A Comparison of Primary & Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problemsCollection process Very involved Rapid & easyCollection cost High Relatively lowCollection time Long Short

Uses of Secondary Data

• Identify the problem

• Better define the problem

• Develop an approach to the problem

• Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables)

• Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses

• Interpret primary data more insightfully

• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data

• Error: Accuracy of the Data

• Currency: When the Data Were Collected

• Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were Collected

• Nature: The Content of the Data

• Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

Criteria Issues RemarksSpecifications & Methodology

Error & Accuracy

Currency

Objective

Nature

Dependability

Data collection method, response rate, quality & analysis of data, sampling technique & size, questionnaire design, fieldwork.Examine errors in approach,research design, sampling, datacollection & analysis, & reporting.

Time lag between collection &publication, frequency of updates.Why were the data collected?

Definition of key variables, units of measurement, categories used, relationships examined.Expertise, credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the source.

Data should be reliable, valid, & generalizable to the problem.

Assess accuracy by comparing data from different sources.

Census data are updated by syndicated firms.The objective determines the relevance of data.Reconfigure the data to increase their usefulness.

Data should be obtained from an original source.

A Classification of Secondary Data

Secondary Data

Ready to Use

Requires Further

Processing

PublishedMaterials

Computerized Databases

Syndicated

Services

Internal External

Internal Secondary DataDepartment Store ProjectSales were analyzed to obtain:• Sales by product line• Sales by major department (e.g., men's wear, house wares)• Sales by specific stores• Sales by geographical region• Sales by cash versus credit purchases• Sales in specific time periods• Sales by size of purchase• Sales trends in many of these classifications were also

examined

Type of Individual/Household Level DataAvailable from Syndicated Firms

I. Demographic Data- Identification (name, address, email, telephone)- Sex- Marital status- Names of family members- Age (including ages of family members)- Income- Occupation- Number of children present- Home ownership- Length of residence- Number and make of cars owned

Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Syndicated Firms

II. Psychographic Lifestyle Data

- Interest in golf

- Interest in snow skiing

- Interest in book reading

- Interest in running

- Interest in bicycling

- Interest in pets

- Interest in fishing

- Interest in electronics

- Interest in cable television

There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.

A Classification of Published Secondary Sources

StatisticalData

Guides Directories Indexes Census Data

Other Governmen

t Publications

Published Secondary Data

General Business Sources

Government Sources

A Classification of Computerized

Databases

Bibliographic Databases

Numeric Database

s

Full-Text Database

s

Directory Databases

Special-Purpose

Databases

Computerized Databases

Online Off-LineInternet

Published External Secondary Sources

Guides• An excellent source of standard or recurring information• Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories,

trade associations, and trade publications• One of the first sources a researcher should consultDirectories• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect

specific data• Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations

Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Directory

Indices• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several

different publications

Classification of Computerized Databases

• Bibliographic databases are composed of citations to articles

• Numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information

• Full-text databases contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the database

• Directory databases provide information on individuals, organizations, and services

• Special-purpose databases provide specialized information

Syndicated Services

• Companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed to serve a number of clients

• Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions)

• Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services

• Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms

A Classification of Syndicated Services

Unit ofMeasureme

nt

Households/Consumers Institution

s

Syndicated Services: Consumers.

Psychographic

& Lifestyles

General AdvertisingEvaluation

Households / Consumers

Scanner Panels with Cable TV

Surveys Volume Tracking

Data

Scanner Panels

Electronic scanner services

Purchase Media

Panels

Syndicated Services: Institutions

Audits

Direct Inquiries

Clipping Services

Corporate Reports

Institutions

Retailers Wholesalers

Industrial firms

Overview of Syndicated Services

Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Surveys Surveys conducted at regular intervals

Most flexible way of obtaining data; information on underlying motives

Interviewer errors; respondent errors

Market segmentation, advertising theme selection and advertising effectiveness

Purchase Panels

Households provide specific information regularly over an extended period of time; respondent asked to record specific behaviors as they occur

Recorded purchase behavior can be linked to the demographic/ psychographic characteristics

