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A Comprehensive Scoping and Assessment Study of Climate Smart Agriculture … · Most areas in...
Transcript of A Comprehensive Scoping and Assessment Study of Climate Smart Agriculture … · Most areas in...
A Comprehensive Scoping and Assessment Study of Climate Smart
Agriculture (CSA) Policies in Zimbabwe
30 April 2014
By
Emmanuel Manzungu
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering
University of Zimbabwe
Commissioned by
The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis
Network (FANRPAN)
Draft
Executive Summary
Objectives and Methodology of Study
The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network is implementing a
number of climate smart agriculture projects in East and Southern Africa including in Zimbabwe.
The overall objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of
climate smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe. The study sought to conduct a review of the
existing climate smart agriculture policies, analyze gaps in the existing policy frameworks,
identify relevant policy recommendations, and develop and share policy recommendations.
Effort was also made to assess CSA-relevant practices, social and gender equity issues where
possible.
The study followed a number of iterative steps in data collection and analysis. An internet-based
literature survey was used to find out the meaning and scope of climate smart agriculture in the
international arena, which was a precursor to assessing the level of understanding and
implementation of climate smart agriculture in Zimbabwe. This was achieved by reviewing
policies, laws and strategies across the agricultural and related sectors, interviewing 24
individuals who represented stakeholders from the government, non-governmental, research
(national and international), private sector and development agencies and discussing preliminary
findings at the validation workshop attended by 35 participants.
Context for climate smart agriculture
The assessment of climate smart agricultural policies in Zimbabwe took into account the
country‘s biophysical and socio-economic environment. About 60% of the country receives less
than 650 mm of rainfall per year. In these areas are found about 7 million people whose
livelihoods depend on agriculture, which is constrained by poor rainfall, low soil fertility and
weak institutions. Rainfed agriculture remains the only option of these smallholder farmers,
because of high irrigation costs. Rainfed production, is hhowever, negatively affected because of
negative biophysical and socio-economic conditions (low rainfall, poor soil fertility and poor
economic performance), a situation has resulted in a situation of widespread food insecurity.
Research and development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed
agriculture. The country has a long history of development of technological innovations. Climate
change, however, poses serious challenges not just in relation to the development of climate
smart technologies and practices, but also developing a climate smart agricultural policy.
Summary of findings
There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international
research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known
examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature, which included
research, development, advocacy and training involving germplasm selection (e.g. introduction
and seed multiplication of drought tolerant crops and animal breeds), diversification of crop
production (away from crop types and varieties that are susceptible to moisture stress), animal
production diversification through the promotion of small livestock and breeds that are drought
tolerant, promotion of climate change adaptation-related agronomic practices such as
conservation agriculture, and promoting climate change mitigation agricultural production such
as organic farming, to cite the main ones. The activities were spread practically across the entire
country, and involved thousands of vulnerable households. The list of CSA technologies and
practices that were presented is by no means exhaustive because of time and resource
constraints. The list should therefore be regarded as examples of CSA technologies and
practices. Even the examples are by no means complete. For example there was not enough
information on CSA champions that were highlighted during the validation workshop. All the
same the list is adequate for a scoping study.
Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into
land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy
frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional
arrangements. The macro economic and political conditions that obtained in Zimbabwe at the
moment constrained such a development. All the same there were useful elements that were
captured in the various government documents. The Ministry of Environment demonstrated
leadership in the formulation of climate change policies, which incorporated aspects of climate
smart agriculture. Unfortunately the ministry responsible for agriculture lacked the drive to
mainstream CSA in its policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent
makes it critical that a clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced
rather than the current situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and
departments without strong coordinating structures and linkages with other sectors.
Recommendations
Since the need of a climate change policy in Zimbabwe was now agreed it was important that
such a policy should capture critical policy elements, which include:
Clarifying the substantive issues around climate change in agriculture vis-à-vis its actual
meaning and what exactly can be said to be climate smart.
Identifying key agricultural technologies and production systems across all sub-sectors
that would be showcased as climate smart, which can be based on the champions and
community of practice that were identified during the validation workshop
Identifying and promote supporting information production and dissemination in the
farming community, schools and tertiary institutions
Identifying and promote those agricultural practices (REDD+ inclined) that could take
advantage of international funding such as voluntary carbon credits especially against a
backdrop of widespread deforestation in the country due to tobacco curing
Promote good CSA governance by, among other things, ensuring that there was a
coordinated legal and institutional framework for the enforcement of climate smart
agriculture interventions
Ensuring that the general climate change policy was complemented by a current and pro-
climate smart agriculture agricultural policy, which should include to a) best practices
that need to be upscaled, b) strategies for financial mobilization for climate change
mitigation and adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural
prospects due to climate change will affect women and youth, d) effective institutional
arrangements, and e) show linkages with other sectors.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACT African Conservation Tillage Network
AGRITEX Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services
ARC Agricultural Research Council
CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
CIAT The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento Maiz y Trigo/International Maize and
Wheat Improvement Centre
CTA The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation
DOI Department of Irrigation
DR&SS Department of Research and Specialist Services
FANPARN Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse Gas
HDI Human Development Index
ICRISAT The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
LDC Least Developing Countries
MAMID Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development
MENRM Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management
MET Meteorological Department
NAMAs Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
NAPAS National Action Plan for Adaptation
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
PAYE Payment for Environmental Services
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy papers
REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing
Countries
SADC Southern African Development Community
SIMLEZA Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Systems for the Eastern Province of
Zambia
SMME Small Micro and Medium Enterprises
SMS Short Messaging Service
SOFECSA Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
USAID United States International Development Agency
UZ University of Zimbabwe
List of Boxes
2.1 Overview of CSA projects undertaken by the Department of Research and Specialist Services
of Zimbabwe 2.2 CSA champions in Zimbabwe
2.3 Examples of CSA Community of Practice in Zimbabwe
3.1 Challenges facing the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe
3.2 Possible interventions to improve agricultural sector in Zimbabwe
3.3 Deficiencies in the institutional arrangements with respect to climate change governance in Zimbabwe
List of Tables
1.1 Categories and number of participants per stakeholder category in the survey and validation
workshop
2.1. Climate smart agriculture capacity building needs of various stakeholders
3.1 Analysis of legal framework for the promotion of Climate Smart Agriculture in Zimbabwe
List of Figures
2. 1 Agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe
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1. Introduction
1.1 Land, agriculture, food security in Zimbabwe
Most areas in Zimbabwe experience a sub-tropical because of the high altitude rather than
tropical climate that can be expected from its geographical position (15 35’ and 220 30’ South).
The country also experiences a semi-arid climate. The average annual precipitation is estimated
to be between 652 and 674.5mm (FAO, 2011). The climate has a significant on agricultural
production with potential varying across the different agro-ecological regions (see section 2).
Most of the country‘s land (about 84%) is reserved for agricultural production (Rukuni et al,
2006). Agriculture plays a significant role in the country ‘s socio-economic development; .it is
estimated that it contributes about 14% to the country ‘s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 40% to
foreign currency earnings, 35% to formal employment and 36% to industrial raw materials
(Muir-Leresche, 2006). The main crops that are grown include maize, the country‘s staple crop,
as well commercial crops such as tobacco, coffee, tea, sugar cane, cotton and groundnuts. The
country has a small commercial beef and dairy industry. Small livestock such as goats and sheep,
particularly the latter, are kept by smallholder farmers.
