.4 Introducing new crop varieties

Over the years several crops have been introduced in the different Rural Development Areas

(RDAs) of the country in order to increase diversity and improve production. However at the

same time farmers have stopped growing some crops in other RDAs (Table 3). The reasons for

farmers stopping producing some crops can be grouped into climate and weather, farm inputs,

soil fertility, markets, pests and diseases, and technology (Box 2).

Table 3: Crops that had been introduced and those that were no longer produced in different

RDAs

Rural

development

area

Crops that have been introduced in

the last five years

Crops no longer being produced

Central Baby vegetables, indigenous maize,

cassava, mung beans, cotton,

mushroom production

Ematabane [Zulu potato], sesame, water

melon, emaselwa

Hluti Cassava, rice beans Sesame, cowpeas, jugo beans, white bean

variety, cassava

Langa Cowpeas, jugo beans, mung beans,

cassava, mushroom production,

sesame

Cassava, sweet potato, nyawotsi/mgcobane,

Mayiwane Cassava, Irish potato, baby vegetables,

banana, cotton, sunflower

Sesame, tintjoli

Motjane Baby vegetables, baby corn, hybrid

maize, jatropha, coffee, mushroom

production

Mung beans, sesame, umhlata [root crop],

ematabane [Zulu potato], taro, cassava

Ngwempisi Determinate cowpeas, cassava, Irish

potato, sorghum

Ematabane [Zulu potato], cassava, jugo

beans, sesame, land races of maize

Siphofaneni Green beans, cassava, sugarcane,

cotton

Sesame, nyawotsi

Sithobela Cassava, climbing white cowpeas,

baby vegetables, Lablab, mushrooms

Nyawotsi, white cowpeas, lablab,

umgcobane, ematabane

Southern Cassava, taro, fruit trees, mango,

sorghum, mung beans, pawpaw,

Sesame, cotton, rice beans

Source: FAO, 2005

18

Box 2: Reasons why farmers were no longer producing some crops

1. Climate and weather: Unreliable rain, delayed rainfall, persistent drought,

climate change

2. Farm inputs: Shortage of farm inputs, shortage/ lack of seeds, unreliability

of seeds from agro-dealers, high input costs, lack of tractors for ploughing

3. Soil fertility: Poor soil fertility

4. Markets: Lack of market for product, fluctuating market prices, long

distance markets, competition between different crops

5. Pests and diseases: Problem with pests and diseases, problem with wild

pigs eating crop, birds feeding on crop, uncontrolled livestock eating crop

6. Technology: Availability of new technologies, introduction of new and

better performing crops, lack of indigenous knowledge to grow crops.

Source: FAO, 2005

2.2.5 Use of kraal manure

Nationally, 72.6% of the farmers use animal manure, while 27.4% do not use animal manure.

More male (70.4%) than female farmers (20.6) used animal manure and the reason for male

farmers applying more kraal manure than female farmers could be attributed to the fact that men

generally own the cattle. This might be a case of those who own the cattle also own the manure

(FAO, 2005). The fact that there are some 600,000 cattle in Swaziland with a human population

of about one million, indicating that there is about one animal per every Swazi. Other farmers

use goat manure on high value crops such as vegetables. The advantages of using organic

manure include addition of nutrients to the soil and the sequestration of carbon dioxide thus

reducing its adverse effects on global warming (Box 3)

19

Box 3: Advantages of using organic manure

Addition of nutrients to the soil

Addition of organic matter that feed the soil [improve its health] so that the

soil can feed humankind

Improvement in soil structure, tilth, and aeration

Improvement of soil moisture

Relatively less expensive

Residual effects that reduce cost of farm operations

Stimulation of activities of micro-organisms that release nutrients

Slow nutrient release, especially nitrogen for synchrony with nutrient

demand by plants

Sequestration of carbon dioxide thus reducing its adverse effects on global

warming

Control of nematodes by green manure crops such as sunhemp [Crotalaria

juncea]

Reduction in soil temperature fluctuation

Reduction is runoff of fertilisers that lead to eutrophication of water bodies

Source: FAO/WFP, 2007

2.2.6 Agroforestry

Agroforestry is a land-use practice that involves the growing of woody perennials with arable

crops, woody perennials with livestock or a combination of woody perennials with arable crops

and livestock. Like conservation agriculture, it is an old land-use system that farmers have

practised traditionally, as a necessity, for increasing soil fertility by relying of standing

vegetation, mostly trees through the slash-and-burn shifting cultivation method in most African

countries. The forestry Department of the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affaires

through the SADP has established 300 on farm demonstration sites to showcase agroforestry

practices. The agroforestry practices intend to address issue of soil fertility, soil erosion and

diversification of farm produce. The most common types of agroforestry are agrosylvicultural

(trees with crops) and sylvopastoral (trees with pasture and livestock) (Box 4). In 1953 the King

of Swaziland issued an order commanding the Swazi Nation to leave grass filter strips between

20

ploughed lands at such intervals as advised by agricultural extension officers and not to plough

up and down the slope of a hill, but to plough across the slope. The King’s Order has been

observed for 6 decades and most cultivated land has grass filter strips. The grass filter strips are

usually 2 metres wide at intervals of between 5 m and 20 m depending on the slope of the land.

Trees and shrubs are often left to grow within the grass filter strips (Manyatsi, 1999).

Box 4: Types of agroforestry

Agrosylvicultural [trees with crops]: Improved tree fallow, trees on crop

land [trees may and may not be in rows], combination of trees in a plantation

with crops, trees along farm boundaries, trees along grass strips, trees in

alley farming practice, trees on erosion control structures.

Sylvopastoral [trees with pasture and livestock]: Trees in rangeland, tree

plantation with pasture, live fence, fodder banks

Source: World Agroforestry Centre, 2013.

2.3.7 The LUSIP GEF project

LUSIP GEF project intends to reduce land degradation, biodiversity loss and mitigate climate

change through the application of sustainable land management practices which will contribute

to mitigation and adaptation of climate change. It is being implemented in the Lower Usuthu

Basin (GEF, 2012). The area is generally used for cattle ranching, cultivation of crops and fallow

rotations and human settlements. The project will ensure that sustainable land management

practices are promoted, and it will restore resilient, integrated agro-ecosystems in currently

degraded areas (IFAD, 2009). To address the lack of comprehensive and integrated national land

policy, the project intends to set up a steering committee to help develop enabling policies and

prepare a coordinated action plan to promote sustainable land management. The promotion of

agroforestry, conservation agriculture and rangelands management approaches will lead to

restoration and protection of vital ecosystem functions in rangelands, croplands and woodlands.

21

The project is being executed by the Swaziland Ministry of Agriculture and the Swaziland Water

and Agricultural Development Enterprise.

2.2.8 Other national development programmes

The major goal of the agricultural sector of the government is to increase crop production to

achieve national self-sufficiency in maize, expanding fruit and vegetable production as means of

increasing rural income and improving nutrition, and encouraging cash crop production among

small-scale farmers (Government of Swaziland, 2013). In order to meet the goal, the Ministry of

Agriculture has embarked on several projects some of which have aspects of CSA. They include

earth dam rehabilitation and construction and irrigation development programmes (Table 4).

