Commom Wealth

8/2/2019 Commom Wealth

1/105

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of Study

Since 1960 when Nigeria gained independence from Britain, she has

been an active member of the Commonwealth and has hosted two

Commonwealth Heads of State General Meetings (CHOGM).

Nigerias commitment and activeness in the Commonwealth bore fruit

with the appointment of Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, as the Secretary-

General of the Commonwealth for two consecutive terms of 5 years

(1990-2000) during the Kuala Lumpur CHOGM in Malaysia in 1990.

The Commonwealth has also cooperated with Nigeria in diverse

projects and activities such as sports, education, exchange

programmes, capacity building, political activities such as elections

monitoring, as well as other areas of common interest. It is therefore

on this note that a research on the Commonwealth-Nigeria relations is

necessitated.


2/105

1.2 Statement of Problem

Nigeria had been very active in the Commonwealth until her

suspension in November 1995, for gross and flagrant abuse of human

rights by the General Sani Abacha-led military junta. However, there

is still a dearth of knowledge on the activities of the Commonwealth

in Nigeria, despite the numerous programmes being undertaken or

funded by the Commonwealth. This study therefore aims to make a

conscious attempt at knowing whether Nigerias membership of the

British Commonwealth has had any direct or indirect impact upon her

current level of development or not. As such, a ten-year period from

1999-2009, which incidentally marks ten successive years of

uninterrupted democratic governance, shall be studied.

1.3 Research Questions

The following shall serve as the research questions

a) How has the Commonwealth been able to impact upon sustainable

development in her relationship with Nigeria?

b) Which specific sectors of the Nigerian economy has the

Commonwealth impacted sustainable development?


3/105

c) What role does Nigerias relationship with the Commonwealth play

in her foreign policy?

1.4 Objectives of Study

The major purpose of the study is to examine the benefits, if any, that

Nigeria enjoyed or is enjoying, by virtue of her membership of the

British Commonwealth. The study equally seeks to achieve the

following:

To examine how the Commonwealth has aided sustainable

development in Nigeria or not.

To find out whether Nigeria is able to play a role in the

Commonwealth committee of nations.

To examine the role of the Commonwealth among her member

nations.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following shall serve as the hypothesis for the conduct of this

research:


4/105

a) That the Commonwealth has impacted upon sustainable

development in Nigeria

b) That Commonwealth relations with Nigeria has impacted on

specific sectors in the economy

c) That Nigerias relations with the Commonwealth plays an

important role in her foreign policy.

1.6 Significance of the Study

In this study, attempts would be made to examine the Commonwealth

and sustainable development in Nigeria. This study is significant in

that its findings would enable Nigerian policymakers, as well as the

general public, know how the Commonwealth, under the leadership of

Britain has been able to impact Nigerias development over the years,

from one phase to another.

1.7 The Scope/Limitations of the Study

This study will focus on the Commonwealth and its impact on

sustainable development in Nigeria. Sectoral study would focus on the

academia, social services, and manpower development. The period

under consideration would be 1999-2009. The main limitation of this


5/105

study is the inadequacy of core and relevant literature on the case-

study

1.8 Research Methodology

This study would employ a descriptive analysis method. It entails a

logical analysis of relevant literature using descriptive means. This

method was chosen due to the fact that the data collection method will

be mainly via secondary sources. The secondary method involves data

collection from newspapers, magazines, journals, textbooks, and also

the internet. It is pertinent to note that the Commonwealth

headquarters is at Malborough House, the United Kingdom, and for

logistical purposes, a visit would not be feasible. Sources for research

materials would include recent newspapers, magazines, journals,

textbooks, and also the internet.

1.9 Literature Review

Akinrinade (1993) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to the

desire of the then British Empire to maintain cordial diplomatic


6/105

relations with her ex-colonies, which were swiftly gaining political

independence. He further argued that the Commonwealth was never

created in the traditional manner, by which statesmen would gather to

found an international organization, as was the case with the United

Nations, the organization of African Unity, etc. The Commonwealth

merely evolved from Britains historical ties with her former colonies.