The country‘s climate directly affects agricultural production. About 60% of the country receives
less than 650 mm of rainfall per year (Vincent and Thomas, 1960). In these areas are found about
7 million people whose livelihoods depend on agriculture ((Mehretu and Mutambara, 2006).
Agricultural production, however, is constrained by poor rainfall, low soil fertility and weak
institutions (ibid.). Under such conditions, it is only irrigation which can guarantee stable crop
production. The high costs of irrigation costs, however, make this an unrealistic option for many
smallholder farmers. Consequently reliance is on rainfed agriculture, which more often than not,
results in crop failure in most years (Nyamudeza, 1999). All the same rainfed agricultural
production continues to be practiced. As can be expected food insecurity is widespread in these
areas (Rukuni, 2006).
Research and development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed
agriculture. In this regard technological innovations have been and continue to be an important
focus (Nyamudeza, 1999). Against a backdrop of climate models that indicate diminishing
prospects for viable crop production under the current suite of technologies (Nyabako and
Manzungu, 2012), implementation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is increasingly becoming
important. Climate Smart Agriculture has been defined as agriculture that seeks to increase
sustainable productivity, strengthen farmers’ resilience, reduce agriculture‘s greenhouse gas
emissions, increase carbon sequestration, strengthens food security, and delivers environmental
benefits (World Bank, 2012; FAO, 2010). Appendix I presents example of CSA technologies and
practices as depicted in international literature.
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The overall objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of
climate smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe. Specifically the study sought to a) conduct a
review of the existing CSA practices and policies, b) analyze gaps in the existing policy
frameworks, c) identify relevant policy recommendations, and d) develop and share policy
recommendations at national and regional levels.
1.2 Methodology
The study followed a number of iterative steps in data collection and analysis. A literature survey
to assess the meaning and scope of CSA constituted the first step. This was followed by a review
of Zimbabwean policies, laws and strategies across land, agriculture, water, food and
environment. Both the literature and policy review were used to determine how different
stakeholders in Zimbabwe understood CSA during interviews and a stakeholder validation
workshop which was held in Harare, Zimbabwe on 29 January 2014 (Table 1.1). The details of
the persons who participated in the study are contained in Appendices I and II. The study faced
a number of limitations which included few academic literature sources in the country relating to
CSA, reduced availability of the persons representing some stakeholders, and as the limited time
available to undertake the study.
Table 1.1 Categories and number of participants per stakeholder category in the survey
and validation workshop
Stakeholder category Number of persons
Survey Validation workshop
Government 13 10
Non-Governmental Organisations 5 6
International research
Organisations/Universities
5 11
Farmers/Farmer Organisations - 3
Media - 5
Private sector 1 -
Total 24 35
Male/female ratio 3: 1 2: 1
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2 Farming Systems and Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies and
Practices
2.1 Overview of farming systems
Zimbabwe has five agro-ecological zones that are characterized by varied rainfall patterns (Fig.
2. 1 Table 2.1). The type of agricultural production that can be undertaken in each agro-
ecological region is affected by the biophysical characteristics of that region (Table 2.1). The
majority of the farmers in Zimbabwe are smallholder farmers who undertake farming in
communal and resettlement areas. Communal areas, that are generally of low agricultural
potential because of poor rainfall and low soil, and weak institutions were created for blacks by
the colonial administrations. Some of the smallholder farmers are found in old and new
resettlement areas. Subsistence is the dominant practice with the exception of smallholder
farmers in high rainfall areas. Commercial agriculture is undertaken on whole farms formerly
owned by white commercial settlers and also on what are locally as A2 farms that are on average
30 ha in size, which are subdivided pieces of land that used to belong to whit farmers. These
were created by a land reform programme, locally known as the fast track land reform
programme that started in 2000.
Table 2.1 Extent and characteristics of Zimbabwe’s agro-ecological regions
Region Area (ha)
% of
total land
area
Rainfall pattern
Recommended farming system
1 613 233 1.56 Rainfall in excess of 1000 mm,
relatively low temperatures.
Specialised and diversified farming.
Forestry, fruit, intensive livestock, tea,
coffee
2 7 343 059 18.68 Rainfall between 750 mm-1000mm
per year mainly in summer.
Intensive farming.
Crops and intensive livestock
production.
3 6 859 958 17.43 Rainfall between 650-800,
infrequent but heavy
falls of rainfall, seasonal droughts,
relatively high temperatures.
Semi-intensive farming. Livestock,
fodder and staple and cash crops like
maize, tobacco, cotton.
4 13 010 036 33.03 Rainfall between 450-650 mm per
year, frequent
seasonal droughts, relatively high
temperatures.
Semi-extensive farming.
Livestock farming, drought tolerant
crops.
4
5 10 288 036 26.2 Rainfall less than 450mm, erratic.
Northern lowveld may have higher
rainfall but topography and poor
soils make it unsuitable for arable
agriculture.
Extensive farming.
Extensive cattle ranching, wildlife
farming,
crops only possible with irrigation.
Source: Adapted fromVincent and Thomas (1962)
Figure 2. 1 Agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe
Land tenure varies across the farming sectors. In communal areas land is used under a semi-
traditional system where rural district councils are the land authority and traditional leaders in
practice administer land. In the commercial farming sector farmers use land on the strength of
the offer letters that carry a 99-year lease. The 99 year leases do not seem to offer enough
security for farmers, certainly for purposed of obtaining agricultural loans. This, and other
factors, that have to do with the political and economic consequences of the fast track land
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reform programme, has resulted in poor performance by the agricultural sector. In the last one
and half decades there has been reduction in area under export crops such as tobacco, coffee and
tea. The same situation prevailed with food crops such as maize, the country‘s staple food crop.
This negatively affected the performance of the agro-based economy. These macro-economic
conditions are likely to affect the prospects for climate smart agriculture.
2.2 Climate smart agriculture technologies and practices
CSA technologies and practices are undertaken by a number of state and non-state actors as
described below.
2.2.1 Government agencies
Department of Research and Specialist Services The Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS), which is the national research
agency, includes such institutes as Crops Research, Coffee Research, Livestock, Seed Services,
Chemistry & Soils Research Institute, and Crop Breeding. The Department was said to be
undertaking a lot of on-going work in collaboration with a number of organizations e.g. FAO,
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), CIMMYT, etc.. The project included
Conservation Agriculture (CA) which has potential to reduce the impact of increasing farm level
productivity while conserving natural resources, improving resilience of farmers through crop
diversification, increasing crop yields through better agronomic practices and better varieties, as
well as improving nutritional quality of grain food. Box 2.1 presents an overview of CSA
projects being undertaken by the Department.
.
Box 2.1 Overview of CSA projects undertaken by the Department of Research and
Specialist Services of Zimbabwe
Coffee Research Institute
-Developing technologies on planting hole sizes as the size of the hole is directly related to soil
moisture conservation
-Coffee and banana intercrops; shading by banana has a positive influence on moisture
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dynamics
-Testing suitability of various mulches as a way of moisture conservation
-Greenhouse experiments to evaluate how different coffee varieties respond to water stress
-Testing coffee for drought tolerance
-Soil fertility management for improved coffee productivity incorporating organic x inorganic
fertilizer combinations.
-Water harvesting technologies for coffee plantations.
-Experiments on biological control of coffee pests and diseases.
Agronomy and Crop Breeding Institutes
-In collaboration with CIMMYT undertaking drought tolerant maize breeding for African
conditions.