22

Table 4: National development programmes with implications to climate smart agriculture

Project Description

Maguga dam The Magugu dam is the largest within the Incomati (Komati) basin) which is

shared by South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It has a capacity of 332

Mm3, and the construction started in 1996. It supplies was for the Komati

Downstream Development Project within Swaziland, and also irrigation water

in South Africa downstream of the river. The dam also houses a hydro-electric

generating plant that produces about 20 MW of power, which is about 8% of

the national power requirement. The dam boasted the bulk water supply to

Piggs Peak town which regularly experienced water shortage. It also supplied

water for rural communities along the route of the pipe from the dam to the

town

Komati

Downstream

Development

Project

The implementation of the started in 2004, with the aim of developing 7,400

ha of irrigation. It affected 19,500 people, with 14,500 people participating

directly. It was implemented and managed by the Swaziland Water and

Agricultural Development Enterprise (SWADE).

Lower Usuthu

Smallholder

Irrigation Project

The project supports the development of water resources of the lower Usuthu

and provides irrigation infrastructure and credit funds to enable smallholder

farmers to intensify and diversity their agricultural production. The first phase

of the project that is being implemented will develop 6,500 ha for irrigation,

and the second phase intends to develop about 5,000 ha. The project will

increase the percentage of homesteads with access to domestic and potable

water at less than 200m from 3.2% to 74% by 2015.

Swaziland

Agricultural

Development

Project

Its objectives are to develop improved smallholder production and marketing

systems, leading to sustainable food security and an improved quality of life

for rural households. It was also expected to strengthen the capacity of

agricultural research. It was conceived in 2007. It implementation has

advanced very slowly and its impact has not been realised. It is a project

within the Ministry of Agriculture, with fund made available through the

Facility for Fluctuations in Export Earnings of the EU.

Smallholder

Agricultural

Development

Project

The project was implemented from 1994 to 2002, and intended to benefit

16,000 households. It was funded by IFAD and Government of Swaziland. It

had an irrigation development component that was to benefit 2,215 farmers.

The irrigation component was to rehabilitate and develop about 400 ha of

small-scale irrigation schemes. However its results were not satisfactory due

to a number of reasons, which included inadequate manpower to implement it

and difficulties with procurement of construction material.

The Earth Dam

Rehabilitation

and Construction

Programme

The programme was funded by the European Union and the Government of

Swaziland. It constructed and rehabilitated a total of 18 earth dams in the low

rainfall areas of the country (Lowveld)

The Lavumisa

Irrigation project

This project developed a total of 300 ha of land, and it uses water from Jozini

Dam in South Africa. The water is pumped by the South African Government

as a compensation for flooded land in Swaziland, adjacent to the dam. A total

of 75 smallholder farmers are participating in the scheme.

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CHAPTER 3: INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES FOR CSA

3.1 Institutional setup for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture issues

The institutions that are fundamental for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture

are presented in Table5. They include government ministries and departments, parastatals, Civil

Society Organisations and private sector. The Ministry of Agriculture has the responsibility for

ensuring food security in the country, and the activities of the other institutions should

complement that of the ministry.

3.1.1 The Ministry of Agriculture

The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for ensuring food security and increased agricultural

productivity in the country. It is also responsible for development and promotions of appropriate

technologies such as CSA. In fulfilling its mandate the ministry functions through a number of

departments and sections. The departments and sections within the ministry that are relevant to

climate smart agriculture are the Agricultural Research and Specialists department, the

Agricultural & Extension Services, Veterinary and Livestock production Services and the Land

Use Planning & Development Section. The department of Agricultural Research and Specialists

is responsible for identification of adaptable crop varieties that can be grown in the different

parts of the country, as well as developing appropriate water management practices. The

department would play a major role in undertaking research on agricultural techniques for CSA

that include restoration of cultivated organic soils and improvement of cropland management.

The department of Veterinary and Livestock Production Services would play a major role in

improving livestock management and improving grazing land management. The Agriculture and

Extension Promotion Services is responsible for promoting crop production and providing

agricultural extension services in farming systems and technologies that will assure increased

production. The number of government extension officers has been reduced from about 300 a

decade ago, to about 100 in 2013. There are 82 assistant extension officers. The subsequent

increase in farmer/extension officer ratio has led to a decline in extension services, affecting

agricultural productivity in the country. There are some Non Governmental Organisations with

extension officers who provide services to some farmers, complementing the government

extension service.

24

Table 5: Key institutions for climate smart agriculture

INSTITUTION/DEPARTMENT ROLE PLAYED IN CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE

Ministry of Agriculture The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for ensuring food security and increased

sustainable agricultural productivity in the country. The ministry is also responsible

for development and promotion of appropriate technologies such as CSA.

Swaziland Water Development

Enterprise (SWADE)

SWADE is a government company established by the Government of Swaziland in

1999 to facilitate the planning and implementation of large water and agricultural

development project that Government may assign.

NAMBOARD NAMBoard is a parastatal whose purpose is to stimulate local production by providing

technical service and marketing of the agricultural produce in the country, and

particularly to support small farmers.

National Maize Marketing Corporation The National Maize Corporation (NMC) is a state-owned enterprise that was

incorporated in 1985 and it is involved in the business of commodity trading in white

maize.

Swaziland Dairy Board The Swaziland Dairy Board is a public enterprise wholly owned by government. It

was established in 1971 in order to regulate the dairy industry in the country

Department of Meteorology of the

Ministry of Tourism and

Environmental Affairs

This department is Designated National Authority for climate change issues and

operates through the National Focal Point to the UNFCCC. Its primary role is to

oversee meteorological issues

Department of Forestry of the Ministry

of Tourism and Environmental Affairs

The department is responsible for all programmes that deal with forestry in the

country including afforestation and the control of wild fires.

National Disaster Management Agency

under the Deputy Prime Minister’s

Office

The mandate of this Agency is to promote disaster reduction programmes and

awareness campaigns to drastically reduce disaster risk and strengthen resilience to

disaster victims, especially for drought victims. Drought and famine is one common

disaster in Swaziland

Swaziland Standards Authority

(SWASA)

The Swaziland Standards Authority through the Standards and Quality Act 2003 is

mandated to put in place standards on product quality, industrial/agricultural

processes, imports and exports to ensure safety and quality of goods and services in

the country

Swaziland promotions Investment

Authority (SIPA)

SIPA is mandated to attract, facilitate and promote local and foreign investment;

initiate, coordinate and implement government policies and strategies on investment

University of Swaziland The University of Swaziland (UNISWA) is the highest institute of learning in the

country. The Faculty of Agriculture offers four year degree programmes in the area of

agriculture and consumer science. It also offers postgraduate programmes

Department of Water Affairs (DWA)

of the Ministry of Natural Resources

and Energy

The DWA that was established by the Water Act of 2003 is responsible for water

resource management, including ensuring that safe drinking water is available in the

country

The Swaziland National Trust

Commission.

This parastatal was established in terms of the SNTC Act, 1972 with the mandate to

ensure the conservation of nature and cultural heritage for the country. Other

programmes for the Commission include the conservation of wetlands.

Swaziland Environmental Authority

(SEA)

This is a parastatal was established by the Environment Management Act, 2002

(EMA) to provide for and promote the protection, conservation and enhancement of

the environment and the sustain-able management of natural resources

Policy and Programme Coordination

Unit under the Prime Minister’s Office

This Unit play a coordination role in policy formulation and it is further tasked with

reviewing, analysing and giving advice on government policies and other documents

across all sectors.

