Two Medieval Haggadot:

The Bird’s Head and the Golden

Differences between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Illuminated Manuscripts

    “What is the Jew?...What kind of unique creature is this whom all the rulers of all the nations of the world have disgraced and crushed and expelled and destroyed; persecuted, burned and drowned, and who, 

despite their anger and their fury, continues to live and to flourish. What is this Jew whom they have never succeeded in enticing with all the enticements in the world, whose oppressors and persecutors only suggested that he deny (and disown) his religion and cast aside the faithfulness of his ancestors?!

     The Jew - is the symbol of eternity. ... He is the one who for so long had guarded the prophetic message and transmitted it to all mankind. A people such as this can never disappear.

     The Jew is eternal. He is the embodiment of eternity."

- Leo Tolstoy

Nancy Origer Poole19 Nissan 5768

24 April 2008LIS 688

History of the Book

Two Medieval Haggadot:

The Bird’s Head and the Golden: Differences between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Illuminated Manuscripts

Introduction

This paper examines similarities and differences in two Medieval Haggadot. The first is the Bird’s Head Haggadah, produced by an Ashkenazi scribe named Menahem1 in Southern Germany sometime during the late 13th to early 14th century, CE. The second is the Golden Haggadah produced by as many as three different unidentified workshops and at least two artists in Barcelona around 1320. While much of the prescribed content (by Jewish tradition) is the same in these two manuscripts, the artwork, added contents, and styles are vastly different. These differences are discussed below following a summary of background for haggadot in general and a brief history. The most striking differences between the two Haggadot examined are in the levels of artistry in the Golden as opposed to the Bird’s Head, the opulence (the name Golden comes from the amount of gold leaf in the manuscript), and the number and types of illustrations. Each has some form of illustration showing the Exodus tale from the day when Pharaoh’s daughter finds Moses in his water cradle until the time when the Hebrews escape from Egypt. The Golden contains many other references to biblical stories as well.

The differences in artistry and opulence suggest differences in lifestyles and the communities in which these works were produced. Jews in Spain where the Golden was produced had more opportunities to excel under Islamic rule and had more freedom. More of the community was wealthy and could afford the costs of employing separate scribes, illuminators, binders, and other artists and craftsmen. There was a great deal more freedom in the types of illustration used by the surrounding community as well. While the Christians were taking over Spain, the Islamic artwork and architecture were still influential. French Gothic style had also made its way to the community when the Jews were chased out of France in the very early 14th century brought their beautiful books with them.

In the Southern German area where the Bird’s Head was produced, the types of manuscripts available for inspiration were all Christian. The Gothic styles had not made their way into the area where Menahem lived. In addition, the reference material from the Christians used animal heads for “good” human beings, a practice which Menahem adopted. The Jews always have nonhuman heads, while the Egyptians have human heads without faces for the most part. It hardly seems a matter of asceticism, unless it was on the part of the creators of the Latin miniatures that Menahem viewed. To a degree it was amusing to take the Christian sense of who is good and turn it against them, making the Jews the heroes and the good guys for a change.

What is the Haggadah ?

1 Yale Haggadah Exhibit Hall (2008).

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The Haggadah is the ritual retelling of the Exodus story.2 It originated as a form of symposium with religious and statutory themes (Bokser, 1988) and comprises an anthology of readings from the Bible, Talmudic and Midrashic selections and legends. In addition, there are prayers and blessings (piyyutim), hymns and songs. These are interwoven with the Seder or order of the prescribed service (Goodman, 1961). The first components of the traditional Haggadot were probably assembled sometime during the early post-biblical period in Palestine (Bokser, 1984). It is meant to be read during the ceremonial Passover meal held in Jewish homes to commemorate the redemption from Egypt in biblical times. The earliest extant version of the Haggadah appeared in a 10th century prayer book in Babylonia, (Stahl, 2001). The Haggadah became one of the most important and popular liturgical texts for Jews throughout the world.

The library of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America has 2000 different editions of the Haggadah. Abraham Yaari has listed 2713 editions which were printed in 170 places. The first printed edition was from Guadalajara, Spain, dated about 1482 and the second from Soncino, Italy, dated about 1486, (Goodman, 1961). The existence of the many versions reflects its family-centered practice and the nature of Jewish philosophy regarding free interpretation by this “nation of priests”. The ability of all to ask any question during the Passover Seder is perhaps the finest example of the intellectual openness of Judaism. There is a wide range of acceptable styles and additions of materials used for the Passover celebration, while the core story remains as it has been for hundreds of years.

What is Passover?

Passover is a biblically-mandated holiday, in which Jews are commanded to recount the story of the Exodus in accordance with directives found in Deuteronomy, Exodus, and Leviticus. These texts give the date upon which Passover begins, (the 14th day of the first month is when G-d passed over the Jews to slay the Egyptian first-born and the 15th day is the first day of the feast of the Passover).By the Jewish calendar, that month is Nissan. The passages further command that for seven days the observant Jew is to eat unleavened bread. On the day prior to the feast of Passover, all leaven is to be removed from the house. Jews are also to refrain from working on the first and seventh days. Leviticus 23:5-8 states, "In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at dusk, is the Lord’s Passover. And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of unleavened bread unto the Lord; seven days you shall eat unleavened bread. In the first day you shall have a holy convocation; you shall do no laborious work. And you shall bring an offering made by fire unto the Lord seven days; in the seventh day is a holy convocation; you shall do no laborious work."

2 The word Haggadah (telling) comes from the root he-gid, which means to tell.

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The Passover Seder According to the Haggadot of the Middle Ages and Beyond

Before Passover begins, there is a careful examination of the home for chametz (leavened bread and other proscribed foods). Many Haggadot have pictures of this search In the Ashkenazi traditions, there are often representations of a person or persons searching for chametz with a feather or the wing of a bird. A table was set before nightfall with ritual foods (the Jewish day begins at sunset). Generally, the largest number of haggadic illustrations show commanded items such as matzot (the circular unleavened bread3, and maror, (the bitter herb), as well as the four mandated cups of wine and ritual hand-washing. There are somewhat fewer of haroset4, and karpas, some type of green herb or vegetable5.

A Kiddush (blessing of the wine) begins the service, followed by the ritualized washing of hands6 and eating karpas dipped into salt water. The celebrant breaks one of the matzot and puts one half aside (or hides it) for after the meal. This hidden piece is called the afikoman. The celebrant then pronounces the first words of the ha lachma, regarding the bread of affliction. Next are the four questions beginning with the ma nishtanah – Why is this (night) different? These questions asked by the youngest child. Other ritual gestures are the raising of the matzah and maror as well as the full cup of wine. After the meal, children search for the afikoman. Fifteenth and sixteenth century Ashkenazi pictures also show the doors of the house being open after saying the blessing7.