-Trying intercrops with the climbing bean for increased maize productivity as well as improving
protein content
-Root and tubers being tested for drought tolerance, heat and stress tolerance involving cassava,
sweet potato (yellow, orange varieties as opposed to the usual white variety).
-Soil fertility management complemented by identification of suitable crop types and drought
tolerant varieties
-Promoting production of cowpea and sunflower, which are drought tolerant.
-Organic x inorganic fertilizer trials combining them with heat and drought tolerance in maize
and legume crops in partnership with CIMMYT funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
-In partnership with CIAT conducting bean experiments for drought tolerance. , breeding for low
N environments, and low pH.
CIMMYT –ICARDA project is involved with summer wheat breeding under rainfed conditions
instead of the usual irrigated wheat, in combination with moisture conservation practices..
Chemistry & Soils Research Institute
-Improving water management for increased productivity, focusing on conservation agriculture,
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crop rotations and intercropping.
-Monitoring soil moisture dynamics under conservation agriculture using a neutron probe. There
are plans to send some samples to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), for
greenhouse gas emission determination.
-Experimentation with slow N-release fertilizer from Italy, assessing its efficiency and its role in
contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.
-Carbon sequestration through repeated measurements of soil organic carbon. Plans are
underway to introduce labeled carbon (13
C) isotope, and monitor the C decomposition.
-Soil moisture management in natural region IV and V using tied ridges, basins, tied furrows
under the predominantly montmorillonite soils, which have a poor water holding capacity.
Seed Services Institute
-Trying high yield sorghum varieties (DC 75, and NS 511), and late maturing types, SV 4 also
being tested and promoted
-Assessing how to manage quelea birds threat by for example growing early maturing variety
such as Marcia that matures before the roosting of quelea, within 80-90 days.
-Scaling up of pearl millet varieties (PMV 3 and Okoshana) which are early maturing varieties,
needing just 75 days to mature.
-Experimenting cassava and pigeon pea intercrops –both crops are very drought tolerant, and can
survive very long dry spell of 7-8 weeks, and yet still produce.
Department of Irrigation
The Department of Irrigation (DOI) invoked CSA in relation to mapping strategies to avail water
in crops and livestock systems and promoting irrigation. The Department ‘s focus is on
upscaling the National Irrigation Programme, which is aimed at reviving the irrigation
infrastructure to help reduce the negative impacts of water scarcity being brought about by
climate change. The emphasis is on promoting smallholder irrigation. The target for
smallholder irrigation in 25,000 ha. The country has a potential to irrigate 2 million ha. However
by year 2000, only 200,000 ha (10%) were under irrigation. Due to economic downturn after the
land reform programme, only about 100,000 ha are under irrigation, i.e. 5% of the country’s
potential. Work is on-going to rehabilitate non-functional units, so that by year 2014, at least
30,000 ha will be added under irrigated land.
Agritex
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The national extension service department, the Department of Agricultural, Technical and
Extension Service (Agritex) is involved in many CSA activities at different levels starting with
the local (ward)/village) to district, provincial and at national level. Agritex currently chairs
ZIMCAN, a national body coordinating CA activities, of which FAO is the secretariat.
ZIMCAN does not implement projects. It provides a platform for members to network. The
Department is also working with Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA),
on conservation agriculture. Agritex is also involved in information dissemination relating to
conservation agriculture. There is cooperation with the Department of Mechanization to come
up with tillage implements suitable for use in CA operations with the smallholder sector. The
focus was on the development and promotion of CA equipment so as to save labour, time, and
conserve moisture.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development reports that there has
been an increase in numbers of farmers practicing CA, from <3,000 in 2004 to almost 100,000 in
2010, more than 125,000 ha are already under CA across the country, and CA is being practiced
as a risk mitigation strategy due to unreliable and erratic rains (MAMID, n.d.). The initial target
by FAO was the resource constrained farmer with no draught power, but with the realization that
conservation is for all, even the resource endowed farmers are now coming on board. While
labour inputs are higher in manual CA systems, higher returns are also being realized in terms of
yields, and soil conservation compared to conventional systems. CA is being practiced as a risk
mitigation strategy due to unreliable and erratic rains.
There is also on-going in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre in collaboration with
the Department of Research and Specialist Services to promote agroforestry for both crop and
livestock enterprises in the smallholder farming sector. Seedlings are being propagated in at least
five national research stations for distribution.
Agricultural Research Council
The Agricultural Research Council (ARC) is involved in catchment wetland management in
partnership with the Department of Research & Specialist Services (DR&SS), Agritex and
Oxfam. The project ` is in Mahusekwa smallholder community. The funds originally came from
the Rockefeller Foundation but now funding is from Oxfam. The project focuses on organic
farming and biological control mechanisms to reduce use of fertilizers and pesticides. There is
emphasis on environmental and general sustainability. There is also a focus on community
entrepreneurship, developing market linkages for the horticultural crops, increased and
sustainable water management for both dry-land and horticultural crops, and reduction of green
technologies through promoting reduced use of chemicals (pesticides/ fertilizers). This initiative
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is expected to contribute to the rehabilitation of degraded environments. Women farmers
comprise the majority of members.
Food and Nutrition Council
The Food and Nutrition Council (FNC), in the Office of the President and Cabinet, works closely
with MAMID to promote growing of small grains, which are not only resistant to drought, but
are also of high nutritional value. It also implements a nutrition early warning system focusing
on different target groups, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Health & Child Welfare.
Other activities include promoting high yielding short season varieties to ensure food security,
in collaboration with DR&SS implementing a biofortification project of yellow maize to
enhance the quality of the maize grain, micro-nutrient enhancement and improved nutrition by
enriching grain quality of legume and cereals through biofortification, identifying bird-repelling
properties of small grains, promotion of small livestock, and offering training in aquaculture to
improve protein nutrition of many urban and rural households. These efforts will have the impact
of dietary diversification among poor households. FNC targets vulnerable groups such as the
sick, those living and affected with HIV-AIDS who need specialized nutritious diets, and women
and children.
Department of Livestock
The Department of Livestock (DL) has been undertaking a number of CSA technologies and
practices. For example livestock breeding has also been promoted according to prevailing local
environments. This explains why there are livestock stations for different environments: Matopos
(NR IV), Makoholi (NR IV), Marondera (NR IIb) and Henderson (NRIIa). Small livestock such
as goats are promoted in low rainfall areas since they are more robust to climate change impacts
compared to the larger livestock. CSA also includes good agricultural management practices that
can reduce pest build-up, increased productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Proper
handling of domestic animals through provision of good quality feed is promoted as this helps
to reduce methane emissions, compared to dry and non-nutritious veld feed.
The Department is also working with in partnership with ICRISAT (The International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), to promote fodder such as bana grass and mucuna,
which do well in both high and low rainfall areas. It is also working with Unied Nations
Deveopment Programme (UNDP) to promote mucuna in dry Masvingo province. It is also
promoting dairy production in dry areas through crossing indigenous breeds with the jersey cow.
The hybrid is capable of producing dairy milk in dry areas, provided the feed is quality. The
challenge is getting the mixed breeds to satisfy all farmers. There was also diversification into
poultry production for both urban and rural communities, piggery and goat rearing now a
common income generating enterprise. Farmers are also encouraged to grow bana grass, as well
as harvesting nutritious legume pods from indigenous acacias, pounding them and mixing this
with bana grass.