Civil Society Organisations The Civil Society Organisations are composed of Non Government Organisations,

Community Based Organisations and Church Based Organisations. Several NGOs are

affiliated to the Coordinating Assemble of Non Government Organisations (CANGO).

The private sector The private sector that play a major role in agriculture include the sugar estates, small

and large scale farmers and retailers

Swaziland National Agricultural Union The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU) is an umbrella body for all

farmer organisations in the country

25

3.1.2 Policy and Programme Coordination Unit

It is a requirement that all various policies and strategies that are developed by each government

agencies be approved for implementation. This Unit does not only play a coordination role in

policy formulation but is further tasked with reviewing, analysing and giving advice on

government policies and other documents across all sectors. A system has been put in place to

monitor and report on policy and programme implementation by every agency implementing any

policy. This Unit is important in also giving support to all policies that addresses climate change

and climate smart issues, and would also assist any policy and strategy on climate change. The

unit is housed under the Prime Minister’s Office

3.1.3 National Disaster Management Agency (NDMA)

The mandate of this Agency is to: (a) promote Disaster Reduction programmes and awareness

campaigns to drastically reduce disaster risk and strengthen disaster victims resilience especially

for drought victims; (b) develop and strengthen Legal and Institutional Framework for Disaster

Risk Reduction (DRR); (c) enhance and improve Coordination and relief assistance for disaster

victims; and (d) enhance and improve timely provision of food and material assistance to disaster

victims. The NDMA is housed under the Deputy Prime Minister’s Office and it is headed by a

director.

3.1.4 Department of Meteorology

This Department is Meteorology under the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs is

Designated National Authority for climate change issues and operates through the National Focal

Point to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Its primary

role is to oversee meteorological issues. At international level, the Department has been

responsible for leading negotiations on behalf of the country. Nationally, the department has

produced two National Communications reports to the UNFCCC and is coordinating various

stakeholders to form a National Climate Change Committee (NCCC). The responsibility of the

NCCC was to develop and coordinate programmes and projects aimed at addressing climate

change in line with the country’s development priorities. The Department does not have a

comprehensive legislation that provides for its role on air monitoring and climate change in

general.

26

3.1.5 Forestry Department

This department is under the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs. It is responsible

for all programmes that deal with forestry in the country including afforestation and the control

of wild fires. The tree planting programme is one that the department is effectively implementing

despite budgetary constraints. The Department is not only understaffed to deal effectively with

its programmes such as wild fires and various forms of deforestation, but also lack a

comprehensive legislation that empowers it to undertake its duties effectively. It has drafted the

Forest Policy a decade ago, but has had challenges in concluding the enactment of the Forest Bill

which provides regulatory and institutional measures in these areas, including in the management

of alien invasive species. The Forestry department would play a pivotal role in implementation

of agroforestry activities in the country.

3.1.6 Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA)

This is a parastatal established by the Environment Management Act, 2002 (EMA) to provide for

and promote the protection, conservation and enhancement of the environment and the sustain-

able management of natural resources. The functions of SEA can be summarised as follows; a) to

promote the development of policies, legislation codes and standards necessary for sound

environmental management, including their enforcement; b) coordinate activities of

bodies (both local and international) that are involved in matters pertaining to the environment;

c) monitor trends in the state of the environment; and d) to promote research in

environmental matters and increase public awareness and participation.

In coordinating the various government agencies in environmental management, the SEA is

implementing a number of legislation and programmes that seek to prevent and control the

impacts of climate change. Since establishment the SEA has put in place various policies and

strategies including the National Environment Action Plan (SEAP), the Environment Impact

Assessment Guidelines, National Solid Waste Management Strategy (NBSAP), Environmental

Education Strategy, Biotechnology Policy, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan,

National Implementation Plan (NIP) for the management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

and Draft Biodiversity Management Policy as well as the Draft State of the Environment Report

(SOER).

27

3.1.7 Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC)

This parastatal is established in terms of the SNTC Act, 1972 with the mandate to ensure the

conservation of nature and cultural heritage for the country. It has the power to declare nature

reserves and game parks and oversee their status. This power extends to Swazi Nation Land and

privately owned land. The SNTC is also responsible for environmental education and awareness

programmes as well as community outreach on issues of nature conservation. The parastatal has

been engaged in management, including the control of the spread of alien invasive plant species

within nature reserves as well as monitoring the status of biodiversity in general. To this end it

has been involved in mapping of species. Other programmes for the Commission include the

conservation of wetlands which includes the compilation of a National Wetlands and Protection

Worthy Areas Surveys. Further programmes aimed at the conservation and reclamation of

wetlands is being undertaken in coordination with the SEA.

3.1.8 The Swaziland Standards Authority

The Swaziland Standards Authority through the Standards and Quality Act 2003 is mandated to

put in place standards on product quality, industrial/agricultural processes, imports and exports to

ensure safety and quality of goods and services in the country. It is also expected to Co-operate

with the Government or the representatives of any industry or with any local authority or other

public body or any other person, in order to secure the adoption and practical application of

standards and technical regulations and determine compliance with such technical regulations.

This fairly new parastatal is currently putting in place the said standards and is largely involving

all public bodies in this exercise.

3.1.9 The Swaziland Investment Promotions Authority

Established by the Swaziland Investment Promotion Act, 1998 SIPA is one pivotal agency that

can contribute to regulation of climate change issues by its strategic placement in government. It

is mandated to attract, facilitate and promote local and foreign investment; initiate, coordinate

and implement government policies and strategies on investment; and provide one-stop

information and support facility for local and foreign investors.

28

3.1.10 Department of Water Affairs

The Department of Water Affairs of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy that was

established by the Water Act of 2003 is responsible for water resource management, including

ensuring that safe drinking water is available in the country. Water quantity is controlled through

issuing of water permits for all water users should be a mechanism for monitoring and managing

the use of water, particularly for industrial and irrigation purposes. However, water resources are

steadily diminishing due to persistent drought across the region. Water pollution is still a major

challenge for the department despite constant monitoring.

3.1.11 Swaziland Water and Agricultural Development Enterprise (SWADE)

SWADE is a government company established by the Government of Swaziland in 1999 to

facilitate the planning and implementation of the Komati Downstream development Project

(KDDP) and Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (LUSIP) and any other large water

and agricultural development project that Government may assign. KDDP used water from

Maguga Dam in the Komati river to irrigate about 3892 ha if sugarcane, 205 ha of vegetables and

442 ha of other crops. The project area totals 27,000 ha, with about 22,000 inhabitants on Swazi

Nation (communal) land. The LUSIP on the other hand is located along the west bank of the

lower Usuthu River in the Lowveld. The first phase will develop 6500 ha into irrigated farm, and

the second phase will irrigate a total of 5000 ha.

3.1.12 NAMBOARD

The National Agricultural Marketing Board (NamBoard) is a parastatal organisation established

under the NAMBOARD Act of 1985. It facilitates the agricultural production, processing,

storage, transportation, distribution and sale of both baby and conventional vegetables. The

purpose of NAMBoard is to stimulate local production by providing technical service and

marketing of the agricultural produce in the country, and particularly to support small farmers.