One of the most important rituals followed in the Seder is reclining on a cushion or in the style of Greco-Roman free men. This signifies the difference between being a slave and being a free person (due to the miracles of the Exodus and G-d’s intervention). It is not just the wealthier members of the community that experience this state of well-being and bounty. The tradition commands that even the poorest are to be invited, to be fed, and to enjoy the four cups of wine, even if someone else must pay for them.

The dominant emotion of the Seder is joy expressed in the Hallel (praise) and hymns associated with the feast. Passover is experienced as a living and confident anticipation of

3 Matzot were baked in a round form - this comes form the biblical term ugoot matzot, which means not only cakes of unleavened bread, but also circles of unleavened bread. These were generally made by the family or groups of families. They continued to be round and rather thick until the advent of modern manufacturing in the 19th century which produced a thin square cracker. Often, there were illustrations of how the matzot were baked and mixed as well as how they were placed on the table. Sometimes they are shown as full page illustrations; sometimes they appear in marginal illustrations held by participants.4 Many Ashkenazi Jews combine chopped apples, wine, and nuts which represent the mortar used in Egypt to construct public works for Pharaoh. 5 Often parsley .6 This performed three times over the course of the Seder. This is before tasting the karpas, before eating the matzah, and again before saying the blessing.7 This has been connected both with the reading of the Shefokh which invites divine wrath against persecutors and the invitation to Elijah to enter. A cup of wine is set for Elijah in modern services.

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final deliverance for the Jewish (and ultimately all) people. The ending phrase of the Seder is “Next year in Jerusalem,” an ancient expression for hopes of returning to the homeland or the world to come which is a realm of peace.

The following comprise all of the ritual elements of the Seder8:1. Kadeish קדש. Recital of Kiddush blessing (over the wine) and drinking of the

First Cup of Wine.2. Urchatz ורחץ. The first washing of the hands, part of the traditional ritualistic

requirements).3. Karpa s כרפס. Dipping of the Karpas in salt water. The salt water is to remind the

participants of the tears they shed under captivity in Egypt.

4. Yachatz יחץ. (Breaking the middle matzo; the larger piece becomes the afikoman which is eaten later. Children search for the afikoman and are rewarded for finding it. 9)

5. Maggid מגיד. Retelling the Passover story, including the recital of the Four Questions and drinking of the second cup of wine. "Ha Lachma Anya" or "This is the bread of affliction that our ancestors ate in Egypt,” is the traditional opening line of the Maggid.

6. Rachtzah רחצה. Second washing of the hands - with blessing.7. Motzi-Matzo מוציא-מצה. Traditional blessing before eating bread products

followed by the Blessing before eating matzah). 8. Maror מרור. Eating the maror, which may be any of a number of bitter

vegetables as a reminder of the bitterness of slavery. 9. Koreich כורך. Eating the sandwich made of matzo and maror. This is also

referred to as a “Hillel” sandwich.10. Shulchan Oreich שולחן עורך. Literally, this means "set table” and refers to the

holiday meal itself.11. Tzafun צפון. Eating the afikoman.12. Bareich ברך. Blessing after the meal and drinking the third cup of wine.13. Hallel הלל. Reciting the Hallel, which is recited on festivals. Drinking the fourth

cup of wine.

14. Nirtzah נירצה. Conclusion. 10

Brief History of Jews in the Middle Ages

8 N.B. This listing conveniently appeared in a Wikipedia site. Unfortunately, the Hebrew has been written left to right rather than right to left.

9 Interestingly, the afikoman was part of the symposia during which all sorts of revelry took place. To distinguish the Jewish tradition from the Greek, rabbis at one time mandated Torah Study through the night. The discussions among the rabbis in the Haggadah may have emerged to highlight this directive. 10 Source of much of the present story and directions for Passover is found in Maimondedes Hametz u- Matza, a section of the Mishneh Torah. Mishneh Torah means Repetition of the Torah.

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After Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the barbarian Odoacer in 475 CE, civilization withdrew behind its walls. Romulus' deposition is traditionally cited as the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Although the Eastern Roman Empire survived until 1453 CE, Roman authority in Italy and Gaul had collapsed by the time of Romulus' reign. By the end of the 8th century CE, the old Roman Empire was primarily rural. Overland trade was halted by warring factions. Exchanges and intellectual growth were stunted by the lack of a widespread cultural foundation. The Muslim conquests to the south and west thwarted trade by sea, and so trade and other exchange was localized even further.

The sole surviving institution of the Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages was the church, which ruled in areas of its influence by bishops. During the 8th – 11th centuries, monasticism, originating in the Middle East, spread to the Catholic centers. The monastic centers provided counsel to local leaders and became centers of learning and propaganda, as well as bases for proselytization.

Although Charlemagne had unified many of the regions of Europe and had set up administrators by the year 800 CE, it was not until the Vikings were Christianized and the Castellans came to power in Spain that life became settled. Population centers grew into powerful city-states, particularly in Italy by the early 14th century.

In the 11th century, the Pope called for the first Crusade against the Muslim world in response to a request from the leaders of Byzantium who were concerned about threats of invasion. By the end of the 14th century, Christian armies had retaken Spain and Italy. New inventions and interests in the classics in the 12th and 13th centuries made possible a cultural resurgence. It was in this period that individuals outside of the church were in a position to engage in intellectual interchange. The great universities and the growth of cities allowed those who were not part of the monastic culture to spread their own ideas to a receptive world11

Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the lives of Jews were constrained to activities that were permitted by various governments. Many of the Jewish communities were segregated from those of Christians. Jews generally lived in cities because large-scale farming enterprise was nearly impossible for them. The Catholic Church forbid them to own slaves or to employ Christians. In addition, due the feudal system, Jews were usually unable to buy or own land. Both were true in France, but in Spain Jews had could receive land in return for services to the King. The church imposed some restrictions in Aragon (Spain) in the 13th century, but not in Castile until the 15th. Jews had early been merchants and traders, but this was coming to an end throughout Europe s they were supplanted by Christians. In addition, there were many taxes imposed on them for entering or leaving markets. As cities grew and became consolidated, Jews were also forbidden from joining the craft guilds, (Metzger & Metzger, 1982). One of the few enterprises left to them was the lending of money at interest, an activity forbidden by the Church (but often practiced nonetheless).

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Brief History of Illuminated Manuscripts

Christian manuscript illumination was widespread from Late Antiquity (4th – 6th century C.E.) through the Renaissance (15th – 17th century CE). The earliest were written and illuminated in scriptoria affiliated with the Church and used by the Church or the nobility. Such works were not produced elsewhere until the 13th century when production of the books moved to private workshops. At this point an increasing number of works were commissioned by private individuals, who had their own ideas about style and content, (Cohen, 1988).