Lack of representativeness; response bias; maturation

Forecasting sales, market share and trends; establishing consumer profiles, brand loyalty and switching; evaluating test markets, advertising, and distribution

Media Panels Electronic devices automatically recording behavior, supplemented by a diary

Same as purchase panel

Same as purchase panel

Establishing advertising rates; selecting media program or air time; establishing viewer profiles

Overview of Syndicated Services

Scanner Diary Panels with Cable TV

Scanner panels of households that subscribe to cable TV

Data reflect actual purchases; sample control; ability to link panel data to household characteristics

Data may not be representative; quality of data limited

Promotional mix analyses, copy testing, new product testing, positioning

Audit services Verification of product movement by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis

Relatively precise information at the retail and wholesale levels

Coverage may be incomplete; matching of data on competitive activity may be difficult

Measurement of consumer sales and market share, competitive activity, analyzing distribution patterns: tracking of new products

Industrial Product Syndicated Services

Data banks on industrial establishments created through direct inquiries of companies, clipping services, and corporate reports

Important source of information on industrial firms, particularly useful in initial phases of the projects

Data are lacking in terms of content, quantity, and quality

Determining market potential by geographic area, defining sales territories, allocating advertising budget

Single-Source Data

Single-source data provide integrated information onhousehold variables, including media consumption andpurchases, and marketing variables, such as productsales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-storemarketing effort

• Recruit a test panel of households and meter each home's TV sets

• Survey households periodically on what they read• Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners • Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and

promotion

A Classification of International Sources

International Organizations

Government Sources

Nongovernment Sources

GovernmentsTrade

Associations

Domestic Organizations in

the United States

International Organizations in

the United States

Organizations in Foreign Countries

International Secondary Data

Exploratory Research Design:

Qualitative Research

A Classification of Marketing Research Data

Survey Data

Observational and Other

Data

Experimental Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Marketing Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations

Small number of non-representative cases

Unstructured

Non-statistical

Develop an initial understanding

Objective

Sample

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Outcome

Quantitative Research

To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest

Large number of representative cases

Structured

Statistical

Recommend a final course of action

A Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures

Association

Techniques

Completion

Techniques

Construction Techniques

Expressive Technique

s

Direct (Non- disguised)

Indirect (Disguised)

Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Projective Techniques

Qualitative Research Procedures

Characteristics of Focus Groups

Group Size 8-12

Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents,

prescreened

Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time Duration 1-3 hours

Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the

moderator

Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators

1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with understanding empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction.

2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group’s cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.

3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal involvement.

4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.

Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators, cont.

5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate.

6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the group process.

7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.

Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action

State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups

Write a Screening Questionnaire

Variations in Focus Groups• Two-way focus group. This allows one target group to

listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.

• Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that specific issues are discussed.

• Dueling-moderator group. There are two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.

Variations in Focus Groups

• Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

• Client-participant groups. Client personnel are identified and made part of the discussion group.

• Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents.

• Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call technique.

• Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.

Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups Characteristic Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups

Group size 4-6 8-12

Group composition Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local

area

Time duration 1-1.5 hours 1-3 hours

Physical setting Researcher has little control Under the control of the

researcher

Respondent identityDifficult to verify Can be easily verified

Respondent attentivenessRespondents can engage in other tasksAttentiveness can be monitored

Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups

Respondent recruiting Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail, Recruited by traditional means

panel, or by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel)

Group dynamics Limited Synergistic, snowballing (bandwagon) effect

Openness of respondentsRespondents are more candid Respondents are candid, except for due to lack of face-to-face contact sensitive topics

Nonverbal communication Body language cannot be observed Body language and emotions Emotions expressed by using symbols observed

Use of physical stimuli Limited to those that can be displayed A variety of stimuli (products, on the Internet advertising demonstrations, etc.) can be used

Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups

Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming and expensive to obtain

Observers’ communication Observers can communicate with the Observers can manually send noteswith moderator the moderator on a split-screen to the focus group room

Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observationalwith chat room slang

Turnaround time Can be set up and completed Takes many days for setup and in a few days completion

Client travel costs None Can be expensive

Basic focus group costs Much less expensive More expensive: facility rental, food, taping,

transcript preparation

Advantages of Online Focus Groups

• Geographical constraints are removed and time constraints are lessened.

• Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a later date.

• Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.

• Moderators can carry on side conversations with individual respondents.

• There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange so the cost is much lower.

Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups

• Only people that have access to the Internet can participate.

• Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult.

• There is lack of general control over the respondent's environment.

• Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g., perfumes).

Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings. Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic) I can get more work done I accomplish more I feel good about myself (user characteristic) Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying our airline. “You're The Boss.”

Depth Interview Techniques: Hidden Issue Questioning

In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.

Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic Analysis

Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-product,” and opposite types of products.

“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”   “Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- distance calls.”

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication. Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as Federal Express does for a package.

Focus Groups Versus Depth Interviews

Characteristic Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Group synergy and dynamics + -

Peer pressure/group influence - +

Client involvement + -

Generation of innovative ideas + -

In-depth probing of individuals - +

Uncovering hidden motives - +

Discussion of sensitive topics - +

Focus Groups Versus Depth Interviews

Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure, a - indicates a relative disadvantage.

Interviewing competitors

Interviewing professional respondents

Scheduling of respondents

Amount of information

Bias in moderation and interpretation

Cost per respondent

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

Characteristic Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Definition of Projective Techniques

• An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern.

• In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others.

• In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.

Word Association

In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating:

(1)  the frequency with which any word is given as a response;

(2)  the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and

(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.

Word AssociationEXAMPLE

STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C

washday everyday ironing

fresh and sweet clean

pure air soiled

scrub don't; husband does clean

filth this neighborhood dirt

bubbles bath soap and water

family squabbles children

towels dirty wash

Completion TechniquesIn sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.

A person who shops at Sears is ______________________ A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would be __________________________________ J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________ When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.

Completion TechniquesIn story completion, respondents are given part of a story – enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.

Construction Techniques

With a picture response, the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality.  In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response techniques.

A Cartoon Test

Let’s see if we can pick up some house

wares at Sears.

SearsSears

Expressive Techniques

In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.

Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.

Third-person technique The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.

Advantages of Projective Techniques

• They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study.

• Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.

• Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent.

• Require highly-trained interviewers. • Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the

responses. • There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. • They tend to be expensive. • May require respondents to engage in unusual

behavior.

Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

• Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods.

• Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.

• Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.

Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and Projective Techniques

1. Degree of Structure2. Probing of individual

respondents3. Moderator bias4. Interpretation bias5. Uncovering

subconscious information

6. Discovering innovative information

7. Obtaining sensitive information

8. Involve unusual behavior or questioning

9. Overall usefulness

Relatively highLow

Relatively mediumRelatively lowLow

High

Low

No

Highly useful

Relatively mediumHigh

Relatively high Relatively medium Medium to high

Medium

Medium

To a limited extentUseful

Relatively lowMedium

Low to highRelatively highHigh

Low

High

Yes

Somewhat useful

Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Projective Techniques

Criteria

Analysis of Qualitative Data

1) Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.

2) Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in the data.

3) Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers the meaning of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research question at hand.

A Classification of Survey Methods

Traditional Telephone

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing

Mail Interview

Mail Panel

In-Home Mall Intercept

Computer-Assisted Personal

Interviewing

E-mail Internet

Survey Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

Some Decisions Related to the Mail Interview Package

Outgoing Envelope Outgoing envelope Size, color, return addressPostage Method of addressingCover LetterSponsorship Type of appeal PostscriptPersonalization SignatureQuestionnaireLength Size Layout FormatContent Reproduction Color Respondent anonymityReturn EnvelopeType of envelope PostageIncentivesMonetary versus non-monetary Prepaid Versus promised amount

Sample Mailing Lists

List Title Number on List Price

Advertising agencies 3892$45/MBanks, branches 11089 $85/MBoat owners 4289601 $50/MChambers of Commerce 6559$45/MPersonal computer owners 2218672 InquireFamilies 76000000 InquireHardware wholesalers 7378$45/MMagazines, consumers 4119$45/MPhotographic, portrait 33742$45/MSales executives 190002$55/MWives of professional men 1663614 $60/MYMCA’s 1036 $85

* Price shown is per 1000 names (/M), except where noted.