3.1.13 National Maize Corporation

The National Maize Corporation (NMC) is a state-owned enterprise that was incorporated in

1985 and it is involved in the business of commodity trading in white maize. The mission of

NMC is to enhance food security and create wealth through effective grain procurement, storage

29

and distribution practices with the involvement of all stakeholders. The objectives of NMC is o

reduce marketing barriers and costs to Swazi farmers by improving maize marketing and

logistics services, and to guarantee all year round supplies of maize at reasonable costs to the

nation.

3.1.14 University of Swaziland

The University of Swaziland (UNISWA) is the highest institute of learning in the country. The

Faculty of Agriculture of UNISWA evolved from the Swaziland Agricultural College and

University Centre (SACUC). It began by offering certificates and diplomas in Agriculture,

Agricultural Education and Home Economics to produce, mainly officers for the Ministry of

Agriculture and the Ministry of Education. Currently the faculty offers 11 degree programmes

with duration of four years. The degree programmes that are relevant to CSA include Bachelor of

Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Bachelor of Science in Agricultural

Economics an Agribusiness Management, Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education,

Bachelor of Science in Agronomy, Bachelor of Science in Animal Science, and Bachelor of

Science in Horticulture. The diploma programmes were phased out by the University of

Swaziland. The faculty also offers postgraduate programmes in the areas of Agronomy,

Horticulture, Agricultural Extension, Agricultural Education, Animal Science and Environmental

Resources Management. The students in the new degree programmes specialise in their areas, as

opposed to the previous degree in agriculture programme where students were taking courses in

all the subjects, including crop production, horticulture, animal health, animal production,

agricultural engineering, agricultural economics & management, and agricultural extension.

There is also an opportunity to review the programmes and mainstream climate smart

agriculture.

3.1.15 Swaziland Dairy Board

The Swaziland Dairy Board is a regulator of the dairy industry in the country. It provides

support, training and advisory services to milk producers. The services to farmers include

resource assessment for staring dairy farming, siting and construction of dairy structures, forage

production and conservation. It also gives advice on pasture establishment and management,

30

procurement of dairy cattle and artificial insemination. The regulatory function is through

charging of levy for imported dairy products.

3.1.16 Civil Society Organisations

The Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) include Non Government Organisations (NGOs),

Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and church based organisations. The Coordinating

Assemble of Non Governmental Organisations (CANGO) is responsible for coordinating the

activities of the NGOs in the country. The CSOs play a major role in the welfare and livelihood

of communities in the country. CANGO has a membership of about 80 organisations. Some of

the activities undertaken by the NGOS are highlighted in Box 5. A number of them are actively

involved in agriculture and food security programmes. They go to the extent of providing

farming inputs and extension services to communities. Examples of NGOs that are involved in

farming and agriculture are World Vision International, Africa Cooperative Action Trust

(ACAT) and International Relief and Development (IRD). The CBOs work with communities at

grass root level, and they can be used as entry points for CSA projects in the country.

Box 5: Land use and land management activities undertaken by NGOs in Swaziland.

To increase food security by effecting improvements in agriculture

productivity based on promotion of environmentally appropriate agricultural

practices.

To increase availability of clean water supply by introducing methods of

water harvesting and rehabilitation.

To reduce environmental degradation in target areas

To promote equal access to development and social services

To promote income generating activities within rural homesteads and

communities

Source: CANGO, 2003

31

3.1.17 Private Sector

The private sector include small, medium and large scale business entities. Private sectors

relevant to CSA include producers of agriculture products, retailers and distributors of farming

inputs. They also include financial institutions. The Federation of Swaziland Business

Community (FESBC) is the umbrella body of the private sector in the country.

3.1.18 Swaziland National Agricultural Union

The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU) is an umbrella body for all farmer

organisations in the country. It is under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture. Its aim is to

promote and safeguard the interest of the farmers by linking them with other stakeholders and

key players in the agriculture sector, and to facilitate a favourable environment for production,

and access to resources, research and technology. The role of SNAU is therefore fundamental in

the successful adoption and implementation of CSA in the country.

3.1.19 Development partners

The development partners include international organisations, regional organisations and

bilateral partners. International Organisations that have played role in agriculture include the

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Food and On the other

hand regional organisations include COMESA and FANRPAN. UNDP and COMESA are

currently funding the development of a National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, as

well as a Climate Change Policy. The Strategy is near its finalisation, and the draft strategy has

some components of CSA in its proposed adaptation and mitigation actions. FAO was

instrumental in developing a comprehensive agriculture sector policy. FAO is also funding the

implementation of the Swaziland Agricultural Development Programme that intends to improve

the production and productivity of smallholder farmers.

32

3.2 National Policy and legislative framework for climate change and CSA

The country has several legislation and policies that have some relevance to climate smart

agriculture. It is worth noting though that the majority of the legislation was enacted before

climate change was an issue. The policies and legislation can be grouped into different sectors

that include Agriculture, Environment, and Forest. Natural Resources, Water Resources, Disaster

preparedness, and Administration (Appendix A). The national policies that have direct

implications to climate smart agriculture and food security are the National Food Security Policy

of 2005, the Comprehensive Agriculture Policy of 2005, the Swaziland National Irrigation Policy

of 2005and the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP). The

Forest Policy of 2000 is also fundamental for sustainable land resources management. Farmers

also developed National Action Plan following an agriculture summit that was held in 2007. All

the critical policies do not have legislation to make them work. Some legislation is very old and

out-dated. They include the Forest Preservation Act of 1910, the Grass Fires Act of 1955 and the

Natural Resources Act of 1951. The policies and legislation is further discussed in the

subsections below.

3.2.1 The Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP)

The Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme has been endorsed by the

African Heads of State and Government as a framework for restoration of agriculture growth,

food security, and rural development in Africa. The CAAPD framework commits African

Governments to allocate at leaset10% of national budgetary resources to agriculture and rural

development. One of the pillars of CAADP is extending the area under sustainable land

management and reliable water control systems, and CSA falls under this pillar. The specific

goal of CAADP is to attain an average annual sectoral growth rate of 6% in agriculture.

Swaziland signed the CAADP framework in March 2010. To this end the implementation of the

CAADP framework in the country has been slow due to a number of reasons, one of them being

the poor economic standing of the country in the past three years.

33

3.2.2 The National Agriculture Summit Action Plan

The National Agriculture Summit was a direct government response to the plight of Swazi

farmers who are increasingly operating in an environment that is challenging and militating

against normal agricultural production. These challenges include global warming and associated

climate change, globalisation and market access barriers to lucrative markets in the northern

hemisphere, dwindling water resources and diminishing river flows and alien invasive species. A

number of issues were raised in action plan. They include lack of knowledge on land suitability

issues at community level, problems of land degradation and water resource storage and

allocation and well as difficulties in accessing farm inputs. The recommendations included the

production of nationwide land suitability maps to assist in developing a long term strategy of

promoting integrated agriculture, building of water storage facilities, use of agroforestry to

rehabilitate degraded land ad provision of subsidies for agricultural inputs.

