Companions for Readerly Journeys among Jms and Judaism

Graham Harvey

The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995, pp. 644, €25

The Jews of Egypt from Rameses I1 to Emperor Hadrian, Joseph Meleze Modrzejewski, T. & T. Clark 1995, pp. xxii + 282, €24.95

Judaism in Modem Times: An Introduction and Reader, Jacob Neusner, Blackwell 1995, pp. xviii + 254, €40

Contemporary Jewish Ethics and Morality: A Reader, Elliott N. Dorff and Louis E. Newman (eds), Oxford University Press 1995, pp. xiv + 470, €17.50

The subject matter of these four books is neither identical nor exactly complementary. One is a history of a discrete period and location in Jewish history. Another introduces ethical arguments, approaches and responses of contemporary Jews. A third tells us all about the diversities of Judaism itself - or Judaisms themselves? - in the modern world. The fourth is a companion to wider reading about Jews and Judaism. None of these books requires reference to the others. For example, an understanding of contemporary Jewish ethics does not require reference to ancient Jewish history or to a detailed analysis of the differences between Reform and Orthodox Judaisms. What then justifies discussing these volumes in a single article? Together they illustrate the wide scope of Jewish Studies; they exemplify the vitality of the field and their disagreements show that no single approach is sufficient to the task of studying Judaism as the lived experience of Jews.

Jacob Neusner is well known within Jewish Studies, especially for his detailed examinations and presentations of Rabbinic litera- ture. Having written over 500 books he must be considered a primary authority on Rabbinic Judaism from its inception to today. The present work complements some of his more recent studies and discussions of the diversities of modem Judaism. Having established the defining characteristics of Rabbinic Judaism and

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clarified the structure and interpretation of authoritative texts (especially the Mishnah, Tosefta and Talmud) he now examines the evolution of Judaism beyond the Enlightenment.

Rabbinic Judaism arose out of a period of diversity and only slowly became 'Orthodoxy'. Having achieved this position its literature remained singularly authoritative for Jews and Judaism in almost every area of life for many centuries. Emancipation for Jews came abruptly with the European Enlightenment - although it was not efficacious everywhere instantly. Once the Christian vision of Christendom was challenged and humanity could legitimately ask previously impossible questions about freedom and authority, the place of Jews and Judaism had to change. Neusner is less interested, however, in questions raised among Christians about scriptural support for anti-Semitism, than in what Jews thought and did about the Enlightenment. He asserts that Jews lived among themselves because it made sense for them to do so - not only or even primarily because Christians insisted on ghettos. The earliest Rabbinic texts celebrate patience as a supreme virtue and means of survival. The Mishnah and Talmud ignore armies and weapons and refuse to encourage the expectation of imminent messianic intervention against pagan or Christian Rome. They seem to say, live quietly among yourselves, wait patiently, trouble from non- Jews is neither remarkable nor important, God is more interested in your careful study of Torah and conduct among yourselves.

The Enlightenment suggested a new relationship between Jews and non-Jews. Instead of regular and unremarkable opposition Jews were slowly recognized as equal citizens in the countries in which they lived. Instead of divinely sanctioned (i.e. arbitrary) divisions between people, the Enlightenment slowly spread the idea of the equality of all people (once it was decided what 'people' or, more usually, 'men' meant). Once allowed access to previously restricted careers and opportunities, Jews had to decide if they were going to participate, on what grounds, with what effects and with what self-imposed limits.

This is the context in which Reform Judaism arose. Two other modern Judaisms - Orthodox and Conservative - reacted both to the new freedom and to Reform in different ways. Having described the period and effects of the Enlightenment, Neusner introduces each of these varieties and then provides a reading by way of illustration, example and flavour. Valuable as these short extracts are, the book might have been improved by a list of books for 'further reading' at each section.