The earliest illuminated Jewish manuscript that is still in existence is the Book of Prophets written in the 9th century CE. Jewish illuminated manuscripts were not in common use until the 13th century. Of these, the most commonly available were Haggadot. Similarly, the most common Christian manuscripts of the period were liturgical, including missals, Psalters, and Books of Hours (Cohen, 1988). Beit-Aire (1988) confirms this saying that remnants of manuscripts found in Egypt (Geniza) suggest that the codex was introduced during the second century CE and that the codex and scroll were found in about the same number until the 6th century when the codex prevailed. Jews however did not adopt the codex until the 8th century. One factor explaining this was that until the Islamic period, oral law was mainly transmitted orally. Surviving manuscripts date from the 10th century in the Orient, the 11th in Italy, the 12th in Spain, France, and Germany, and the late 13th in Byzantium and the Maghreb.

Origins of the Haggadah

The Haggadah was structured during the period following the destruction of the second Temple around the Greek symposium. Here participants drank wine, ate a festive meal and conducted religious and statutory discussions into the late evening. By the second century CE, the more important elements of the Haggadah were already present (particularly in the Mishnah12). Other elements were added through the Middles Ages. Prior to that time, the Haggadah was part of the Siddur or prayer book. Increased availability of scribes in the Middle Ages and the fact that Passover was celebrated primarily in the home resulted in the separation of the Haggadah from the Siddur. According to scripture, Jews are commanded to “tell thy son on that day saying, It is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came out of Egypt. Ex 13:8). Originally this commandment was carried out by eating the paschal (Passover) lamb which was slaughtered on the 14th day of Nissan as part of Temple custom and eaten by the entire family. Although the Second Temple was destroyed in the 1st century CE, the meal continued to be a part of the Seder. Ritual slaughter was eventually eliminated from the tradition and a lamb shank bone (the Zeroa) was placed on the Seder plate as a remembrance of the sacrifice.

12 It is described in detail in the Mishnah, composed by Rabbi Judah Ha Nasi.

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The oldest parts of the Haggadah are Psalms 113 and 114. These were used by the Levites as they observed Passover when Palestine was ruled by Persia (about 614 – 638 CE). The parts that originated in the early third century BCE (before the time of the Maccabees) – included the introductory statement, “We were slaves in Egypt.” An alternative opening is “In the beginning, our ancestors were idolaters”. There is also a portion from Midrash on Deuteronomy 26:5-8 “Go forth and Learn,” which is basically the reply to the Four Questions. The hymn Dayeinu (It would have been enough for us) – followed. This section was probably composed as a reaction to the rule of Egypt over Persia at the time. Also present were some of the controversial views of the Midrash, i.e., that angels did not participate in the Exodus and that God visibly appeared. There is also a warning not to assimilate and become Egyptian.

By the second century CE, upon completion of the Mishnah, the contents of the Haggadah were as we know them now, for the most part. This included a warning from Rabbi Gamaliel that whoever does not mention these three things on Passover, (i.e., Pesach, matzah, and maror) has not fulfilled his obligation. That everyone must consider himself freed from Egypt and the requirement for the Kiddush and four cups of wine is based on the Mishnah. The Mishnah also prescribes the benedictions which follow the first and second parts of the Hallel.

Amoraim in the third century CE , regarding the bondage in Egypt and again in the period of the Geonim (6th – 11 century) added several practices and stories. One of these is the discussion the four types of son. The story of the five rabbis of the second century CE, Eliezer, Josuhua, Elieser ben Azariah, Akiba, and Tarfon, who spend the entire night in recounting the Exodus form Egypt that were added is found anywhere else in rabbinic literature. Several poems written by unknown authors appeared in either Ashkenazi or Sephardic Haggadot.

By the 13th century, the Haggadah text was fixed. By the 14th century, even the decorations in the Haggadah were relatively fixed. There were four categories for these decorations: ritual, textual, biblical, and eschatological (Narkiss, 1997).

The earliest (clearly dated) printed Haggadot are the Prague, 1526; the Mantua, 1560; the Venice, 1609; and the Amsterdam, 1695. The printed Haggadot which followed them from the 18th to the 20th centuries were heavily dependent on these for style and content. Like the story itself, the style and the technical details have been passed l’dor v dor.

Styles of Hebrew Manuscripts13

13 This discussion is very much dependent upon Narkiss (1969), Cohen (1988) and Sirat (2002).

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The style of the Jewish manuscripts was highly dependent on two things, first where the illuminator was trained, and second, the region in which he later worked. Manuscripts were found wherever the Jews had settled. Narkiss (1969) divides these into the following regions or countries: Orient, Spain, France, Germany, and Italy. In the instance of the Oriental, Jewish manuscripts would be similar to those of Muslim, Persian and Egyptian origin. The Jewish manuscripts created in Europe would also follow the local style. In particular, Narkiss points out that although there was no commandment that Jews refrain from using human figures in their work. They avoided it in Muslim countries due to their prohibition of such illustrations. The early Ashkenazi Jews, while not proscribed from using representational figures used animal heads and blank faces. Such figures appeared in the Bird’s Head Haggadah and in the Worms Mahzor 1272, (Narkiss, 1969).

The style of the Worms Mahzor, in particular its use of motifs and colors, resembles south German Latin miniatures in the second half of the 13th century. This school also used animals and birds, and distorted the heads of human figures. None of the human figures have human faces – all of the righteous have animal heads. Other humans have blank faces or are looking away. Christian manuscripts began the tradition with saints having the heads of animals. This style was adopted by Jews under the ascetic influence of Rabbis Judah and Samuel the Pious in Southern Germany during the 12th century (Narkiss,1969). South German Latin illumination in this period also included bright, non-shaded colors outlined in clear dark outlines. This too was adopted by the Ashkenazi Jews in the region. These illuminations resemble the stained glass technique typical of the region.

Since Hebrew does not have capital letters, the initial letter was rarely decorated. Instead, the entire word was the field for decorations. (An important exception is the Darmstadt Haggadah). Narkiss (1969) suggests that when initial letters were used, it was as a direct result of the influence of Latin illumination. Sometimes an entire verse was decorated.

Jewish manuscripts (not Christian) also contained micrography or small writing which sometimes contained additional information (masoretic texts) about words or usage in the text and were shaped either in abstract or representational forms. Occasionally, the micrography was used as the basis for complete carpet pages. Sometimes the forms were grotesques or fantastic animals (this occurred in Ashkenazi books, but not in Oriental or Spanish books.)