3.2.3 National Food Security Policy for Swaziland of 2005

This policy, which is an integral part of the Comprehensive Agriculture Sector Policy and

National Development Strategy, is aimed at addressing the threats and opportunities relating to

food security in Swaziland. The policy introduces the status and framework of food security in

line with the internationally accepted definition of food security “Food security is achieved when

all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food

to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. The policy

provides key strategies to be developed and implemented that will address food insecurity and

poverty reduction. Further, this policy forms the basis of priority setting and strategy

development around food security which will be integrated into an overall Integrated Agriculture

and Food Security Strategy and Action Plan. The policy recognises the effects of drought that

bring about seasonal and inter-annual instability of food supplies. It advocates for an early

warning system that include agro-meteorological modelling and integrated multidisciplinary crop

forecasting techniques. It also brings about the need for climate change adaptation strategies for

food security.

3.2.4 Comprehensive Agricultural Sector Policy of 2005

The objectives of the Comprehensive Sector Policy of 2005 include the increase of agricultural

outputs and productivity and to ensure sustainable use and management of land and water

34

resources. The broad objective is to provide clear guidance on policy options and measures

necessary to enhance sustainable agriculture sector development. It considers all the sub-sectors

of agriculture: rainfed crop, irrigated crop, livestock, research, extension, marketing and credit.

The policy also recognises the need for rapid climate change adaptation strategies to safeguard

crop and livestock production

3.2.5 Swaziland National Irrigation Policy of 2005

The National Irrigation Policy of the Kingdom of Swaziland intends to provide policy direction

in the irrigation sub-sector. It provides guidance regarding the measures that must be adopted in

order to increase the national irrigated area and to improve agricultural water management and

existing irrigated agriculture thereby adding increased value to the productivity of labour and

natural resources in Swaziland. This will lead to the promotion and development of specific

irrigation practices that are contingent upon the realities of internal and external markets and

development of value added food processing. The policy and its implementation strategy ensure

that development is guided and facilitated within a structured and balanced framework that

respects physical limits, equity concerns and institutional capacities.

3.2.6 The Poverty Reduction Strategy and Action Programme, 2006

This Strategy calls for the SEA and the Ministry to implement environmental management plans

in Swazi Nation Land. Farmers and Communities should be educated on sustainable methods of

living. The Strategy emphasizes the need for public awareness initiatives to ensure effective

waste management. It recommends the use of various public bodies NGOs and media in ensuring

wider access of information on practical waste management methods in communities. It further

calls for the Customs Department to ensure that there is no importation of all toxic wastes into

the country. The Climate Change Strategy needs to recognise the role of farmers and

communities in environmental management and in particular waste management practices and

provide for further strategies on how this approach can be operationalize.

35

3.2.7 The National Environmental Policy, 1999

The objective of this policy is to ‘promote the enhancement, protection and conservation of the

environment and the attainment of sustainable development in Swaziland. It lays down the

principles to be used in the undertaking of environmental conservations in the country.

It has four core principles which are environmental responsibility, sustainable use, environmental

rights and sustainable development. The policy also provides other 7 supporting principles. The

National Environment Policy (NEP) is an important and key component for integrating and

coordinating the other sectoral policy frameworks including the National Development Strategy

(NDS).

3.2.8 Environmental Audit Assessment and Review Regulations, 2000

These regulations are made under the Environmental Management Act. They provide for

sustainable development by ensuring that every developmental project is carried out with

minimal negative impacts on the environment. The regulations provide for environmental impact

assessment and environmental audit as compulsory tools for any project implementation. The

regulations are being implemented and have gained immense publicity and acceptance by both

small project implementers and investors in general.

3.2.9 The Forest Policy, 2000

The Policy is founded on various principles which include that the forest and woodland reserves

should be conserved and their biodiversity components sustained by maintaining ecosystem and

habitat diversity and stability. The objectives of the Policy include the following: To improve the

access to land for the utilisation and development of forest resources, and secure the tenure of

forest and trees; To promote the rational and sustainable use of land, and achieve a sustainable

balance between forestry and other uses of the land and water resources; To improve the forest

productivity, and ensure sustainable supply of multiple forest products and services by

maintaining the forest areas; To improve income and living conditions, and alleviate poverty; To

conserve the biodiversity of the forest resources, encourage its sustainable use and ensure that

benefits accrued are shared equitably; To promote the integration of forestry into urban

development; and To enhance the national capacity to manage and develop the forestry sector in

collaboration with other stakeholders. To date there is still no effective implementation of this

36

policy document due to the absence of a Forest Act. The role of forests on climate change issues

cannot be overemphasized. There is need to finalise the draft Forestry Bill which was developed

in 2010 in order for the country to attend to climate change issues in a harmonised approach with

the region.

3.2.10 Forest Preservation Act of 1907

There are other various policies and legislation contributing to government’s obligations on

climate change. These are sectoral instruments which are being implemented by the different

institutions either alone in their own institutions or in cooperation with the Designated National

Authority. These include the following:

3.2.11 Environment Management Act, 2002

The Act establishes the Swaziland Environment Authority as a body corporate. Its purpose is to

provide for and promote the enhancement, protection and conservation of the environment and

the sustainable management of natural resources. It is the country’s framework environmental

legislation which promotes the integrated management of natural resources on a sustainable

basis. The Act further provides for some key environmental principles which all other

institutions are expected to rely on in their respective obligations. These principles include:

ensuring that adverse effects are prevented and minimised through long term integrated planning

and the co-ordination, integration and co-operation of efforts, which consider the entire

environment as a whole entity; precautionary principle as well as the polluter pays principle. The

climate change strategy may also use these principles to elaborate on strategic issues that can

help avert climate change effect or even prevent the implementation of activities in a manner that

contribute to climate change. The functions of the Authority include, inter alia, the development

and publishing of standards that seek to enhance the conservation and protection of the

environment and the sustainable management of natural resources; issuing and administering of

various licences for activities that have an impact on the environment; oversee waste

management initiatives, including publishing a waste management strategy; administering

integrated environmental management, such as publishing the State of environment report and

environmental management plans; in cooperation with other government bodies, enforce the

provisions of the Act, including the issuing of Orders and prosecuting offenders. The major

37

issues are monitoring and enforcement of this law and its regulations. This can help SEA to

increase use of these administrative judicial powers to enforce compliance.

3.2.12 Swaziland National Trust Commission Act, 1972

This Act establishes the National Trust Commission and mandates it to declare any land as a

national park or nature reserve for purposes of biodiversity conservation. Once declared, various

activities which could compromise the ecological status of a reserve or park are legally

prohibited. These include hunting, felling or picking of various vegetation type and setting fires

in such designated areas.

3.2.13 Natural Resources Act 71/1951

The object of this Act is to provide for the conservation and improvement of natural resources in

the country. The Act establishes the Natural Resources Board, whose responsibilities are include

recommending to the Minister the promulgation of a proper legislation deemed necessary for the

proper conservation and improvement of natural resources in the country.

In terms of the Act the Board can issue Orders relating to natural resource. Such issues may

include soil conservation, water management including storm water, protection of vegetation,

burning of grass etc. Further it provides for the declaration of intensive conservation areas to be

supervised by community members through a Committee known as the Conservation

Committee. Appropriate enforcement of this Act can help mitigate the impacts of climate

change. The Board has power to issue any Orders that may help deal with issues of climate

change.