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Modernity, of course, includes the twentieth century too. So far, Neusner’s book has introduced movements which began in the last century and continue to be significant. What is perhaps the most novel part of these movements is that they are options for Jews - the previous eras did not offer Jews many options. In part two of his book, Neusner discusses three more optional Judaisms of vital significance in this century: Zionism, Jewish Socialism and Yiddishism, and the ‘American Judaism of Holocaust and Remembrance’. Europe did not turn out to be as friendly, welcoming or safe as it appeared to some Jews at the height of Emancipation. The Holocaust showed that secular people could be as implacably anti-Jewish as religious people. Perhaps more so: at least Christian anti-Semites wanted to keep some Jews (and the memory of Judaism) alive as an example of what ‘culpable rebellion’ and ‘divine rejection’ looked like. In various ways con- temporary Jews (religiously or not) respond to the twentieth century’s changed situation. Some say Jews can (and therefore should) live as Jews only among other Jews but now in ’their own land‘ and not at all in ghettos. Others say Jews can (and therefore should) live as Jews among other people, recognizing class oppres- sion and the need for labour solidarity and participation in the struggle for true emancipation. Others say Jews can live among non-Jews carefully, only by remembering the Holocaust and expecting Redemption. None of these options attempts to return to pre-Enlightenment times, neither are they incompatible with more ’religious’ options (Reform, Orthodox, Conservative, etc.).

In parts this is an exciting book, but sometimes suffers from being repetitive. It is certainly an important book which should be debated and become required reading for students of contempor- ary Judaism.

Louis Jacobs’ Companion, The Iewisk Religion, is very different from Neusner‘s Reader. Its chief aim is said to be, ‘to help readers, Jewish and non-Jewish, to grasp more fully ideas and terms they encounter in works on the Jewish religion‘. In a short introduction Jacobs explains his approach both in selecting subjects and in presenting them. He also sketches what he means by ’the Jewish Religion‘, briefly surveys ‘Judaism and Modernity’ and acknow- ledges that while he has tried to be objective he is a committed member of Conservative or Masorti Judaism.

The ‘Jewish Religion’, or Judaism, for the purposes of the Companion, as revealed by the first things Jacobs says about it, is the historical experience of the Jewish people. It has a series of

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sacred texts, collectively embraced as divinely revealed or sanc- tioned ’teaching’ (this is how Torah is interpreted). Jacobs says Judaism has ‘three basic concepts’ (formulated more by mystics than legislators, teachers or prophets) which are, ’God, the Torah, and Israel’. These can, of course, be understood in different ways, which might lend support to Jacob Neusner’s plural Judaisms rather than Louis Jacobs’ singular ’Jewish Religion‘. Jacobs does not ignore the diversity, many entries in the Companion refer to different traditions, but perhaps his work implicitly claims too much coherence and underplays the historical (and not only con- temporary) divergences.

All of this informs the breadth of subjects covered and the way he discusses them. Anyone thinking about Judaism might expect entries on ’Cain and Abel’, ‘Calendar’ and ’Candles’ - the first three entries under C. The fact that half the ‘Cain and Abel’ entry concerns the biblical narrative rather than what Jews have made of it might support the misleading stereotype of Jews as biblical characters. The first three entries under A (‘Aaron’, ‘Abba’ and ’Abbaye and Rava’) will not surprise anyone who knows that Judaism has a large corpus of sacred texts in which priests and rabbis are important. Articles on ’Rabbis’ and ‘Priests’ (printed before the article on ’Pride’) explain these roles (or lack of them). Clearly Jacobs is aware that Christians will read his Companion: he notes that ’Abba’ does not mean ‘Daddy’ as some preachers on Jesus‘ words claim. The fourth article under A is ‘Abortion’ and illustrates a Jewish approach to ethical issues. Authoritative sources are studied for relevant decrees, decisions or opinions; arguments about the nature of humanity are adduced (again drawing on traditional understandings and not initially on more contemporary opinions) and a diversity of situations are discussed. This article also illustrates a problem with the Companion. Jacobs often suggests some titles for further reading, but these are generally scant and dated (here a single book from 1974). In the introduction he draws attention to the fact that he often cites his own more detailed works on particular issues. This is not a problem, though he implies that some might think it is. His other works are frequently well argued (if not always to everyone’s liking) and do provide valuable discussions. Admirably, he says that he refers to works with a different point of view from his own. He also acknowledges that some issues are already well covered in other encyclopaedias. Consistency, either in citing or ignoring other works, might have been preferable. The impression given is that

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Jacobs sometimes hurriedly grabbed a book from his shelf and stuck it in the bibliography. The six-page final section on Reference Works does not entirely satisfy. It will not, for example, escape notice that there is little reference to the works of Jacob Neusner - despite ample opportunities provided both by Neusner’s vast out- put and by Jacobs’ reference to other (more conservative?) authors.