Cohen (1988) notes that while Jewish illuminators tended to follow the traditions and styles of the area in which they were working; they also tended to be very conservative. Their designs were often out of fashion (by over a hundred years in some cases.) Biblical cycles were not found in Bibles so much as they were in the Haggadot. These might in include depictions of various episodes in the life of Moses, ending with the successful crossing of the Red Sea. In the Sephardic Haggadot, full page representations of these biblical scenes were common, e.g., The Rylands and Golden Haggadot. Ashkenazi illustrations appeared in the margins and were seldom full pages. There was a fairly

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standard usage of traditional themes including the four sons, the matzah, and the maror. The Darmstadt Haggadah added depictions of female students with their teachers.

Spanish Illumination

Early Northern Spanish Haggadot have foliage decoration and interlacing scrolls which are typical of Muslim arabesques. There are filigreed ornaments which are thin and elegant. There are also paisley and floral designs. These remained in fashion until the 15th

century.

The Catalan and Castilian schools were active in the 14th century and were influenced by the local Spanish and northern French. The colors are darker, there are Byzantine elements, and more rounded, less fine leaves and designs. The coffered ceilings in the Golden Haggadah reflect the Byzantine styling. There is also French and Italian Gothic style which resembles Catalan legal manuscripts from 1320. The Sassoon Spanish Haggadah and the Barcelona Haggadah are somewhat similar to the Golden. The destruction of the Jewish Community in both Castile and Aragon in 1391 put an end to these schools.

Spanish Haggadot comprises the text of the ritual story, full page Biblical miniatures, and a collection of piyyutim or liturgical poems. These texts are sparsely illustrated, usually only with textual and ritual representations. The piyyutim are rarely illuminated. The main decorations are the full page miniatures. The origin of the style may have been the illustrations used in the Latin Psalter used during the Middle Ages. These, in turn, were modeled after earlier Greek Psalter illuminations.

The most common ritual illustrations are the elements of the Passover feast, including the lamb, matzah, and maror. Many of the miniatures simply feature Jewish life and the preparation for p[Passover or actions taken during the ritual such as hand-washing, finding the afikoman or drinking the four cups of wine. The Exodus story is the most frequent Biblical subject of the Haggadot. In the Golden Haggadah, the Exodus story is preceded by the story of the Patriarchs. In the eschatological illustrations, references are made to the future of the Jewish people. Sometimes this includes the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem.

German Illumination

The German Haggadot contain the same four types of illustrations as the Spanish. However, the German Haggadot have numerous marginal illustrations, but very few full page illustrations. Each of the four types can be found in the earliest German Haggadah, the Birds’ Head.

The most frequent text illustrations in German Haggadot are the matzah and maror, held by people or in a disembodied hand. There are also illustrations of rabbis who are mentioned in the Haggadah, as well as the plagues, and the four sons. The wise son is

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often similar to the pictures of the rabbis, the wicked son is a soldier, the simple son is a jester, and the son who does not know how to ask questions is a child. Ritual German illustrations are sometimes full pages showing preparations for the feast: baking the matzot, cleaning the house, searching for chametz, and preparing the Seder table. The Bird’s Head shows hiding and finding the afikoman.

Many of the Haggadot portray the Exodus story (such as the Bird’s Head) while others may have themes from Genesis, Joshua and the angel, Samuel and Eli, Samson and the lion and David and Goliath. There are also legendary events from the Midrash. One interesting element is the addition of Elijah at the foot of a rebuilt Jerusalem. This appeared in the Second Nuremburg Haggadah and it became a tradition. In the Birds’ Head there is a walled city with four people reaching out their arms towards it showing their adoration. Other eschatological themes are the sacrifice of Isaac - an allusion to Judgment Day, and the fulfillment of God’s covenant with Abraham – found in the Bird’s Head Haggadah. There are also three bearded men in the Bird’s Head who may be Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob being led by an angle to a three story building (paradise) in which the sun, moon and four angels reside.

Why do the Ashkenazi and Sephardic Manuscripts Differ?14

Different political situations and cultural surroundings in which Jews lived shaped the art of ms painting in Spain and Germany in many ways. In Spain, the use of patterns borrowed from Islamic culture was prevalent. The next influence was later interactions with Christians (primarily due to the Christian reconquest of Spain) and the end of Moslem rule. It was the Jews’ reaction to political change that most influenced their art.

Amongst the Ashkenazi in Germany, however, it was social change that was the predominating factor in development of the artistic style used. The patterns of borrowing from the surrounding non-Jewish cultures, therefore, were very different, even though the subject matter was very much the same. Jewish culture is more of a receiver in cultural exchanges than a giver. Hence in representation, artistic forms of the predominanting culture are found. Jews did not mimic exactly what they found in the surrounding culture. They made it their own. Art thus, became a method of acculturation for Jews into the non-Jewish culture.

Sephardim were heavily influenced by Islamic art and other early Middle Eastern art. This influence persisted in 13th – 15th century Hebrew illuminated Bibles and may have found its way into illuminated Haggadot of the period. The most obvious examples are the carpet pages which are entirely covered by artwork that is geometric or floral. Islamic architectural designs also influenced artwork. This includes floral designs framed by medallions, a common device used in architecture in Spain.

14 This section borrows heavily from Kogman-Appel (2003).

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Islamic images were used in later Christian architecture, but rarely in Christian illuminated manuscripts. They are often the only type of artwork used in Hebrew manuscripts. There are arcades and columns with intersecting arches which are very much Islamic in nature. Islamic architecture was more likely to be used than the Christian Gothic architecture. Sephardic artists seemed to prefer to hark back to an earlier period. Sephardic art in France or parts of Spain that were Christianized earlier than the 14th century mirrored more of the prevailing Christian culture. In these manuscripts, Gothic architectural influences were the norm. Nonetheless, the carpet page was also used.

In the Golden Haggadah, Catalan in origin, the influence of Gothic art is very much prevalent. Its style is similar to Catalonian royal manuscripts of the period. This is what enabled Narkiss to date the Golden. While style and form in the Sephardic manuscripts can demonstrate a choice by the individual illustrator, those in the Ashkenazi realm were more likely steered by technique and conventions of the region, not those chosen by the individual illustrator.

There is not a great deal of ornamentation in the Ashkenazi manuscripts. The artistic environment in Germany was exclusively Christian. Jewish culture was not stimulated here in the same way that Islamic art stimulated the Sephardic artists. There were no choices to be made n the Ashkenazi world – there was only one culture. Artists in the deteriorating economic world of Germany and Central Europe tended to use illustrations and even supplies that were more common amongst the middle class Christians than the upper classes. There simply were not that many upper class Jews.