3.2.14 The King’s Order in Council of 1953

In 1953 the King of Swaziland issued an order commanding the Swazi nation to observe some

soil conservation measures on arable land. The nation was ordered to leave grass filter strips

between ploughed lands at such intervals as advised by agricultural extension officers. They

were ordered not to cultivate land with slopes of more than 14%, and not to plough up and down

the slope of a hill, but to always plough across the slop. The King’s Order has been observed

over 6 decades by the nation and at present all ploughing is done across the slope and most

cultivated land has grass filter strips. The chiefs are responsible for making sure that the order is

38

observed and any offender is charged before the traditional community court. As a result soil

erosion related to cultivation has been reduced to tolerable levels in Swaziland, which is unusual

for any hill country.

3.2.15 The Swaziland Investment Promotion Act No.1/1998

This is an Act to provide for the promotion of investment in Swaziland and the establishment of

an Investment Promotion Authority and for matters incidental thereto. The Act provides that

investment in all enterprises shall be made in conformity with applicable laws. It specifically

prohibits investment by foreign or local investors in the manufacture of hazardous wastes,

radioactive material and explosives. The SIPA is currently providing all investors with the key

legislation that investors need to take cognisance of. At inception stages, all sectors, including

the environmental sector is given a forum to present applicable laws and means of cooperation in

ensuring compliance. The promulgation of any form of climate change related policy can help

the Department of Meteorology to also have a firm approach in presenting on climate change

issues on investors.

3.2.16 The Swaziland Settlement Act No.1/1946

This Act provides for the establishment control and development of land settlement scheme for

the Swazi Nation. It prohibits the touring of fire in a manner that destroys grass, trees or any

vegetation in commonage. It further empowers the Principal Secretary Indvuna of a settlement

area to order able- bodied man to assist in the eradication of noxious weeds on commonage. A

person who has been so ordered and fail to obey such order without a reasonable excuse can be

guilty of an offence.

3.2.17 The Swazi Administration Order 6/1998

This Order-in-Counsel is being administered by the Ministry of Home Affairs. It provides for the

incorporation and appointment of Chiefs and Tindvuna in environmental management issues.

The aforesaid traditional leaders are endowed with powers to do the following: prohibiting,

restricting or regulating the cutting or destruction of trees; prohibiting or restricting the sale,

supply, use, possession or cultivation of poisonous or noxious plants and the manufacture of

noxious drugs or poisons; prohibiting, restricting or regulating the burning of grass or bush, and

39

the use of fire or lights in any manner likely to ignite any grass or bush, and the extinguishing of

grass or bush fires; and prohibiting, restricting or regulating wasteful methods of agriculture and

eradicating noxious and harmful weeds. For a long time Chiefs have been able to invoke some of

the above powers. But recently there has been a compromise in the exercise of these powers

leading to various unsustainable uses of resources and decline in the state of the environment.

3.2.18 The Flora Protection Act 10/ 2001

The Act provides for the protection of indigenous flora. This is done through the establishment

of flora reserves, botanical gardens and protection of special habitats. It further prohibits the

picking of protected indigenous flora for commercial use including export without a permit. A

listing through a schedule is provided and categorised as specially protected, vulnerable and rare

flora. Enforcement of the Act is posing as a challenge due to increasing poverty levels in areas

where there is indigenous flora, however much effort is put to control the overharvesting of

indigenous flora. Another challenge comes with the modest penal code of this important Act.

Otherwise if it could be amended to incorporate proportional sentences, it could add more value

in the protection of natural forests.

3.2.19 Forest Preservation Act 14/1910

This Act deals with protection of indigenous trees and forests growing on Government and

Swazi Nation Land from negligent and intentional destruction by human activity. The Act vests

on the Minister of Agriculture and/ or the District Commissioner with authority to sanction the

cutting, damage removal or sale of the indigenous trees and forests. It recognizes the right of

communities to harvest protected forests only for personal use.

3.2.20 The Private Forest Act 3/1951

This is an Act to provide for the better regulation and protection of private forests in Swaziland.

It gives private forests owners’ exclusive rights over their forests and their produce. It

specifically excludes forests from Swazi Nation Land as it deals in particular with the rights of

the owners of such forests. Even though this Act does not refer to climate change

directly, there is need to continue its enforcement due to the importance of forests.

40

3.2.21 The Plant Control Act 8/1981

The object of this Act is to provide control, movement and growing of plants and matters

incidental thereto. It creates a Nursery Registration Board who shall be responsible for the

registration of new nurseries. The Act prohibits the importation of plants into Swaziland without

a permit. Further it requires one to obtain a phytosanitary certificate in order to export any plant

or plant material. Further it mandates the Principal Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture to

ensure that land id prohibited from noxious weeds. The Act further protects natural vegetation

from infestation of locusts (red and brown locusts).

3.2.22 The Forest Policy, 2000

The Policy is founded on various principles which include that the forest and woodland reserves

should be conserved and their biodiversity components sustained by maintaining ecosystem and

habitat diversity and stability. The objectives of the Policy include the following: To improve the

access to land for the utilisation and development of forest resources, and secure the tenure of

forest and trees; To promote the rational and sustainable use of land, and achieve a sustainable

balance between forestry and other uses of the land and water resources; To improve the forest

productivity, and ensure sustainable supply of multiple forest products and services by

maintaining the forest areas; To improve income and living conditions, and alleviate poverty; To

conserve the biodiversity of the forest resources, encourage its sustainable use and ensure that

benefits accrued are shared equitably; To promote the integration of forestry into urban

development; and To enhance the national capacity to manage and develop the forestry sector in

collaboration with other stakeholders. To date there is still no effective implementation of this

policy document due to the absence of a Forest Act. The role of forests on climate change issues

cannot be overemphasized. There is need to finalise the draft Forestry Bill which was developed

in 2010 in order for the country to attend to climate change issues in a harmonised approach with

the region.

3.2.23 The Water Act, 2003

The Act declares water as a natural resource. It provides for the institutional structures for

effective management of water resources in the country. It provides for the establishment of the

National Water Authority, whose functions includes the preparation of a Water Resources

41

Master Plan which shall be implemented by River Basin Authorities and appointment of

members of the Joint Water Commission. The Act advocates for mainstreaming of stakeholders

in water resources management. Water usage beyond domestic use (such as irrigation purposes)

is managed through a permit system. Further, to ensure water is maintained at acceptable

standards, there is also provision for effluent control permit for water that has been used for

industrial purposes. The Department of Water Affairs implements the Act through monitoring

water quality and keeping track of water quantity for purposes of appropriate allocation. The

Water Resources Master Plan is still being prepared.

3.2.24 The Grass Fires Act 44/1955

The Act is being administered by the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs (Forestry

Department) . It prohibits the burning of grass and other vegetation without permission or

notification. It restricts owners and any person from setting fires wilfully or negligently and

obligates persons to extinguish wild fires to prevent their spread. Occupiers and owners of land

are required to establish firebreaks around their area before setting fires. The implementation of

this Act is seen to be a challenge as there are a number of wildfires which produce smoke

periodically. Latest data shows an increase in uncontrolled fires, particularly from the eastern

part of the country which leading to dark smokes. The Act is entirely out-dated and this leads to

its ineffectiveness. Perhaps the final enactment of the Forestry Bill will provide better regulation

in this aspect. However it is also imperative for the Climate Change Strategy to provide for the

burning of fires, including wild fires as they contribute to smokes in the country.