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2.2.3 International research organizations and universities
CIAT The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), apart of the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is undertaking activities that address the
dryland farming systems. Included here is agricultural intensification of maize focusing on field
water management, up-scaling CA, integrated soil fertility management and micro-dosing of
fertilizers. The aim is to positively impact on rural communities by improving food, health and
nutritional security and sustainable management of natural resources. Gender sensitivity is being
exercised in all projects.
CIMMYT The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre/ Centro Internacional
de Mejoramiento Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), part of the CGIAR system, is undertaking a
number of CSA-related activities. It is implementing an IFAD-funded project that focuses on
mechanized CA options within the smallholder farming systems, which places emphasis on
animal-drawn CA equipment. This is combined with promoting drought tolerant maize and
other small cereal varieties. There is also an Australian-funded funded project which seeks to
integrate crops and livestock project by translating technologies to benefit soils-crops-livestock
within mixed farming smallholder systems. Zimbabwe is one of the target countries. Yet another
project is the USAID funded Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Systems for the
Eastern Province of Zambia (SIMLEZA) project aimed at increasing food security and
productivity, in the context of climate risk and change, through the development of more
resilient, profitable and sustainable maize-legume farming systems and institutional innovations
that improve farmers’ access to technologies, inputs and markets. Zimbabwe not yet a member,
but most project members are Zimbabwean. The two-Zimbabwean projects contribute positively
to reducing poverty, hunger, malnutrition, and environmental degradation for poor smallholder
famers particularly women, who are the custodians of daily meals in most households. The
target households exceed 7,500 for the two projects in four years.
SOFECSA
Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa (SOFECSA) through the University of Zimbabwe
(UZ) is currently partnering Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and African Conservation
Tillage Network (ACT) of Nairobi in two EU-funded project which include components of CSA.
These are: “Supporting smallholder farmers in southern Africa to better manage climate-related risks to
crop production and post harvest handling” funded by the European Union (EU), which is a new
SOFECSA-UZ project commenced August, 2013, in partnership with FAO, who is the lead institution,
and b) “Agro-ecology based aggradation-conservation agriculture (ABACO): Targeting innovations to
combat soil degradation and food insecurity in semi-arid Africa” funded by European Union (EU) and led
by ACT.
SOFECSA has made impact in all the districts it has worked in, influencing over 25,000 farmers to
date in Zimbabwe alone by ensuring that smallholder farmers can define and use integrated soil
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fertility management principles and concepts towards sustainable agricultural intensification.
Smallholder farmers are also equipped with options to adapt to climate variability and change
including crop diversification, inclusion of different maturity crop varieties and types,
intercropping and rotations, introducing improved germplasm, conservation agriculture, timing
of planting and fertilizer application. In addition, SOFECSA has been working with farmers
through promotion of learning alliances in natural resource management and crop productivity
including input/output market linkages.
World Agroforestry Centre
The World Agroforestry Centre is working with DR&SS and Agritex to propagate Faidherbia
albida, a tree species which fixes atmospheric nitrogen, for use in cropping systems, maize in
particular. This initiative is not yet funded, but results from Zambia show that the tree increased
yields. It is expected that there will be benefits in soil fertility enhancement and livestock
through enhancement of feed quality for livestock. It also provides alternative wood fuel
resources for rural communities.
ICRISAT
TheInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT ) has a number
of CSA projects. One outstanding one is the CALESA-Climate Analogue Locations in Eastern
and Southern Africa project, which aims to compare the grain yield of three varieties each of
maize and sorghum at four analogue sites in Zimbabwe. This involves seasonal climate forecasts
to optimize yields. There is also promotion of Conservation Agriculture (CA) to capitalize on
soil moisture enhancement complemented by, micro-dosing, measures to increases moisture use
efficiency. Farmers in the semi-arid intervention sites stand to benefit as yields are consistently
higher under CA compared to conventional. Micro-dosing increases moisture use efficiency,
accelerated productivity, meaning crops are reaching physiological maturity faster. There are
also initiatives at promoting crop-livestock interactions through interventions in production of
goats and fodder. Fodder crops now sustain animals in dry season, and there is milk production,
better meat quality, more household income
2.2.4 Non-Governmental Organisations
Lead Trust
Lead Trust is involved in a number of projects that can be called climate smart. These include
adaptation projects that have to deal with crop and variety selection and promotion of small
livestock in the dry regions of the country including indigenous chickens, conservation
agriculture, knowledge sharing and weather insurance. Lead Trust operates in Lupane, Nkayi
and Hurungwe districts. The number of beneficiaries amount to 40 000 households among which
are found vulnerable groups such as women.
Oxfam
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Oxfam is involved in food security projects that include promoting horticulture by managing
frost, through mulching and micro-irrigation), diversification away from maize, introducing
small grains and legumes which are more robust, and climate change adaptation project in
partnership with the Meteorological Department (MET) and Agritex. The project involves
setting up some automatic weather stations across different agroecological regions. The pilot
project is targeting three districts, namely Gutu, Chirimhanzu and Zvishavane. These are
complemented with manual weather stations set up within secondary schools in the target
districts. This is also a capacity building initiative for secondary school geography students. The
automatic weather stations send information straight to MET. Specialists from both MET and
Agritex are trained to impart acquired knowledge and skills to others through training of trainers
TOT). Training involves capacitating trainees to be able to analyse and translate information for
relevance to target groups of farmers. Over 3,000 secondary school pupils are benefiting from
learning to collect weather data from within their environments. The automatic weather stations
give early warnings to farmers to enable decision making and planning. Farmers are trained on
information required. They use mobile phone providers using the Short Messaging Service
(SMS).
Practical Action
Practical Action implements a number of what can be called climate smart agriculture projects.
In the 2011/12 there is reference to projects that addressed reducing vulnerability, making
markets work for the poor and improving access to infrastructure. There is no space here to
document all activities that Practical Action undertakes. What will be highlighted here is the
project, “Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation in Zimbabwe‘s Agricultural Extension
System.” The twelve month project was aimed at integrating climate change adaptation in
national extension department of Agritex. The project trained 60 national and provincial
specialists as trainers for 170 district level staff. The project managed to 60 persons drawn from
farmer organizations and government agricultural agencies. Availability of meteorological data
was demonstrated to be an important ingredient, which should be in a format that is useful for
farmers and extension personnel. Fambidzanai Training Centre
Fambidzanai Training Centre has a long history of promoting organic farming and permaculture
aimed at reducing the ecological footprint of agriculture. Its core business is training although
now it also implements programmes on the ground. Currently it is working in Mashonalnad East
province in Chikomba, Uzumbamarambapfungwe, Wedza, Goromonis, Marondera and Seke
districts. A total of 450 households are involved. It also works in Matebeleland South province
with about 300 households. The Centre also collaborates with other NGOs. The challenges have
to do with level of productivity. The Centre can rightfully claim to have always promoted
climate smart agriculture as its training has always focused on adaptation and mitigation.
13
Zimbabwe Organic Producers and Promoters Association (ZOPPA)
ZOPPA is involved in both advocacy and programming of organic farming. Its thrust is to
promote the growing of organic crops as well as the development of regulations and standards
for organic products for the local and export market. Locally boarding schools and supermarkets
are the major clients. It has a number of programmes in Mashonaland East province. However,
organic products in Zimbabwe do not attract a premium price. Still the price is offset by low
production costs. Recently it has assisted in sending an experimental batch to the United
Kingdom.