When Bible scenes were used, they were often based on earlier manuscripts. Figurative painting was rare in Islamic art and so the Jewish artists had to rely on Christian models. Paintings of figures, although present in Jewish antiquity were discontinued in the 9th century and not revived until the 13th century. The depiction of Moses before the burning bush in the Golden comes from a 13th century French Bible. Some representations from Christian art, however, were reworked in accordance with Midrashic interpretations. Jewish artists were familiar were some of the Christological aspects in Christian art and also reworked these in terms of gestures reflecting benedictions prevalent in one culture or the other. The similarity between Sephardic and Ashkenazi illustration is that in each culture, artists made conscious choices regarding the representation of elements that were too Christian. Translation into a Jewish idiom was a consequence of these choices

In Central Europe the situation of the Jew became more and more difficult in a hostile Christian environment. Over time, this became true in Spain as well. The greater the degree of hostility over time was directly correlated with the decreasing use of Christian images.

Technical Issues in Hebrew Manuscripts

Manuscript illumination involved a scribe who was responsible for written text and most likely the whole layout. There were masorators who used decorative patterns in writing

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the masoretic text in figurative or decorative micrography (specially a Jewish form of art).There was also an illustrator who planned and drew the drawings that were to be painted. The fourth member of the group was a colorist. Non-Jews15 may have performed this work, but there is also evidence that there were Jewish illuminators and colorists as well, (Kogman-Appel, 2003).

Beit Arie (1988) notes that two types of materials were used for codices: parchment and paper. Narkiss (1969), however, maintains that while most manuscripts were indeed written on sheepskin parchment, other animals were also used. Cowhide was used for large manuscripts, in Europe and the east, goatskins were used in the East; calfskin was used in Europe, but was very expensive. Parchments were chalked before use and both sides were used except for full page miniatures. In the Italian parchment, it is easier to tell the hair side from the flesh side: the latter is smooth and bright, the other retains its grain. In Sephardic manuscripts, the parchment is not scraped, but the grain pattern is barely visible.

By the time paper came into wide use, it was made by non-Jews, and both the Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities used the same types of paper as the other locals. The Europeans’ hand-made rag paper has laid lines which are readily visible. The European papers generally have water marks after the year 1281, which facilitates dating, (Beit-Arie, 1988).

Most of the Sephardic scribes used reed pens, and most of the Ashkenazi and Italian scribes used a quill. The style of the scripts varied with the instrument: Sephardic writing had horizontal and vertical strokes of about the same width while the Ashkenazi script has thinning verticals since the quill is more flexible. Bet Arie (1988) furthermore suggests that the Ashkenazi script evolved from the Italian which had probably earlier developed from the Oriental. The Sephardic type, used in the Maghreb, Provence and Sicily probably originated in North Africa. A writing style was something a scribe lived with all his life: decorations, however, were local.

The layout of each page was produced by ruling. French and German scribes tried to write between two horizontal lines. The text block for each page provided a constrained area, but different methods were employed to be sure that the entire section was filled. Hebrew scribes, unlike Latin scribes attempted to produce a justified end margin. Three methods were employed to produce this effect: filling out short lines, preventing the margin from being exceeded, and writing protruding works or letters in such a way as to preserve the margins. To fill out short lines, scribes would increase the length of a trailing last letter (in particular the reish and the dalet), they might leave space before a last word, or they might insert letters of the next word on one line followed by the whole word (repeated the letters) on the next. To shorten the line, words were split, a space was left, and the rest of the word could be printed in the margin. Words could be compressed by

15 Narkiss (1969). They would be under the direction of either the owner who had commissioned the work or the scribes who would be aware of the details that needed to be added or deleted from Christian models.

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changing from semi-cursive to cursive, part of the word could be written on one line and the remainder on the next

Scribes used signatures to order pages in the quires. They would use Hebrew letters either at the beginning or the end – or at both the beginning and the end. Ashkenazi scribes did not number the quires. They preferred another means of ensuring correct order - the use of catchwords A scribe would repeat the word or last few words on the current page at the foot of the preceding page. A scribe might also repeat the last word or words of the previous page at the beginning of the next page. Catchwords were placed separately from the text. Orientals placed them diagonally and Ashkenazi placed them vertically. Sephardic scribes were likely to use catchwords only in the first half of a quire and then at the end. One paper was widely used, copyists numbered all the leaves of the codex. Following copying, the texts were vocalized. The artwork was added next, and upon completion, the entire text was turned over to the binder.

The Birds’ Head Haggadah 16

This is possibly the oldest surviving complete, separate Haggadah. It was copied in the 13th century by a scribe named Menahem17. There are marginal illustrations and only two full page miniatures. The illustrations follow the text and are not in chronological order.Not all figures have bird’s heads; there are some figures whose faces have been erased. . The clothing is simple and has some draping. Women wear hats or scarves; men wear the traditional large-brimmed small crowned hat required in Germany. 18 Each page contains 12 lines written in black ink using block letters (Thank God! It was hard enough to read in block – it would have been impossible in script, as in the last page.) There are five paneled first words, and one decorated leading word that is as large as the other paneled words. There are occasional uses of a word at the end of a page copied at the beginning of the next, apparently to order the pages. Pages are not numbered. Both sides of the pages are used, including the last full miniature. Only one side of the page is used for the first full page miniature. The miniatures are on the first page and second to last page only.

The first miniature is a partial full page illustration which has a missing section in the center. This page shows two people who are possibly gathered for the Passover meal. There are matzot on the exterior of the building just below the room in which they are seated.

The second page is the set of directions and listing of blessings for the time preceding Pesach – or the day before (B’erev Pesach. It contains the first of the blessings said. At the bottom is a marginal miniature of a man holding a cup of wine. The first blessing continues to the second page for Kiddush and the first cup of wine. The vay’chulu on the 16 I translated most of the initial words for the Bird’s Head with the guidance of the Ashkenazi Haggadah. This section reflects the notations that I took as I recorded the contents. I can only blame my own lack of fluency in Hebrew if there are any items that are less than perfect. 17 Yale Haggadah Exhibit Hall 18 The Leipzig Mahzor from about the same period also uses similar styles.

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fifth (according to markings in the version I am using) is part of the Kiddush said if Passover falls on Shabbat. Above this are the directions for Shabbat, just as one might find in a modern Seder.

Following the Kiddush is the shehecheyanu which is a blessing said for the fact that we have come to this point in the year and are still alive. There are no further marginal illustrations until page 10, where another male holds a goblet (apparently) and there is marginal notation including the word Kiddush.

On page 11 there is a miniature depicting the Urchatz or washing of the hands. Following ritual requirements a male is holding his hands beneath an urn from which water is poured on the hands.

On page 12 there is a larger marginal illustration at the bottom of the page depicting the sharing of the karpas between a male and female and the Yachatz, breaking the middle matzo and hiding the afikoman between folds of the table cloth.