3.2.25 Disaster Management Act, 2006

The Act is being administered by the Deputy Prime Minister’s Office. It establishes the National

Disaster Management Agency (NDMA). The Act serves as the legal framework for disaster

management and makes provision for policy, plans and structures for disaster management. It

further provides for the establishment of a national disaster management team, council and

agency at the national level and a regional disaster management committee at the regional level.

42

The Agency has not only contributed to the systematic, holistic and sector-wide disaster

preparedness approach, but is further developing a Policy that seeks to streamline the various

types of disasters with the current government institutional arrangement for effective

implementation. There is still need to intensify the activities of the NDMA, particularly

regarding preparedness and early warning systems. There is still need to intensify the

implementation of this Act by the various relevant sectors that are responsible for different

disasters. Currently only the Ministry of Health is having a defined implementation structure for

the Act. A National Climate Change Strategy would give defined strategies on how other sectors

can approach their respective roles regarding disaster management including early warning

systems and preparedness.

3.2.26 Disaster Management Policy, 2010

The objective of this policy is to ensure an adequate and coherent policy framework for effective

disaster management in the country. It aims at creating a functional legal and institutional

framework for disaster risk management. The policy encourages the country to cooperate with

the region in the assessment and monitoring of emerging risks. The policy emphasizes the need

for various sectors, especially those responsible for environmental and natural resource

management to take leading roles in disaster risk management. This is a comprehensive policy

which can benefit the country in climate change issues if effectively implemented. The proposed

Climate Change Strategy can also build on it regarding issues of disaster management.

43

CHAPTER 4: CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENT CSA AND

OPPORTUNITIES

4.1 Key challenges to implementing CSA in Swaziland

The key challenges to implementing climate smart agriculture include lack of comprehensive

legislation on climate change, outdated legislation, challenges associated with hosting of climate

change, decline in agricultural extension service, lack of tools for climate smart agriculture and

lack of national land policy to coordinate actions plans to promote sustainable land management

(Box 6). A draft Land Policy was prepared in 1999, but up to now it has not been approved by

the traditional structures.

4.2 Opportunities

Several opportunities exist in the country for implementation of climate smart agriculture. The

country is in the process of developing a national climate change strategy together with

legislation to implement it. An opportunity should be taken to make sure that the strategy and

legislation has have components of climate-smart agriculture. Extension services are provided by

government and civil societies. The extension officers should be trained and empowered in

climate smart agriculture. The government has also invested in water storage dams and the water

storage facilities could be used for climate smart projects (Box 7).

44

Box 6: Key challenges in implementing climate smart agriculture

1. Lack of comprehensive climate change policy and legislation: Currently the country does not

have a national climate change policy and a specific legislation on climate change. However there

are sectoral policies and legislation that have a bearing on climate change. The country is

however undertaking an exercise to formulate and adopt a comprehensive national climate change

policy and to develop and enact comprehensive national climate change legislation.

2. Policies for food security were developed when climate change was not an issue: This include

the Forest Policy of 2000, the national Development Strategy and the Poverty Reduction Strategy

and Action Plan of 2007. Furthermore some programmes such as the LUSIP did not adequately

take into consideration the issues of climate change. This calls for a review of sectoral policies

and legislation with a view to integrating climate change and climate smart issues.

3. Key policies related to agriculture and food security lack legislation to make them

operational: Such policies include the National Food Security Policy, the Comprehensive

Agricultural Sector Policy and the Forest Policy. Legislation is needed in order to implement the

policies.

4. Outdated legislation: Legislation that has some implications on climate smart agriculture is

outdated and not enforceable. The outdated legislation is difficult to enforce and penalties are

sometimes not proportional to the offence at the present time.

5. Hosting of climate change: Climate change is hosted at the Meteorological Department under

the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs. With increased awareness of climate change

issues and its impacts on various sectors, it is becoming apparent that climate change needs to be

coordinated in a manner that recognizes its cross-sectoral nature. The hosting of the National

Disaster Management Agency can be taken as a lesson, as it is hosted under the Deputy Prime

Minister’s Office.

6. Decline in agriculture extension service: The number of government extension officers has

been reduced over the years, affecting agricultural productivity. The extension officers also do

not have adequate training in climate change and climate smart agriculture

7. Lack of tools for climate-smart agriculture: The technology for climate-smart agriculture is not

readily available and expensive in some case. The majority of tools have to be imported into the

country.

8. Lack of national land policy: The lack of a comprehensive and integrated national land policy

hinders coordinated action plan to promote sustainable land management. It also contributes to

unplanned and unserviced settlements making them more vulnerable to adverse effects of climate

change. A draft Land Policy was prepared in 1999, and it aimed to improve access to land and

secure tenure and to improve productivity and living conditions for the nation. The policy

advocated for a 99-year leasehold tenure in selected SNL to enhance land rights and protect

investments such that those in agricultural production.

9. Weak farmer’s representation: The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU), an

umbrella body for all farmer orgnisations in the country was formed following the National

Agriculture Summit of 2007. The organization is still in developing stage and it still need to be

empowered to lobby strongly for the farmers.

10. Lack of advocacy: There is lack of advocacy for climate smart agriculture at national level. This

is compounded by the fact that the fact that climate change is a concept that is recently gaining

popularity and interest. There is lack of climate smart success stories in the country, lack of

advocacy for it.

45

Box 7: Opportunities for climate smart agriculture

1. The country is in the process of developing a national climate change strategy and action

plan together with legislation to implement it. The draft climate change strategy calls for

review of all sectoral strategies to integrate climate change issues. It also identifies

adaptation and mitigation strategic actions in the agriculture and forest sector. A number

of the proposed actions are climate smart. The opportunity should be taken to inform the

finalization of the strategy and the crafting of the legislation on climate smart agriculture.

2. The draft climate change policy and action plan calls for development of adaptation and

mitigation projects. Also several development partners have called for national climate

smart projects. They include COMESA and the REDD+ initiative. The country should

take the initiative to write and submit proposals on climate smart agriculture.

3. The civil society organisations have been providing agricultural extension services to

complement that provided by the Ministry of Agriculture. The activities of the NGOs

should be up-scaled and the government extension officers should learn from the

activities and operations of the NGOs.

4. The government has shown willingness and commitment in poverty reduction and food

security by initiating projects that increase food production. They include irrigation

developments. Such projects should be utilized to spread the concepts of climate smart

agriculture

5. Indigenous knowledge can play a big role in selecting and growing of appropriate

indigenous crops. However such knowledge is lacking in some areas, forcing farmers to

stop growing some crops. It is vital to document indigenous knowledge

6. The existing traditional institutions should be used t advocate and promote climate smart

agriculture. A lesson could be learned from the King’s Oder of 1953 that called for

implementation of soil conservation measures. The order of the King was taken and

enforced using traditional structures.

7. An investor roadmap for CAADP is in the process of being developed. Climate smart

agriculture should be one of the components of the investor roadmap.

8. Policies that aim to promote food production and enhance sustainable land management

do exist. Legislation should be enacted for implementation of policies that were

developed, than include the National Food Security Policy of 2005, the Resettlement

Policy of 2003 and the Forest Policy of 2000.