2.2.5 Private sector
The sole private sector representative hailed from the largest seed supplier in the country, Seed
Cop that had significant presence on the African continent. While CSA was not referred to by
name, efforts were being made to ensure that the seeds that were produced would withstand
climate variability such as drought and heat. There was a long standing programme for
producing drought and heat tolerant crop varieties. The company had also initiated testing seed
under climate change conditions by taking advantage of its presence in some of the world ‘s
harshest environments.
2.2.6 CSA champions
During the validation workshop participants came up with a list of people/organizations that
were considered to be CSA champions (Box 2.2). Unfortunately no information was provided
with regards to the nature of the activities that were undertaken. In future this should be
undertaken so that best practices can be drawn.
Box 2.2 CSA champions in Zimbabwe
Mr. Phiri of Zvishavane who is involved in water harvesting technology; Ms. F. Chipangura - fish
farmer (youth); Foundation for Farming focusing on Conservation Agriculture; Mr. Brian Oldreive was
also singled out as a promoter of various zero tillage programmes in the communal areas of Mashonaland
East, Central and West since the 1990s; Rural Women’s Advancement Trust; GRM- Seed Production;
Oxfam; Commutech; FAO; Agritex; Sofecsa; ACT`; CIMMYT; ICRISAT; DR&SS; EMA;
SEEDCO; SAT; African Centre for Holistic Management focusing on soil, water and livestock/grazing
management; Fambidzanayi; Eco-Farmer; Environment Africa ; and various public, private and
international organizations.
14
2.2.7 Emerging CSA Community of Practice (COP) in Zimbabwe
Participants at the validation workshop agreed that there was an emerging Community of
Practice (COP) in the country (Box 2.3). Again, just like in the case of CSA champions no
details were provided.
Box 2.3 Examples of CSA Community of Practice in Zimbabwe
African Centre for Holistic Management (ACHM) in Hwange; Mother Earth Foundation in Chegutu
involved in lobbying and protection of the environment; COSMO involved in advocate and lobbying for
the protection of wetlands; ZCFU involved in nationwide campaign for growing gum-tree plantations for
tobacco curing and reclamation of gullies; Ngondome Irrigation Scheme; and River of Life and Roman
Catholic churches.
2.3 Conclusion
There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international
research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known
examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature. It is important to
underline the point that the list of CSA technologies and practices that were presented is by no
means exhaustive. To this end the technologies and practices should be regarded as examples of
CSA technologies and practices because there was simply no time to document all what is
occurring in the country with respect to CSA. Even the examples that have been presented are by
no means complete. For example there was not enough information on CSA champions that were
highlighted during the validation workshop. Having said that, it is important that the examples
are adequate for a scoping study.
3. Climate Change Policy framework
This section examines climate change policy framework in Zimbabwe within the context of
climate change governance, which is relevant for integrated planning and policy-making across
sectors, and is also critical to responding to climatic variability and climate change. For
integrated planning and policy-making across sectors to happen, more flexible governance
structures that are able to manage multiple risks are required (IIED, 2012). In this section climate
change governance is highlighted rather than discussed since the focus is on the policy
framework. In this discussion policy framework refers to a) the legal framework as contained in
the country ‘s statutes b) policy pronouncements as represented by the intention of the state
15
captured in non-legal documents, and c) institutional arrangements. As a prelude to assessing the
policy framework, there is a brief discussion of the link between climate change and
development, and topical climate change issues in Zimbabwean agriculture.
3.1 Climate change and development
Many Zimbabwean government-generated/supported documents point out that climate change
will pose serious developmental challenges to the country (see for example GOZ, 2013;
Zimbabwe, 2013; World Bank, 2013). Indeed a good number of these suggest that climate
change is already having impacts on the Zimbabwean economy with agriculture being the most
vulnerable (Box 3.1). Sustainable development in Zimbabwe will therefore hinge on robust
agricultural sector, which can be improved by taking advantage of the land reform programme
(Box 3.2). As already highlighted this depends on the performance of other economic and social
sectors.
Box 3.1 Challenges facing the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe
Overdependence on rainfed agriculture which is vulnerable to climate change leading to food
insecurity especially among disadvantaged social groups; Failure to harness available scientific
and indigenous knowledge and technologies to increase productivity and stimulate economic
growth; Lack of appropriate responses that focus more on adaptation than mitigation; Increasing
disaster management including floods, droughts, disease outbreaks; Degraded natural resource
base (deforestation, wetland degradation, artisanal mining) as communities try and cope with
climate variability and climate change; Formal institutional mechanisms not building on
traditional practices such as social safety nets e.g. Zunde raMambo concept that aims to use
local capacity to adapt to food security challenges, and can be used to address climate change
challenges. Under the concept traditional leaders organize communities to till a communal field.
Proceeds from the field are used to feed vulnerable members of the community.
Box 3.2 Possible interventions to improve agricultural sector in Zimbabwe
Land reform has opened up virgin land for agriculture which if not well managed can be
degraded; Re-demarcation of agro-ecological regions (see sections 1 and 2) in the face of climate
change, which can also be linked to resource assessment and social assessment; Monitor
surveillance of production and marketing; Value addition of agricultural products through
processing; Capacity building for extension, research and private sectors; Promoting integrated
soil management and landscape approach to agriculture; Promoting appropriate livestock types
and breeds (see section 2) and effective rangeland management; Monitoring GHGs; Warning
systems (local) for effective decision-making; Promote supplementary irrigation, efficiency
water use and rainwater harvesting.
16
Despite this awareness, climate change issues have not yet been mainstreamed into land use
planning, agriculture, natural resource management, industry, energy and transport (GOZ,
2013a). As will be highlighted below, these are some of the policy challenges that need to be
addressed. The suggestion to ensure that climate change be must be addressed from a human
rights based approach is an interesting proposition that remains to be concretized (GOZ, 2013).
The fact that the most recent national economic development plan does not make any reference
to climate change (GOZ, 2013c) shows the scope of the challenges.
There are other challenges. Zimbabwe does not have the required financial resources as well the
human resources to fully undertake the required adaptation and mitigation measures. The country
therefore must seek to tap into international financing mechanisms such as the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), the voluntary carbon credit systems and REDD+. However,
Africa in general has not managed to tap into these funds because of capacity constraints. There
have been suggestions to the effect that Zimbabwe would benefit more if became part of the
Least Developing Countries (LCD) on the basis that with a Human Development Index rank of
173 out of 187, Zimbabwe was effectively an LDC.
The suggestion by the draft Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy that, since
climate change straddles the global, regional, national and local levels, governance should be
considered and mainstreamed at national, provincial, district and community levels in both urban
and rural settings taking into account the regional and global levels (Government of Zimbabwe,
2013b) is a step in the right direction However, as already noted, it is the implementation that
remains a challenge.
3.2 Legal framework
There is no stand-alone legislation that deals with climate change. The country relies on a
number of internal agreements such as UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change and other
environmental agreements such as UN Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD),
Convention on Biodiversity, the RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands, which are interlinked.
There is also dependence on sectoral policies, mainly dealing with environmental protection vis-
a-vis mining, biotechnology, disaster risk management, water resource management, wildlife and
fisheries, forestry, agriculture, animal health, pests and diseases. Unfortunately some of the laws
and regulations are not consistent with international obligations. The other problem is that there
has been selective domestication of the agreements. Lastly the laws are enforced by different
institutions. Table 3.1 shows deficiencies in the legal framework as pertains to climate smart
agriculture.