On page 13 is written the first paneled word. Other blessing words and emphasized words have been written in large block print – but they are not decorated. The word HA (the) on this page is surrounded by a colored border and has a filigreed background. Yellow, red and turquoise are used. There is a small decoration in one corner that resembles a book latch. HA begins the Maggid (Ha lachma anya … the bread of affliction) The illustration in the bottom margin shows a male reading the same words from a book to a seated female at either end of a long table.

On page 14, the second cup of wine is poured. In the middle of the page, the four questions begin with the words Mah nishtanah…The entire question, “Why is this night different from all other nights?”

A man is shown reclining on his left arm on page 15, as directed by the ritual to show leisure and freedom.. It is in distinction to the next part of the story. The large letters on this page mark the beginning of the yavdim which is the portion that begins, “We were slaves.”

On page 16 and 17 is a discussion between Rabbiss Eleazar and Eleazar ben Azariah. There are no illustrations. On page 19, the first son, Hacham, the wise one, speaks. At the bottom of the page, Rashah, the wicked one speaks. There are directions written in the margins, but no miniatures. On page 20, Tam, the simple son continues followed by the son who does not know how to ask on page 21. At the bottom of page 20 is a small paneled word V’shahyanu – which is repeated at the top of page 21, possibly to mark the order of the pages as a signature. (There is no numbering. The numbers I am reporting were penciled in at a later date). A small scrolled leaf precedes the last two words on page 21.

Matichala, begins page 22, “In the beginning our fathers were idol worshipers.”

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On page 23 there are additional illustrations that portray two mean speaking and a group who are in Egypt. Their expressions are unhappy. The next pages, 24 through 26 are not decorated. They deal with the story of the time that was spent in captivity in Egypt.

On page 29 an illustration, again in the margin shows the labor that the Hebrews performed for Pharaoh. On page 30, two males are shown praying. The leading word beings the section that says, “But we cried out to the Lord”. At the bottom of the page is an illustration showing the binding of Isaac.

On page 22 there is an interesting horned animal drawn in brown ink. It has a speckled head (red) and its horns are attached to decorations that appear as a shield leading to a crown (a trefoil). Within the shield area is the passage “I shall pass through the land of Egypt.” It ends with, “I am he and not another,” Ani hu v’loh chereh.

At the end of page 36 is another small panel with the word Dabar which is the first word at the top of page 37.

There are no further illustrations until page 41 in which the slaughter of the lamb (a ram) takes place. This follows at the bottom margin after Rabbi Akiba’s discussion about the 50 plagues on land and 250 on the sea.

Pages 42 – 46 contain the Dayeinu song (it would have been sufficient). There are illustrations at the bottom of each page. The first shows Moses leading the Hebrews through the parted red sea and across the desert on page 45. On page 46 an illustration shows manna falling from heaven.

On page 45, Moses receives the commandments and passes them to the crowd. A male is roasting a lamb on a spit in accordance with the commandment to remember the Exodus. At the bottom of page 47 Rabbi Gamaliel speaks and reminds the Hebrews that whoever does not mention the three things: the Passover lamb, the matzah and the maror has not fulfilled his obligations.

On the bottom of page 48 are additional illustrations of people which appear to be Christian as they do not wear the hats that the Jews wear. They are also dressed in clothing that differs from the Jews and are riding on horseback drawing a wagon. However, from the context of the story at this portion the Haggadah is again telling the tale of the exodus. It is interesting that the Egyptians look like Christians. On page 49, the Hebrews are carrying their possessions away and bringing along matzot. This portion asks why the mention of the mention of the lamb, the matzah and the maror (on page 50) is necessary and follows with the reasons.

On page 50 and 51, the illustrations show men and women prepare matzot. At the bottom of pg 50, b’chal begins the discussion that says in every generation a man must regard himself as if he had just come out of Egypt.

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On page 52 The second large paneled word is L’fivach which begins, “Therefore it is our duty to thank the Lord for these miracles”. The panel contains a red and black border. At the bottom of the page is a table with men and women drinking wine. One male is carrying a roasted lamb to the table.

The Hallel follows on page 53. This is the beginning of Psalm 113 followed by Psalm 114 on page 54. These are the two oldest parts of the Seder.

On page 55 a man holds up the matzot. A second man pours water over a third man’s hands. This is the Rachtzah which is the second ritual hand washing. At the tops of the left margin is the blessing over the wine. This follows the blessings in the text for the commandments regarding bread and bitter herbs, for wine, and for bread. On the bottom margin of page 56 a man hold the broken matzah, and at the top of page 57, a man shows maror. At the bottom of page 57, a male holds both matzah and maror with the word Koreich printed beside him. This is the sandwich of matzah and maror on the list of elements of the modern Passover.

On page 58, is another picture of a hand washing and at the bottom a woman passes a piece of matzah to a male. At the top if page 59, the third paneled word, Shefokh appears. This passage is quite interesting it asks God to pour out his wrath against the nations of the earth who do not know him. This was included as a statement against all the evil that had been done to the Jews over time. The panel again has a double border with unpainted background. Within the border is a design of brown on yellow. At the bottom of the page is a male reading the Shefokh.

On page 62, Psalm 116 begins followed by Psalm 117 on the next page. At the bottom of this page (63), is a man wrapped in a tallis19, pointing to the text. The last psalm, beginning with Hodu (Thank) is 118 at the bottom of the page. On page 64, another catchword is found which is repeated at the top of page 65. At the bottom of 65 is a group of men walking into a building with battlements and arches, at the top of which are the sun and moon and two towers. This may reflect the phrase in the text above about the singing of the righteous.

On page 66 a man in a tallis points to the words in a book he is showing. They mimic the words above referring to appeal to save us. At the bottom of the next page is a male holding a cup once again. On page 67 a man holds a cup of wine beneath the blessing for wine. On page 68 in large letter is printed Hodu (Thank). This is not paneled but is decorated with leaves and swirls in yellow. The print as usual is black. This begins Psalm 136. The psalm continues through page 70.

On page 71 is the fourth paneled leading word, Neshmat20, surrounded by leaves in red and green and topped by intertwined dragons of pink and green with tails that blend into

19 A tallis is a prayer shawl trimmed by ritually prescribed fringes. It was traditionally worn by men during certain daily prayers and at festivals. 20 Breath or spirit.

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the border surrounding the word. This continues through page 75.On page 76 a man holds the text for the next prayer beginning with ha-el on a lectern. He again wears a tallis.

At the bottom of page 78 is a man again with a cup of wine – and on page 79 a man in a tallis reads at a lectern. Next follows the response, “It came to pass at midnight.” It ends with a catchword at the bottom of page 80 followed on 81. On page 84, the fifth paneled word begins Ometz21. This paneled word has a background of orange leaves on a yellow ground. The border is trimmed with trefoils. This continues through page 87.