Criteria for Evaluating Survey MethodsFlexibility of Data Collection• The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the

extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire.

 Diversity of Questions• The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey

depends upon the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions.

 Use of Physical Stimuli• The ability to use physical stimuli such as the product, a

product prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the interview.

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Sample Control

• Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently.

Control of the Data Collection Environment

• The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the questionnaire.

Control of Field Force

• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.

Quantity of Data

• The ability to collect large amounts of data.

Random Digit Directory Designs

Adding a Constant to the Last DigitAn integer between 1 and 9 is added to the telephone number selected from the directory. In plus-one sampling, the number added to the last digit is 1.Number selected from directory: 404-953-3004 (exchange-block). Add one to the last digit to form 404-953-3005. This is the number to be included in the sample.

Randomizing the r Last DigitsReplace the r (r = 2, 3, or 4) last digits with an equal number of randomly selected digits. Number selected from directory: 404-881-1124. Replace the last four digits of the block with randomly selected numbers 5, 2, 8, and 6 to form 404-881-5286.

Random Digit Directory DesignsTwo-Stage ProcedureThe first stage consists of selecting an exchange and telephone number from the directory. In the second stage, the last three digits of the selected number are replaced with a three-digit random number between 000 and 999.

Cluster 1Selected exchange: 636Selected number: 404-636-3230Replace the last three digits (230) with randomly selected 389 to form 404-636-3389. Repeat this process until the desired number of telephone numbers from this cluster is obtained.

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Response Rate• Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage

of the total attempted interviews that are completed.

Perceived Anonymity• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions

that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.

 

Social Desirability/Sensitive Information• Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to

give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true.

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Potential for Interviewer Bias• The extent of the interviewer's role determines

the potential for bias.

Speed• The total time taken for administering the

survey to the entire sample.

Cost• The total cost of administering the survey and

collecting the data.

Observation MethodsStructured Versus Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.

Observation MethodsDisguised Versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under observation.

Observation MethodsNatural Versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.

A Classification of Observation Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Observation

Mechanical Observation

Trace Analysis

Content Analysis

Audit

Classifying

Observation

Methods

Observation MethodsPersonal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.

Observation MethodsMechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.– Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a

building.– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) – Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement. – Eye-tracking monitors– Pupilometers ( change in pupils measures the cognitive activity)– Psychogalvanometers (measures galvanic skin response)– Voice pitch analyzers– Devices measuring response latency ( time taken to respond)

Observation Methods Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis.

• Data are collected personally by the researcher.

• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.

• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data in Chapter 4

Observation MethodsContent Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.

• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message).

• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.

Observation Methods Trace Analysis: Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior.

The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.

The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.

The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.

The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers.

The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite magazines.

Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.

A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods

Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High MediumDegree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low in natural setting Observation bias High Low Low Medium MediumAnalysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium

Medium General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of

flexible intrusive commu- last resort nications

Relative Advantages of Observation

• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior.

• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.

• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.

• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.

Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.

• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.

• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.

• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods for International Marketing

ResearchCriteria Telephone Personal Mail ElectronicHigh sample control + + - -Difficulty in locating + - + + respondents at homeInaccessibility of homes + - + +Unavailability of a large + - + +pool of trained interviewersLarge population in rural areas - + - -Unavailability of maps + - + +Unavailability of current - + - +telephone directoryUnavailability of mailing lists + + - +Low penetration of telephones - + + -Lack of an efficient postal system + + - +Low level of literacy - + - -Face-to-face communication culture - + - -Poor access to computers & Internet ? + ? -Note: A (+) denotes an advantage, and a (–) denotes a disadvantage.

Concept of CausalityA statement such as "X causes Y " will have thefollowing meaning to an ordinary person and to ascientist. Here cause will always occur prior to the effect.____________________________________________________

Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning____________________________________________________X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of

possible causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the (X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probablecause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y). It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is athat X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can

infer that X is a cause of Y.