Table 3.1 Analysis of legal framework for the promotion of Climate Smart Agriculture in
Zimbabwe
Sector Name of
legislation
Year
approved
or in
Responsible ministry Updated or
update planned
Availability on line
17
force
Land None None Ministry of Lands Not known No
Village Traditional
Leaders Act
[chapter
29:17]
2001 Ministry of Local
Government
Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach
ments
Communal
Land Act
[chapter 20:
04]
2002 Ministry of Local
Government
Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach
ments/
Rural District
Councils Act
[chapter
29:13]
2002 Ministry of Local
Government
Nor known www.parl/zim.gov.attach
ments
Forestry
Policy
Forestry Act
[chapter 19:
05]
1990 Ministry of
Environment
Not known www.parl/zim.gov.attach
ments
Agriculture None None Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanisation and
Irrigation Development
Not known No
Livestock None None Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanisation and
Irrigation Development
Not known None
Environment Environmental
Management
Act [chapter
20: 27]
2002 Ministry of
Environmental, Water
and Climate
Aspects1
www.parl/zim.gov.attach
ments
REDD+ None None Ministry of
Environmental, Water
and Climate
None None
1 National Climate Change Strategy and Second National Communication, Climate Change Policy in discussion,
Third Zimbabwe Environment Outlook in preparation
18
3.3 Policy analysis
An effective national policy is critical to a coordinated approach of institutions that are capable
of translating higher-level policy into local action plans to address multi- risk issues as well as
throw light on how the linkages between the national and local levels can effectively be forged
(IIED, 2012). In other words how vertical and horizontal integration that allows for two-way
benefits can be configured is important (IIED, 2012). This will benefit all stages of policy-
making including agenda-setting, policy formulation, local implementation, monitoring and
evaluation and information sharing.
In Zimbabwe climate change policy falls under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment,
Water and Climate (MEWC). The Ministry is responsible for the environmental policy,
environmental legislation and is now coordinating the Climate Change Response Strategy after
having successfully produced the First and Second National Climate Change Communications.
In these documents agriculture is encouraged to be efficient, less polluting as well as the need to
protect water sources.
In the analysis that follows there is extensive reference to the draft Zimbabwe National Climate
Change Strategy Response as it provides the most official authoritative view.
3.3.1 Policy framework
The Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development (MAMID) lacks an
official policy position on CSA. This is because it does not have a current agricultural policy.
The official agricultural policy was produced in 1995. The 2012 draft policy barely mentions the
role of climate change on agriculture (GOZ, 2012).
It is, however, important to note that there are also other related policies, in which aspects of
climate change are addressed. It should be pointed out that the various policies that are referred
to below could not be obtained; they were referred to in the draft Zimbabwe National Climate
Change Strategy Response. The National Policy and Programme on Drought Mitigation,
which provides a framework for accessing financial assistance from international organizations
at provincial and district level, has set up Regional Early Warning Systems and Drought
Monitoring Centres. The Draft Disaster Risk Management Policy and Strategy recognizes
climate change as a cross cutting issue. The 2012 Second Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy speaks of scientific solutions to environmental challenges and proposes to set up the
National Climate Change Research and Development Advisory Council and Climate Change
Mitigation and Adaptation Advisory Council. The Small Micro and Medium Enterprises
19
(SMMEs) Policy and Strategy Framework includes climate change issues. The Energy Policy
incorporates climate change issues in relation to energy, the environment and agriculture. The
Agricultural Marketing and Pricing Policies address food security challenges. The
Zimbabwe Agricultural Investment Plan does not take into consideration climate change
issues. The National Gender Policy takes no account of climate change issues directly although
it suggests mainstreaming gender into all economic sectors. The National Industrial
Development Policy and National Trade Policy do not refer to climate change issues. The
Water Act and National Water Policy cites the precautionary and polluter pays principles as
strategies for climate change adaptation.
3.3. 2 Stakeholder participation and views
In Zimbabwe stakeholder participation in climate change issues varies across sectors.
Stakeholder participation is very strong in the environmental sector where the Second National
Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change involved
stakeholder consultation, which is also true as far as the development of the National Climate
Change Response Strategy. The same is true for the development National Water Policy, as well
as the related policies such as the Strategy for Managing Water Quality and Protecting Water
Sources and Climate Change and Water Resources Planning, Development. As far as agriculture
is concerned more stakeholder consultations vis-s-vis the development of climate smart
agricultural policy as well as a climate smart irrigation policy are needed. The unavailability of
the draft Irrigation Policy further compounds the issue as irrigation is one of the most effective
climate change adaptation interventions.
Government agencies
Across all government agencies there was a general agreement that there were no CSA policy in
place in Zimbabwe. What were in existence were aspects contained in different documents.
Specific submissions were made, namely:
CA should be integrated in normal agricultural training initiatives, as it does improve
yields and improves the adaptive capacity of most households,
Ways should be found to reduce labour in CA systems through mechanization for
example
Exploring green house gas emissions from the different tillage systems under CA.
Promoting summer wheat which has less energy demands on electricity as this is grown
under rainfed conditions
Promoting indigenous and small livestock also an important protein source
Increased support into research for livestock feed alternatives given the competing
demands for maize stover in CA
Promotion of indigenous and traditional crops using CSA technologies that has potential
to increase productivity
20
Capacity building in enterprises beyond the traditional field crops by embracing such
activities as aquaculture, beekeeping
Putting in place effective communication strategies.
Building capacity of extension staff to support upscaling of CSA at national level.
Prioritization of the water sector at national level as a key sector impacting on general
livelihoods of people.
Increasing investment in irrigation schemes both from public and private sector
Promoting growing of small grains for each farming household, as these have many
positive attributes including drought tolerance and longer shelf-life (keeping quality)
compared to maize.
Non-state actors
The non-state actors also agreed that e was not a CSA policy in place. In their operations
organisations tended to guided by their own organizational policies. For example ICRISAT
Global has its own policy. FAO has produced a working paper “Advancing Agroforestry on the
Policy Agenda” in 2012 in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre. CIAT as part of a
global network (CGIAR) has a specific programme, the Climate Change, Food and Agriculture
(CCAFS), which has some of those CSA policies.
Views from the validation workshop
During the validation workshop participants identified a number of policy elements that needed
to be addressed in the country‘s policy:
Appropriate policy, legal and institutional framework: There is a need for need
appropriate policies in the areas of land and agriculture (see section 20 and how these can
relate practically to climate change.
There was a need to harmonise the existing policies/laws as wells ensuring that some of
them incorporated CSA, and in this regard a communication strategy could be useful
There was a need to recognize that each gender group (men, women & youth) has a
specific role to play and each should receive adequate support. This means ensuring that
there is equal and effective participation, access to and control of productive resources
such as land, technology, credit facilities and knowledge. There is a need to acknowledge
the diversified roles women play in CSA instead of just associating them to specific
farming activities such as vegetable farming. If CSA is to present equal opportunities to
both men and women a paradigm shift is required.
21
The Youth tended to suffer from the ‘inexperienced syndrome’ and tend to be overlooked
in relation to access to agricultural credits as they are perceived as a credit risk due to a
number of factors, and yet they are full of ideas, energy and ambition.
3.3 Institutional arrangements
The draft Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy observes a number of
deficiencies as far as effective institutional arrangements are concerned, which mainly relate to
the absence of a coordinating framework that is mandated by law Box 3.3).