On page 88, the ki li vaed 22responsa begins. This ends on page 92. At the bottom of this page is a male with another cup of wine and another man beckoning to the group of men on page 93. The words on page 92 end the ki li vaed. Immediately at the end is the phrase, Leshannah habah b’yrushalayim, “Next year in Jerusalem.” The Haggadah ends with the blessing of the last cup of wine. There is small script in brown following the ending of the blessing on page 92 which may be another prayer.

On page 93 is the second full page illustration showing a group of four men beckoning to a fifth who stands in what appears to be a synagogue. It may also represent the world to come. On page 94 a prayer continues or it may be an additional psalm or song. It may also follow the traditional prayer that God will soon build his house. (The script is semi cursive and very difficult to decipher).

THE GOLDEN HAGGADAH23

The Golden is a 14th century Spanish Haggadah (probably completed in 1320). It comprises three parts: 14 full page miniatures, a decorated Haggadah text, and 100 Passover piyyutim.24 The book is 2.7 cm x 19.5 cm or 9.7 by 7.7 inches. There are 102 folios of which100 are vellum. The first and last folios are paper fly-leaves, part of the 17th century, blind-tooled leather binding which is morocco. The arrangement is typical of Spanish illuminated Haggadot and the artwork is based on Latin Psalters of the period.Unlike the Bird’s Head, the Golden has two sets of full page miniatures. However, once the story begins, the illustrator of the Golden did not add illustrations to the pages on which there was text. He decorated and empanelled the letters, but that was all. These letters and panels are much more elegant that that found in the Bird’s Head. The drawings of people and animals are refined and delicate (particularly when the second artist takes over.)

21 Courage.22 His love endures forever.23 The details here were gratefully lifted from Narkiss (1997). A further suggestion for this part would have been a segment by segment comparison of the rituals and prayers with the BH.24 One such hymn is the well-known Dayeinu that is sung close to the midpoint of the Haggadah. Three additional Passover Piyyutim were appended to the Haggadah in the Middle Ages -- although they were composed in an earlier period. The refrains of these Hebrew hymns are "It Happened At Midnight," "Say It Is The Passover Offering," and "Praise Is His Due."

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Folios 2v – 15 contain representations of the biblical story of the Exodus.Folios 24v – 55v contain the text of the Haggadah according to the Sephardic rite and customs. These include:Benediction over washing the hands after drinking the first cup of wine. This is not recited in other rites.References to using a basket instead of a plate (as in Ashkenazi rites) to hold the symbolic food on the Seder table. In one miniature, a father places the basket of matzot on his son’s head.There are also special Sephardic variations of the text , for example a variant for reciting This bread of affliction – Ha lahma anya in Aramaic – rather than the Hebrew. It has only one verse for the (Pour out thy wrath) and a short version of the Hallel – without the augmented section of Neshmat (The breath of all beings).

The collection of piyyutim is divided into two sections. The first section precedes the text of the Haggadah and the second section follows it. In the latter, the piyyutim are mixed with the biblical and Mishnaic readings for the entire week of Passover; these also include some special Sephardic piyyutim that do not appear in the Ashkenazi versions.

According to Narkiss (1969), the three parts of the Golden may have been executed in different workshops. All three parts are the same size, and are bound together in one volume. Most of the 13 quires consist of 8 leaves each. The thickness of the parchment differs in each part and the text differs slightly in the type of script, ink, number of lines per page and in the spaces allotted for text and miniatures.

The text of the Haggadah is written in Sephardic script in large bold square letters with 10 lines per page in dark brown ink. The piyyutim are written in small delicate square Sephardic script letters. There are 26 lines and 2 columns per page in light brown ink. The text of the Exodus story is preceded by 12 full pages of illustrations, a blank page and a coat of arms.

One of the added elements was a Coat of Arms. The Gallico emblem (added for the marriage of a daughter to the first recorded owner of the Golden) is a cockerel facing a corn stalk with a crescent and 6-pointed star. The motto comes from Jacob’s blessing of Judah. This might be a reference to the Rava’s descent from the tribe of Judah. The oval emblem is supported by two naked mermaids in profile, an elaborate base and a sun (with a face) as the crest.

There are other additions on the originally blank folios. One is a poem in rhyme that may have been composed by Rabbi Gallico, and the last folio, 15v, contains a cabbalist’s interpretation of some of the symbols of the Passover Seder. These folios all have a gold band border surrounded by dense ochre leaves.

An Italian censor, Fr Luigi da Bologna signed the last page of the manuscript in February of 1599. In 1597, Luigi da Bologna, a convert to Christianity and a Dominican monk became an expurgator of Hebrew books in the district of Modena. He stated that he revised the book in Feb 1599, but other censors had to expurgate the Haggadah again

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since the Pope did not trust Luigi’s work. These expurgators were Camillo Jaghel in1613 and Renato da Modena in1626. They also signed their names on the last page.

A title page was added in 1602 in Carpi Italy.

Up to Folio 9, the pages were illustrated by the first of two artists, a lesser skilled artist.The first artist has shorter stocky figures, bush-like trees and exaggerated facial expressions.

With the second artist, the focus shifts to scenes from Exodus starts with the rescue of infant Moses by Pharaoh’s daughter. This is similar to pictures in13th and 14th century Latin Bibles which suggests a common model was used. Various Jewish legendary elements that are present in the Golden are also found in Christian gothic manuscripts.Most of the following are of the Exodus from Egypt departure showing Moses in leadership but Moses is not mentioned anywhere in the text. All references to him were removed following a theological dispute in the 8th century. This second artist is far more skilled than the first: he handles space better (perspective), his trees look like trees, and his figures are more similar to the elegant Northern French Gothic figures seen in Christian manuscripts. The ongoing conflict on the next two pages results in a series of plagues. In the last two full page miniatures, the artist concentrates on two things: the joyful departure from Egypt and the preparation for the meal.

Order of the Passover Ritual in the Golden (Selected pages)25

The text is written in square Sephardic script with initial words for sections decorated with panels. The letters are in color or gold or silver and are enclosed in panels or just written on the vellum. Medieval scribes used a reed pen called a calmus which produced fine letters with distinctions between upstrokes (in terms of thickness) and were very flexible.

Pages 17, 18, 19 with 20 (blank)

There are three pages of zoomorphic decorations of letters which are part of initial word. These were used in both Medieval and nonMedieval manuscripts and had Middle Eastern origins: Persia, Syria, and Palestine. A red initial word is interpreted: “And you shall tell your son.”