He further shed light on the organizational framework of the

Commonwealth as he noted that the Commonwealth does not have a

charter like most international organizations do. Instead, members

subscribe to a series of principles, declarations and statements which

include; the Declaration of the Commonwealth Principles (Singapore,

1971), the Gleneagles Agreement (the Commonwealth declaration on

Apartheid in Sports, 1977), the Lusaka Declaration on Racism and

Racial Prejudice (1979), the Goa Declaration on International Security

(1983), the Vancouver Declaration on World Trade (1987), amongst

others. These helped define the Commonwealth as a loose association

of states sharing similar values, and united by the pursuit of common

goals. Before 1965, there was no formal Commonwealth system in

place, and the British government, through the Commonwealth

Relations Office (CRO), a department of State of the British


7/105


8/105

the dominions- Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and

Newfoundland. The first of these meetings (also known as colonial

conferences) was held in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victorias

Golden Jubilee. The next meeting was hosted by the Canadian

government, thereby setting the tone for the rotational principle in the

hosting of the Commonwealth Head of Government Meetings. The

1926 meeting was highly significant for the evolution and future

direction of the Commonwealth as it witnessed the demand for

independence by South Africa, led by her newly elected Prime

Minister, J.B.M Hertzog. Former British Prime Minister Lord Arthur

Balfour finally came up with a definition of the relationship between

the Britain and her colonies when he described the dominions as

autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status,

and in no way subordinate to one another, freely associating as

members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. This

revolutionary definition resulted in greater consensus building and

unity amongst the Commonwealth states, thereby furthering peace and

cooperation.

Oshuntokun (2004) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to 1867,

when Canada attained a dominion status. The Statute of Westminster


9/105

was passed in 1931, and between then and 1946, the loose union of

Britain and her colonies (dominions) was known as the British

Commonwealth of Nations. The British adjective was removed in

1946 and the association became known officially as the

Commonwealth of Nations. It was known as a free association of

sovereign ex-colonies comprising Great Britain and some of her

dependencies, who had chosen to maintain ties of friendship and

cooperation and also recognized the British monarch as their symbolic

head.

The bonds of friendship within the Commonwealth are very diverse.

Whilst some states feel bound by common judicial and educational

systems, for others, it is the use of English language as official means

of communication. Ties in the commonwealth are further strengthened

by trade and investment, sports, currency systems, migration, political

association, etc. These links and relations were then further

consolidated by the creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1965

in London. Therefore, relations that were initiated between Britain

and her white dominions swiftly metamorphosed into a multiracial

organization of fifty-four nations and territories, breaking barriers of

race, culture, religion, ideology, beliefs, and language. It should also


10/105

be noted that the recent addition of Cameroun and Mozambique to the

Commonwealth fold has broadened membership beyond historical

and imperial links with Great Britain.

Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth after gaining

independence in 1960 was political/diplomatic and also economically

motivated. As at 1959, diverse political leaders such as Chief Obafemi

Awolowo, Alhaji Tafawa Balewa had consistently made calls for, and

argued for Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth. It was

believed that this would help give Nigeria a voice in global politics, as

well as enable the usage of the Commonwealth as a platform for the

advancement and achievement of Nigerias foreign policy objectives,

which were broadly targeted at the total liberation of Africa from the

clutches of colonialism and apartheid. This work exhaustively

discussed Nigerias relations with the Commonwealth, discussing its

origins, as well as foreign policy-related benefits derived due to

Nigerias membership.

Adeleke (2004) attempted and attributed it to national interest,

economic motives - trade and financial flow patterns, historic

tradition, and elite acculturation and orientation. The Balewa


11/105


12/105


13/105

with greater political and socio-economic benefits accruable to

Nigeria on the long run.

Asobie (1993) believed that Nigeria enjoys an overwhelming

advantage by virtue of her membership of the Commonwealth. This,

he claims, is due to the fact that the Commonwealth recognizes the

economic needs and objectives of developing countries and does its

best to support them. He further argued that Nigeria should make

more attempts at exploiting the vast opportunities (political, economic

and otherwise) the Commonwealth presents, and asserts that Nigeria

has benefitted a great deal from the Commonwealth, using it to pursue

and attain foreign policy objectives such as the dismantling of the

abusive apartheid regime in South Africa, the expulsion of

colonialism from Southern Africa, as well as other benefits such as

obtaining scholarship for Nigerian citizens, diplomatic support on

international issues, fellowships and technical assistance from other

Commonwealth member countries, access to assistance for

development and rehabilitation of Nigerian industries, access to

financial assistance, etc.