The letter P illustrates Jacobs‘ interest in subjects that might not come to the minds of most people thinking about Judaism, as well as his provision of brief entries for subjects so obvious to Jews (observant ones anyway) that they might not think to look. The first four entries are ’Palestine’, ’ Panentheism’, ‘Parapet’ and ’Parveh‘. Palestine, we are told, is a non-Jewish word for a land (Jacobs makes no comment on its reference to a hoped-for state for some of the non-Jewish population of ’the land’). Panentheism is a theologi- cal word and as such should give the lie to those who think Judaism has no interest in theology but only in practice. Cross references to Spinoza and Habad Hasidism are suggestive of con- texts in which people might come across the word ’ panentheism‘ and require a Jewish explanation. Otherwise, its occurrence (and that of ’Parapet‘) suggests that Jacobs expects people to dip in and out of the Companion, discovering things that fascinate them as they go (perhaps like surfers on the Internet?). ’Parveh‘ is pre- sumably there for non-Jewish readers or non-observant Jews, perhaps those who have just returned from browsing supermarket shelves (food-surfing?).

This is not an expensive book for its size and should not be rele- gated to Reference sections of academic libraries. Its enthusiasm and the array of subjects covered to some extent mitigate its weak- nesses in some areas.

Elliot Dorff and Louis Newman’s Reader in Con temporary Jewish Ethics and Morality has a very different focus from the other books discussed. In common with them, however, it is based on con- temporary trends among Jews who are ’reevaluating and reappro- priating important aspects of Jewish tradition’. There are different values placed on different aspects of traditions, and different traditions are appropriated or rejected differently. This Reader does not present a single view of ethics or morality (i.e. Orthodox, Reform or Conservative; or Aristotelian, Utilitarian or post- modernist). Where Neusner’s book was more an Introduction than a Reader, Dorff and Newman’s is a Reader pure and simple. There are brief introductions to the book and to each of its two parts, but this is a collection of articles covering a range of ethical and moral

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discussions. What makes them Jewish? First, the fact that they are written by and for Jews. Secondly and fundamentally, the fact that these ethical positions (however various) depend on the values of 'those religious authorities of the past whose teachings are pre- served in classical Jewish religious literature'. This is important for reasons which will be immediately obvious to ethicists: the Western tradition of ethics has been a quest for a universal point of view, an objective statement of ethical living for all people. The thinkers included here do not in any way evidence a retreat into a ghetto where only Jewish thoughts can be thought, only Jewish deeds done and only Jewish books be written or studied. If there were a citation index it would reveal the fact that Jewish ethics are debated in the context of all other possible ethical views. Indeed, there are various Jewish ethics just as there are various Judaisms and also various ethical approaches.

The editors explain that although Jewish ethics normally proceed from specific cases to generalizations, they have placed the section on theory (ethics) before that on practice (morality). They believe that their intended readers ought to be acquainted with the distinc- tive foundations and approaches of Jewish ethics before exploring particular, specific situations and norms.

The articles reprinted here address the literature and context of Jewish ethics, theoretical issues in traditional Jewish ethics, and their reconceptualization in modern times. Four articles on medical ethics illustrate methodological problems; three more explore 'alternative visions' of Jewish ethics. The first of these faces the difficulties of being ethical during and after the Holocaust. The second discusses Levinas' views of relation of Jewish tradition to the non-Jewish world and the third concerns feminist Jewish ethics.

The second part, concerned with practical ethics, or morality, is also divided into five sections. They explore traditional values and virtues (e.g. humility); perspectives on sex, gender and family; social problems such as ecology, economics, and capital punish- ment; medical ethics (primarily euthanasia and abortion); and politics and power with special reference to the State of Israel.