Pages 21, 22A common decoration in Spanish Haggadot is the arrangement in columns of the words form the thanksgiving song the Dayeinu. The original use of this song is in an 11th century fragment from the Gineza. A golden word introduces the song, “How many benefits has God granted us? “

Pages 23, 24 (blank).

25 The numbering is from the British Library’s Turning the Pages website.

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The full page matzah. In Italian and German manuscripts, the matzah is sometimes shown being held by men, but in Spanish Haggadot the depictions can be very large and take up a whole page as in the Golden.

P 25, 26 (blank)Maror, the bitter herb is given one whole page. The decorated matzah and maror are regarded as the oldest illustrations placed in Haggadot texts. This maror could be lettuce or an artichoke.

P 27, 28Psalms 113 – 118 are recited on Passover eve and other Passover occasions with special attention to Exodus in Psalm 114. This page displays the beginning of the praise – the Halel for praise the Lord! Halelu jah: these two words are in gold letters within a highly decorated block. The lameds (letters L) extend beyond the block.

P 29, 30The lamed divides and frames the text. A second magenta and blue panel contains the words lo lanu – which means not us – beginning the verse – “Not to us oh Lord, not to us”. The first word of the whole passage is “Pour out thy wrath.”

Page 31, 32Liturgical Poems (piyyutim) which accompanied the ritual prayers. The Golden contains about 100 poems. Many of the authors of the poems in this manuscript are famous poets of Medieval Spain including Judah Halevi, Abraham Ibn Ezra and Solomon Ibn Gabirol.

What is the meaning of the Haggadah in history?

The invention of writing and the decision to transmit practices in written form, rather than strictly via oral transmission, has resulted in a wealth of information about long dead cultures. But in some cases, it has acted to preserve the cultures and allowed them to remain vibrant.

While it is often said that it was not the Jews that kept the Torah (first five books of the Bible) alive, but the Torah that kept the Jews alive, it may be that the story of the Exodus and the retelling of that story has been even more important in that survival. Even those who do not study Torah (and don’t attend the synagogue), know the Exodus story. An incredibly astute (and ancient) requirement for retelling of the story from parent to child has passed traditions from generation to generation throughout the loss of homelands and often all that a family had. It is the ritual-telling within a family that is as important if not more important as that which is primarily read or studied in the synagogue. This method connects the Jewish people not only with Moses and the miracles, it also connects them with mother, father, sister, brother, aunts and uncles: the whole mishpacha.26 Even some

26 Family, literally, but to me it as always meant the whole group (friends, other members of one’s tribe).

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Jews who no longer participate in many of the elements of the organized religion continue to recognize and retell the story. Most amazing is the faithful presentation of the story through centuries even though different artistic models were used. Even when Christian icons or miniatures were used as models, Jewish scribes were able to avoid using Christological references and present their own interpretations of shared scripture.

For all it is a tale of hard times which have dogged the Jewish people for centuries, culminating in the near destruction of European Jews during the Shoah27 of the Second World War. The Haggadah allowed the Jews to cry out against the mistreatment they endured during those times when they had no safe haven. While the story was literally about the struggles that were far-removed from the location in which the retelling took place, the Egyptians became the local rulers who made life hard or the Inquisition or the local community that forced them into locked ghettoes. The Jewish people could cry and protest and mourn without committing a form of open protest that might have been deadly28. They could even engage in calling for retribution (possibly even with the doors open so the neighbors might hear – hey, it’s just some crazy old stuff our ancestors did).To say nothing is not only psychologically diminishing, it is deadly. Not to protest ill treatment is to die in the soul: a worse death than the physical one.

More than that, however, it is a tale filled with hope. It speaks of redemption from foes and the joys of freedom. It looks forward to the reclaiming of Jerusalem and the future when all will meet there. Passover has been an element of Jewish culture since the 1st century CE, at least. Though elements of the practice have been modified many times, the basic ritual has been in place since before the Middle Ages. Not only do the Jewish people feel connected around the world (since the celebration occurs on the same day), but as with many other traditions, they have felt connected beyond time with other Jews who have kept the tradition alive for hundreds of years. Next Year in Jerusalem has been a fervent hope for many. It goes beyond the hope for a homeland. It wishes for all a place in the world of peace to come.

References

27 Holocaust or, more literally, calamity.28 The fact that the Golden was signed by several Christian-mandated examiners makes the presence of the Shefokh, the prayer for retribution, even more interesting. It should be recalled that the Shefokh was shorter in length in the Golden as opposed to the Bird’s Head, where there is no mention of examiners.

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Ashkenazi Haggadah (1985). A Hebrew manuscript of the mid 15th century from the collection of the British Library. (Facsimile) Trans. by David Golden, London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd.

Beit-Arie, M. (1988). How Hebrew manuscripts are made. (In) a sign and a witness: 2000 years of Hebrew Books and illuminated manuscripts. (Ed.) Gold, L.S. NY: New York Public Library.

The Bird’s Head Haggadah of the Bezalel National Art Museum in Jerusalem: Facsimile Volume (1965). Jerusalem: Tarshish Books.

Bokser, B.M. (1984). The origins of the Seder: The Passover rite and early rabbinic Judaism. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Cohen, E. M. (1988) The Decoration of Medieval Hebrew Manuscripts (in) A Sign and AWitness: 2000 Years of Hebrew Books and Illuminated Manuscripts (Ed) Gold,

L.S.. (1988) NY: New York Public Library

Gutman, J. (1978). Hebrew manuscript painting. New York: George Braziller

Goodman, P. (1961). The Passover anthology. Philadelphia, PA: The Jewish Publication Society of America.

Holy Bible (1952) Revised Standard Version. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons.

Kogman-Appel, K. (2001) Jewish art and non-Jewish culture: The dynamics of artistic borrowing in Medieval Hebrew manuscript illumination. Jewish History 15: pp 187-234.

Metzger, T & Metzger, M. (1982) Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. Secaucus, NJ: Chartwell Books.

Narkiss, B. (1997) The Golden Haggadah. (Facsimile). Rohnert Park, CA: Pomengranate Artbooks.

Narkiss, B. (1969) Hebrew illuminated manuscripts. New York: Leon Amiel, Publisher.

A sign and a witness: 2000 years of Hebrew books and illuminated manuscripts (1988), Gold, L.S (Ed.). NY: New York Public Library

Sirat, C. (2002) Hebrew Manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge, U.K. University Press.

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Stahl, N. (2001). The early printed Passover Haggadah: A tale of four cities: Prague, Mantua, Venice, Amsterdam. Paper presented at 64th IFLA General Conference

   August 16 - August 21, 1998.

Yale Haggadah Exhibit Hall. Retrieved on April 24, 2008 from http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/exhibits/haggadah/index.html

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