14/105

Oshuntokun (2004) commended the profitability of Nigerias

membership of the Commonwealth, arguing in the process that

Nigeria has received as much as she has given in her relations with the

organization. He further contended that the importance of the

Commonwealth to Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. The

Commonwealth is made up by almost two billion people, that is, one

in every three people in the world today is a citizen of the

Commonwealth. The Commonwealth also has a global reach as it has

member states in every continent of the world. Its importance lies in

its informality. This is a body united by a common language, common

legal and political system, and a common educational system.

The main focus of the modern day Commonwealth is the

advancement of democracy, human rights, and the promotion of

sustainable economic growth and social development. In terms of

global reach, the Commonwealth is rivaled only by the United

Nations. It also serves as a building block in the global search for

peace in the world. Nigerias domestic interest is also not to be

ignored as there are presently over one million Nigerians in England,

and many more spread among the other Commonwealth countries.

Nigeria is the second biggest market for British goods in Africa and


15/105

Britain is the largest foreign investor in Nigeria. Nigerias relations

with the Commonwealth has been tried and tested, with various

challenges being routinely conquered over the years. However, the

benefits of being in the Commonwealth with its attendant strategic,

economic and political interests far outweighs the disadvantage of

breaking this highly mutually beneficial union.

Akinyemi (1983), in a speech argued for Nigerias withdrawal from

the Commonwealth. He contended the wrongness of Nigerias

continued membership of the Commonwealth as it was contradictory

for Nigeria to encourage Francophone African states to sever ties with

their colonial masters whilst refusing to do same. He further

contended that continued relations with the Commonwealth was only

overly damaging to the desired objective of breaking all imperial links

across the continent. Despite the successes and benefits accrued as a

result of Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth, there are still

some pessimists who argue that there is nothing special about the

Commonwealth and there is nothing the Commonwealth is providing

that Nigeria cannot otherwise do without.


16/105

In line with the focus of this work on the Commonwealth and its

impact on sustainable development in Nigeria, Anyaokwu (2000)

identified and emphasized the link between democracy and

development. He believes that democracy and development go hand-

in-hand, as it is only when there is a fair system of governance, where

people can freely express themselves, that development can truly take

place. Since May 1999, when Nigeria began a fresh democratic

transition, various efforts have been made towards achieving her

sustained growth and development, in order for the citizens to begin to

enjoy the dividends of democracy as promised at the dawn of a new

democratic era, tagged the fourth (4th) republic. The newly elected

government of President Obasanjo had stressed its determination to

create the right political and macroeconomic environment for

sustainable economic growth and development and within that

framework, economic reform has begun and specific measures in a

number of areas have been announced. This work helped outline the

importance of democracy in the pursuit of development in any

society. It also goes further to emphasize the vitality of the core

principles of democracy, especially freedom, as states in the global


17/105

system aim towards building societies capable of sustainable

development.

Obasanjo (2004) shared the same sentiment as Anyaokwu above when

he argued that development and democracy (freedom) are intimately

linked. According to him, development is as important to freedom, as

freedom is to leading a fulfilled meaningful life. He went further, by

arguing that democracy and development are mutually enforcing. That

is, democracy and development go hand-in-hand. So, where there is

democracy, there will be development and vice-versa.

Democracy goes a long way in helping to bring development to

societies where the core principles of democracy are being upheld, as

leaders in power would have a sense of responsibility and

accountability to the people that have given them the opportunity to

serve by voting them into office. Although this is not exactly the case

in many 3rd world countries where democracy is being practiced, the

developed nations of the world have demonstrated that the belief that

democracy and development are not just theories but are practicable

and realistic if properly applied in the right environment. This

particular literature contributed greatly to this work as helped shed


18/105

more light on the development-democracy link as it argues quite

convincingly on the nexus between democracy and development in

modern societies.