Box 3.3 Deficiencies in the institutional arrangements with respect to climate change governance in
Zimbabwe
1. A multi-sectoral National Task Team on Climate Change that is chaired by the Permanent Secretary in
the Office of the President and Cabinet neither has legal mandate to address climate change issues or
coordinate institutions and is not embedded in governance structures that reach the community level such
as the case with the Department of Civil Protection (Disaster Risk Management) which has national,
provincial, district and community level structure.
2. The fact that the National Task Team falls under the Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate
while disaster management falls under the Ministry of Local Government raises coordination challenges.
3. The Early Warning of the Department of the Meteorological Services has for a long time fell under the
Ministry for Transport and Communications. While it now falls under the Ministry of Environment it is
not clear how this assists climate change issues. The Department is more into weather prediction and not
risk prediction and has outdated early warning system.
4. Lack of synergy between the Ministry of Economic Planning which mainstreams climate through the
economic strategies while these are not budgeted for by the Ministry of Finance.
5. Challenges in pollution management where the polluter pays principles and protection of water sources
and water bodies is compromised by lower pollution fines, and poor coordination between various sectors
although the Environmental Management Agency has the overall coordinating role.
3.5 Conclusions
Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into
land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy
frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional
arrangements. It was also highlighted that the macro economic and political conditions that
obtained in Zimbabwe at the moment constrained such a development. All the same there were
useful elements that were captured in the various government documents. The ministry of
22
environment was leading in attempts to formulate climate change policies as part of its
international mandate.
The ministry responsible for agriculture was shown to lacks the drive to mainstream CSA in its
policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent makes it critical that a
clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced rather than the current
situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and departments without strong
coordinating structures. Such a policy framework must contain issues relating to a) best
practices that need to be upscaled, b) financial mobilization for climate change mitigation and
adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural prospects will affect
women and youth, d) effective institutional arrangements, and e) linkages with other sectors.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1 Summary of findings
4.1.1 Context for climate smart agriculture
A climate smart agriculture policy in Zimbabwe should be assessed and crafted against a
backdrop of the country ‘s biophysical and socio-economic environment. About 60% of the
country receives less than 650 mm of rainfall per year, and in these areas are found about 7
million people whose livelihoods depend on agriculture, which is constrained by poor rainfall,
low soil fertility and weak institutions. High costs of irrigation costs has meant rainfed
agriculture remains the only option of these smallholder farmers, which however rainfed
agricultural production because of negative biophysical and socio-economic conditions. This
situation has resulted in a situation of widespread food insecurity, and explains why research and
development efforts have been directed at finding solution to improve rainfed agriculture. The
country has a long history of development of technological innovations. However, climate
change poses serious challenges not just in relation to the development of climate smart
technologies and practices, but also developing a climate smart agricultural policy.
The objective of the study was to conduct a comprehensive scoping and assessment of climate
smart agriculture policies in Zimbabwe by a) conducting a review of the existing CSA practices
and policies, b) analyzing gaps in the existing policy frameworks, c) identify relevant policy
recommendations, and d) developing and share policy recommendations at national and regional
levels.
4.1.2 CSA technologies and practices
23
There were many CSA activities that were being implemented by government, international
research organizations and universities, and NGOs. These incorporated virtually all known
examples of climate smart agriculture as captured in international literature, which included
research, development, advocacy and training involving germplasm selection (e.g. introduction
and seed multiplication of drought tolerant crops and animal breeds), diversification of crop
production (away from crop types and varieties that are susceptible to moisture stress), animal
production diversification through the promotion of small livestock and breeds that are drought
tolerant, promotion of climate change adaptation-related agronomic practices such as
conservation agriculture, and promoting climate change mitigation agricultural production such
as organic farming, to cite the main ones. The activities were spread practically across the entire
country, and involved thousands of vulnerable households. The list of CSA technologies and
practices that were presented is by no means exhaustive because of time and resource
constraints. The list should therefore be regarded as examples of CSA technologies and
practices. Even the examples are by no means complete. For example there was not enough
information on CSA champions that were highlighted during the validation workshop. All the
same the list is adequate for a scoping study.
4.1.3 Policy framework
Despite the awareness, climate change issues in Zimbabwe have not yet been mainstreamed into
land use planning and agriculture. This is a consequent of a lack of a coordinated policy
frameworks that addresses the legal framework, policy pronouncements and institutional
arrangements. The macro economic and political conditions that obtained in Zimbabwe at the
moment constrained such a development. All the same there were useful elements that were
captured in the various government documents. The Ministry of Environment demonstrated
leadership in the formulation of climate change policies, which incorporated aspects of climate
smart agriculture. Unfortunately the ministry responsible for agriculture lacked the drive to
mainstream CSA in its policies. The fact that the country is economically agriculture-dependent
makes it critical that a clear stand-alone climate change agriculture-related policy is produced
rather than the current situation where various aspects were strewn across ministries and
departments without strong coordinating structures and linkages with other sectors.
4.2 Recommendations
Since the need of a climate change policy in Zimbabwe was now agreed it was important that
such a policy should capture critical policy elements, which include:
Clarifying the substantive issues around climate change in agriculture vis-à-vis its actual
meaning and what exactly can be said to be climate smart.
24
Identifying key agricultural technologies and production systems across all sub-sectors
that would be showcased as climate smart, which can be based on the champions and
community of practice that were identified during the validation workshop
Identifying and promote supporting information production and dissemination in the
farming community, schools and tertiary institutions
Identifying and promote those agricultural practices (REDD+ inclined) that could take
advantage of international funding such as voluntary carbon credits especially against a
backdrop of widespread deforestation in the country due to tobacco curing
Promote good CSA governance by, among other things, ensuring that there was a
coordinated legal and institutional framework for the enforcement of climate smart
agriculture interventions
Ensuring that the general climate change policy was complemented by a current and pro-
climate smart agriculture agricultural policy, which should include to a) best practices
that need to be upscaled, b) strategies for financial mobilization for climate change
mitigation and adaptation, c) gender aspects indicating how the likely poor agricultural
prospects due to climate change will affect women and youth, d) effective institutional
arrangements, and e) show linkages with other sectors.
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Appendix I. Examples of Climate Smart Agriculture
Soil and nutrient management: Use of cover crops, crop rotations, intercropping, organic fertilization
Pest and disease control: Needs to be re-oriented in the light of new pest and disease regimes
Resilient ecosystems: Improving ecosystems and biodiversity results in better productive and sustainable systems
Genetic resources use and conservation: Efficient and selective use of seed systems, local varieties, diversified
genetic pool, improved crop varieties and animal breeds
Tillage systems: Soil protection through no tillage, minimum tillage, and crop reside management
Water Management: Improved use of available water through terrace and contour farming as well as improve
irrigation efficiency
Water harvesting: Improve efficiency and conservation of moisture, and reduce soil loss reduction through ex
and in situ water harvesting
Agroforestry: Use of trees and shrubs in agricultural crop and/or animal production to improve food security and
has both adaptation and mitigation effects
Improved pasture/grazing management: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Harvesting, processing and supply chains: Efficient harvesting, early transformation of produce and shorter
/efficient supply chains reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Conservation Agriculture: Efficient use and conservation of resources through minimal mechanical soil
disturbance, and maintenance of mulch of carbon-rich organic matter.