46

4.3 Proposed actions for climate smart agriculture

Climate change is projected to have a wide range of impacts on various aspects of the agriculture

sector. Overall, it is suggested that climate change will significantly undermine crop production

in the region, posing a serious threat to food security, even after adaptation and productivity

improvements have been accounted for. Effective adaptation in this sector will be of crucial

importance. Agriculture is one of the major contributors to climate change. In Swaziland, sources

of emissions from agriculture are cultivation of agricultural soils, livestock and manure

management, rice production and the burning of agricultural residues and clearing of savanna.

Emissions from agriculture are expected to rise in the future because of increased food demand

for the growing and more prosperous Swazi nation that is able to afford more varied diets with

higher shares of meat and dairy products. Such a shift will also lead to increased pressure on

forests for agricultural expansion leading to deforestation.

A draft National Climate change Strategy and Action Plan was developed to provide a systematic

approach to deal with climate change through adaptation and mitigation in a manner that

contributes to achievement of sustainable development. The strategic actions recommended

under adaptation include review of agricultural policy, strategy and programmes with a view to

integrating climate change issues, promotion of sustainable land management practices,

enhancing agricultural research and technology development, strengthening agricultural

extension services and promoting risk management and insurance (Box 8). On the other hand

strategic actions recommended under mitigation include enhanced efficient fertiliser application,

promotion of manure management practices, promoting harnessing of biogas from agricultural

residues, enhancing investment in agroforestry, and promotion of afforestation and agroforestry

(Box 9). In order for the proposed strategic actions to be implemented successfully, there is need

for enacting laws to facilitate the implementation. Climate Smart Agriculture projects should be

initiated as advocated in the draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan

(NCCSAP).

47

Box 8: Proposed adaptation strategic actions for the agriculture sector

1. Review agricultural policies: Review the agricultural policy, strategy, programmes and

initiatives with a view to integrating climate change issues.

2. Promote adoption of sustainable land management practices: Promote adoption of

sustainable land management practices such as changes in agricultural practices,

participatory adaptive management practices, soil management, seed management,

fertilizer use, crop rotation, agroforestry, integrated pest management system (IPMS),

changing planting and harvesting times and post-harvesting management

3. Promote rainwater harvesting: Promote rainwater harvesting for crop and livestock

production to increase the buffer and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to deal

with climate change.

4. Improve irrigation techniques: Improve irrigation techniques and agricultural water

management for more efficient water use.

5. Promote agricultural diversification: Promote agricultural diversification to enhance

climate resilience

6. Promote indigenous knowledge: Promote appropriate indigenous knowledge

agricultural practices and local coping strategies

7. Promote use of drought tolerant: Promote use of or develop drought-and/or heat

tolerant crops, water conserving crop varieties and livestock breeds

8. Invest on post harvest technologies: Invest in post harvest and value addition

processing and storage technologies

9. Improve agricultural advisory services: Improve agricultural advisory services and

information systems

10. Strengthen weather forecast: Strengthen weather forecast information sharing for

farmers

11. Enhance climate risk management: Enhance application of climate risk management

tools, such as crop and livestock weather-based insurance

Source: Draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2013): Government of

Swaziland (2013)

48

Box 9: Proposed mitigation strategies for agriculture sector

1. Promote adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and technologies that enhance efficiency and productivity while reducing GHG emissions.

2. Promote manure management practices 3. Enhance efficient fertilizer application.

4. Promote harnessing of biogas from agricultural residues. 5. Enhance investments in agroforestry 6. Promote afforestation and reforestation

Source: Draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2013): Government of

Swaziland (2013)

49

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aid on maize prices and production in Swaziland. Agrekon 48 (1): 85-105.

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Technol. 3, 5-12

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http://www.nercha.org.sz/. 24/01/2014.

Sweet, R.J. and Khumalo, S. (1994). Range resources and grazing potentials in Swaziland.

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Mbabane, Swaziland.

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http://www.undp.org.sz/index.php/focus-areas/hiv-and-aids. 09/01/2013.

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09/01/2013.

52

APPENDICES: Summary of relevant legislation and policies

Policy Sector Name of Policy Year

Approved

or in

Force

Responsible

Ministry

Contact person Updated or

update planned

Available

on line

Agriculture National Food Security Policy

for Swaziland

2005 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not updated Yes (1)

Agriculture Comprehensive Agricultural

Sector Policy

2005 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not Updated Yes (2)

Agriculture Swaziland National Irrigation

Policy

2005 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not updated Yes (3)

Agriculture NAMBOARD Act 1985 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not updated

Agriculture National Agriculture Summit

Action Plan

2007 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not updated no

Agriculture The Comprehensive Africa

Agriculture Development

Programme (CAADP)

2010 Ministry of

Agriculture

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24042731

e-mail: ps@agriculture.gov.sz

Not updated No

Multi-sectoral Swaziland Poverty Reduction

Strategy and Action Plan

2007 Ministry of

Economic Planning

and Development

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 24043765

ps@planning.gov.sz

Not updated Yes (5)

Environment The National Environmental

Policy, 1999

1999 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 2402 6162

e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz

Not updated No

Environment Environmental Audit

Assessment and Review

Regulations, 2000

2000 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 2402 6162

e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz

Not updated No

Environment Environment Management

Act,

2002 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 2402 6162

e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz

Not updated No

Environment Swaziland National Trust 1972 Ministry of Tourism Principal Secretary Not updated No

53

Commission Act, 1972 and Environmental

Affairs

Phone: +268 2402 6162

e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz

Forest The Forest Policy, 2000 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Forest Forest Preservation Act of

1907

1907 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Forest The Flora Protection Act 10/

2001

2001 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Forest Forest Preservation Act

14/1910

1910 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Forest The Private Forest Act 3/1951 1951 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Forest The Grass Fires Act 44/1955 1955 Ministry of Tourism

and Environmental

Affairs

Senior Forestry Officer

Phone: +268 2402 9240

e-mail: gamedzeso@gov.sz

Not updated No

Natural

Resources

Natural Resources Act

71/1951

1951 Ministry of Natural

Resources and

Energy

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 2402 2644

e-mail: nergyswa@realnet.co.sz

Not updated No

Water

Resources

The Water Act, 2003 2003 Ministry of Natural

Resources and

Energy

Director: Department of Water

Affairs

Phone: +268 2402 3585

e-mail: Wrb-wcom@realnet.co.sz

Not updated No

Disaster

preparedness

Disaster Management Act,

2006

2006 Deputy Prime

Minister’s Office

Director of National Disaster

Management Agency

Phone: +268 2402 2723

Not updated No

Disaster

preparedness

Disaster Management Policy,

2010

2010 Deputy Prime

Minister’s Office

Director of National Disaster

Management Agency

Phone: +268 2402 2723

Not updated No

Investment The Swaziland Investment

Promotion Act No.1/1998

1998 Ministry of

Commerce, Industry

and Trade

Principal Secretary

Phone: +268 2402 3201

e-mail: mcit@gov.sz

Not updated No

Settlement The Swaziland Settlement Act

No.1/1946

1946 King’s Office The King’s Private Secretary Not updated No

54

Administration The Swazi Administration

Order 6/1998

1998 King’s Office The King’s Private Secretary Not updated No

Adminisration The Kings Order in Council of

1953

1953 King’s Office The King’s Private Secretary Not updated No