The diverse approaches illustrated here encapsulate the situation of American Jewry today (complementing Jacob Neusner's analysis). In addition to the Judaisms which respond in one way or another to the claims of Jewish sacred literature, Jewish ethics is debated in the shadow of Auschwitz. It is clearly not possible to discuss euthanasia, abortion, medical research, or the State's assertion of its right to use force, without considering their ( a b b e

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by the Nazis. The various voices of this section should be heard in debate and not taken to be conclusive either singly or in total.

This debate is part of Jewish ethics and of Judaism itself, which the epilogue encapsulates as an interlinked trilogy of creation- revelation-redemption. Some of the ethical implications of this trilogy, itself rooted in Jewish liturgy, are drawn out. ‘Creation identifies who we are . . . Revelation bespeaks the nature of our covenantal relationship to God . . . redemption adumbrates our ultimate hopes.’ Similar themes (‘the nature of people, their relationships and goals’) might be seen as central to all ethics. Jewish ethics is built on a different narrative from the Christian one of ’sin and salvation’ and requires its own careful reading.

This Reader is an invaluable and significant contribution to the understanding of Judaism, of Jewish ethics and of ethics in the con- temporary world. If its gaze is firmly on the twentieth century, its roots are deep in Jewish history, literature and experience.

Modrzejewski‘s book carefully examines one of those roots: Jewish life in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. Hellenistic Egypt was, as Shaye Cohen notes in a Foreword, a ‘golden age‘ for Jews, rivalled only by their experience in Islamic Spain and Renaissance Italy. During it some Jews were able to achieve a considerable degree of parity with leading non-Jews. Too many studies of ancient Judaism mention only one significant character from this period, namely Philo, often treating him only as an exemplar of ‘Hellenistic’ Judaism in contrast to ‘Palestinian’ Judaism. Whether this is apt or not, Modrzejewski’s study reveals a far richer situa- tion. The religious diversity, geographical spread and cultural achievements of Egyptian Jewry have remained obscure for too long. These are revealed, almost in passing, in The Jews of Egypt .

The major part of this book concerns Ptolemaic Egypt (chapters before that might be skipped without loss). A further section details the rapid decline of Jewish fortunes under the Roman Empire. The ’twilight’ metaphor for this section is only appropriate if it is borne in mind that an Egyptian twilight is far more brief than a north European one. It is a pity that there are no further chapters devoted to Islamic Egypt.

The primary focus of this book is ’social change and institutional history’. With reference to a rich array of primary sources (inscrip- tions, marriage contracts, letters, tax receipts, polemics and others) Modrzejewski describes the acceptance of Jews among ‘Hellenes’, Greek-speaking settlers and colonists. He discusses their transla- tion of the Torah, their temples, prayer houses and other institu-

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tions. An important chapter discusses anti-Semitism, asking, ‘is dislike of Jews as agents of domination the same as hatred of Jews as Jews? Modrzejewski‘s answer is not entirely convincing, but his argument is not based solely on a defence of Christianity against the charge of having invented anti-Semitism.

This is a significant, well-written and carefully illustrated work which deserves a wide audience. It will be of interest to students of ancient Judaism and accessible to more general readers.

These four books individually illustrate the vitality of Judaism. Together they illustrate the richness of Jewish Studies. The question, ’who is a Jew?’ (or ’what is Judaism?) is raised by reading each of them - and becomes inescapable when all four are considered. If ’Judaism’ is described by any one of these books, what is the role of the others? Are Jews interesting because of the antiquity of their sources or the richness of their history, or is there something more contemporary about them? Can Judaism relate to modernity (or postmodernity) without merely reiterating ancient texts? Is Judaism one thing (‘the Jewish religion‘) or many (‘Judaisms’)? Has it always been like this? Should it continue to be like this? These books remain valuable without answering ques- tions that they only implicitly raise. Their significance is in what they set out to say, and say clearly and with some enthusiasm.

Graham Harvey is Lecturer in Religious Studies at King Alfred’s College of Higher Education, Winchester

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