Livestock production efficiency and resilience: Increased animal productivity, feed and manure management
contributes to mitigation
Fisheries and aquaculture: Selection of appropriate stock and integration with broader farming systems to
increase adaptation while improved energy, low use of fish meal and fish oil feeds, and low energy fuel efficient
fishing leads to increased mitigation
Urban and peri-urban agriculture: Mitigation achieved through greening of cities which improves air quality
and lowering of temperature while adaptation is achieved through improved food security
Diversified and integrated food-energy systems: Ensuring sustainable energy needs for food production and
other needs leads to food security and mitigation as well as adaptation
Adaptive management: Efficient use of resources that contributes to increased productivity and reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions
Integrated crop-livestock management: Efficient use of resources contributes to increased productivity and
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
Better weather forecasting and use of weather data: Ensures adaptation which leads to increased production
Risk insurance: Ensures that farmers are protected and are resilient
Carbon credits: Carbon markets contribute to overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and improvement in
the incomes of vulnerable groups.
1
Local participation: Promotes good governance which is critical to success of any interventions
Diversified incomes: Puts less pressure on agriculture as a source of livelihood
Sources: Branca et al (2011); FAO (2010); CTA (2011); IIED (2011); IFAD (2012); World Bank (2011)
Appendix II. List of persons consulted during the survey
NAME INSTITUTIONAL
AFFILIATION
POSITION TYPE OF
ORGANIZATION
CONTACT
1. Mrs Danisile
Hikwa
Department of Research &
Specialist Services (DR&SS) of
the Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanization & Irrigation
Development (MAMID)
Principal Director –
Agronomy Research
Institute
Ministry/ Research [email protected]
+263 4 704650
2. Mr Reston
Muzamhind
o
MAMID – Mechanization &
Irrigation
Principal Director –
Mechanization &
Irrigation
Ministry/ Research,
Development
+263 4 797432
3. Dr Isaiah
Mharapara
Agriculture Research Council Director Research [email protected]
+263776161977
4. Dr Nelson
Mango
CIAT (Zimbabwe) Research Scientist/
Country Focal Person
International
Research
organization
(CGIAR)
+263772572726
5. Dr Walter
Mupangwa
CIMMYT (Southern Africa) Research Scientist International
Research
organization
(CGIAR)
+263773930140
6. Mrs Sepo
Marongwe
AGRITEX/ Zimbabwe
Conservation Agriculture
Network (ZIMCAN)
CA Coordinator Extension/ Research +263772735060
7. Prof Paul
Mapfumo
Soil Fertility Consortium for
Southern Africa (SOFECSA)/
University of Zimbabwe
SOFECSA Regional
Coordinator
Research/ Knowledge +263712803971
8. Mr Bernard
Mache
AGRITEX, MAMID Acting Director –
Technical Services
Ministry/ Extension/
Research
+263773289446
9. Mrs
Nozizwe
Chigonga
Food & Nutrition Council of
Zimbabwe
Senior Officer Research +263775603846
10. Mr Livai
Matarirano
World Agroforestry Centre
(Zimbabwe)
Research Scientist/
Country Focal Person
International
Research
organization
+263772922837
2
NAME INSTITUTIONAL
AFFILIATION
POSITION TYPE OF
ORGANIZATION
CONTACT
(CGIAR)
11. Prof Justice
Nyamangara
ICRISAT - Bulawayo Senior Scientist International
Research
organization
(CGIAR)
+263772234965
12. Mr
Dumisani
Kutywayo
DR&SS, MAMID, Agronomy
Research Institute
Director – Crops
Research
Ministry/ Research dumisanikutywayo@yahoo.
co.uk
+263772598903
13. Mr D.
Maringa
DR&SS, MAMID - Seed
Services
Chief Research
Officer –
Ministry/ Research [email protected]
+263777818409
14. Dr Joseph
Sikosana
DR&SS, Livestock Unit Director – Livestock
Research
Ministry/ Research [email protected]
+263 4 704531
15. Mr
Emmanuel
Chikwari
DR&SS, MAMID - Chemistry
& Soils Research Institute
Acting Head Ministry/ Research [email protected]
+263773149791
16. Ms Busi
Olga
Mavhankeni
DR&SS, MAMID, Crop
Breeding Institute
Senior Research
Officer
Ministry/ Research [email protected]
+263 4 704531
17. Mr Mahoya DR&SS, MAMID, Coffee
Research Institute
Senior Research
Officer
Ministry/ Research +263 227 2476; +263 227
2951
18. Mr
Chengetai
Jiri
Oxfam Program Manager –
Sustainable
Livelihoods Dept
NGO(Development/
Research)
+263773584924
19. Ms Veronica
Gundu
Ministry of Environment,
Water and Climate
Senior Officer Ministry + 263 772 496 626
20. Mr Kudzai
Marovanidz
e
Practical Action Senior Officer NGO
21. Mr Eliot
Takaindisa
Lead Trust Chief Executive
Officer
o.zw
+263 712 619 977
22. Mr Bornface
Matimba
Fambidzanai Training Centre Senior Officer NGO matimbabornface@yahoo,c
om
23. MS
Nyakanda
Zimbabwe Organic Producers
and Promoters Association
Director NGO +263 772 491 487
24. Mr Zvareva Seed Cop Manager Private + 263 772 169 722
3
Appendix III. List of Attendants at the validation workshop
Surname Name Gender Institutio
n
Email Contact
Dube Dumisan
i
M ARC [email protected] 0772211227
Mapika Clemenc
e
M ARC [email protected] 0772892318
Munyoro Chivako M Media [email protected] 0736258423
Nyathi Zenzo M Theatre [email protected] 0772593897
Chipangura Fortunat
e
F Fisheries [email protected] 0772460031
Chisipo Jabulani M Media [email protected] 0773211244
Kuchiko Tariro
M.
F UZ [email protected] 0774178964
Zambuko Fadzai F UZ [email protected] 0775009970
Grey Darius M UZ [email protected] 0775019210
Zawe Conrade M Dept of
Irrigation
[email protected] 0712573170
Mukwende Berean M ZFU [email protected] 0772338089
Nyoni Dumisan
i
M Agritex [email protected] 0712517767
Sibanda Edwin M Agritex 0712535251
Poshai Paul M Agritex [email protected] 0773394452
Pambirei Nyasha M Agritex [email protected] 0773941839
Vere Maureen F CWAT [email protected] 0733388684
Hikwa Danisile F DR&SS [email protected]
263(4)706960/706
650
0712871140
Chiketa Dorcas F MEF [email protected] 0772935693
Mtambaneng
we
Florence F UZ-SSAE [email protected] 0773284063
Manzungu Emmanu
el
M UZ-SSAE [email protected] 0772254231
4
Machiri Didmas M ZCFU [email protected] 0774189378
Kwazira Karsto M FAO [email protected] 0773168678
Mharapara Isiah M ARC-
FANRPA
N
[email protected] 0776161977
Chivandikwa Nehemia
h
M UZ-
Theatre
om
0772420296
Gudhlangah Tawanda M ZBC-
SFM
[email protected] 0776124495
Tshabangu Lynette F OXFAM [email protected] 0772437819
Mupfupi McDona
ld
M MEF
Zimbabw
e
[email protected] 0773461639
Kandawasvik
a
Ruth F UZ [email protected] 0712706855
Wabvuta Gideon M UZ [email protected] 0777401872
Handsome Maseko M UZ [email protected] 0773737658
Ranganakia Amanda F UZ amandaranganowa1990@gmail.
com
0775088994
Ngwenya Hlami F FANRPA
N
[email protected] +27 (0) 79694
1780
Zifamba Coletta F ARC [email protected] 0772328522
Mateyo Brian M CCOSA [email protected] 0712916393
Mutingwende Byron.
A.
M NewsDay [email protected] 0774037020