Obasanjo (2005) discussed the importance of the Commonwealth to

Nigeria and reiterated that the Commonwealth is of strategic

importance to Nigeria, and vice versa. Nigeria attaches great

importance to its membership of the Commonwealth. On the occasion

of Nigeria's admittance as the 99th member of the United Nations, the

first Prime Minister, Late Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, publicly declared

that Nigeria is proud of its membership of the Commonwealth. This

means that in spite of our membership of the United Nations, the

commitment of Nigeria to the Commonwealth would always be of

prime importance.

A review of Nigerias post-independence history reveals the important

roles that the Commonwealth has played in our national life. For

example, during the Nigerian crisis of the 1960s, which eventually

led to the Civil war in 1967, the Commonwealth was the first

international organization to attempt a solution to the crisis. The then

Secretary-General, Arnold Smith, organized the first ever peace


19/105


20/105

other international sanctions and bans slowly ensured that Nigeria

returned to a democratic system, especially with the eventual death of

Gen. Sani Abacha in 1998.

Anyaokwu (1999) emphasized how the Commonwealth has been able

to bring development to Nigeria by consistently pushing for a return

to democracy and the rule of law. Consequently, Nigeria was

suspended from the Commonwealth Organization by the

Commonwealth Heads of Government Ministerial Action Group

(CMAG) and subsequently readmitted, after considerable efforts had

been made by the government of the day to adopt and enforce the

internationally accepted norm of fundamental human rights. However,

this unfortunate episode in Nigeria-Commonwealth relations came to

a smooth end with the return of Nigeria to a democratic state on May

29th 1999 and Nigeria consequently resumed her rightful place in the

Commonwealth thereafter.

He also stressed the Commonwealths pride in Nigerias return to

democracy. According to him, democracy in Nigeria is a fresh start

and a victory for democracy, which is a very important and

fundamental principle of the Commonwealth. Anyaokwu went further


21/105


22/105

democratic systems of government that guarantees the rights of all

citizens and the rule of law can deliver long-term political stability,

which in turn would provide the basis for sustainable development in

a country as pluralistic and diverse as Nigeria.

The Commonwealth organization has tried in so many ways, to

influence democracy and development not only in Nigeria, but also in

other member countries. This goal has necessitated the formation of

many internal sub-organization and committees within the

Commonwealth. Some include; the Overseas development Assistance

(ODA), the Commonwealth Expert Group, the Commonwealth

Reconstruction and Development Programme, the Commonwealth

Eminent Persons Group (EPG), the Commonwealth Youth

Programme (CYO), the Commonwealth Observer Group, the

Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC), the

Commonwealth Scholarship Programme, amongst others. These

organizations, with different mandates, have been trying, at their

various individual levels to effect positive change in their target

societies.


23/105

Eze (2004) argued that the Commonwealth is engaged in diverse

aspects of development such as education, peace and security,

democracy, and human rights. According to him, bold initiatives have

been taken in the aspect of debt relief and/or cancellation since the

1980s. Furthermore, the pace-setting Harare Declaration also

emphasized the vitality of sustainable development and poverty

alleviation. According to him, the Commonwealth places prime

importance on issues relating to gender equality, poverty reduction, as

well as conflict prevention and resolution. The influence of the CFTC

on development is also extensively discussed with particular reference

to the aim of promoting economic and social development, as well as

the achievement of poverty alleviation in member states. He also

discussed the conditions for sustainable development which includes;

the peace, security, democracy and political governance initiative, the

economic and corporate governance initiative, the human resource

development initiative, etc. All these are believed to be capable of

bringing about sustainable development if strictly adopted.

Eze (2004) also recognized the financial limitation of the

Commonwealth as it does not have the wherewithal and resources to

cater for all the needs of her member states. He further argued that the


24/105

Commonwealth has a limited capacity to have a major impact on

sustainable development especially as its major agencies or

organization such as the educational facilities, capacity building

facilitators and the CFTC, have financial obligations which cannot all

be met. Furthermore, he lamented Africas marginalization in the

process of globalization, as market liberalization and deregulation

have tended to promote de-industrialization and undermined our

capacity to compete in the global market. He then recommended some

solutions which include enhancing the capacity of the Commonwealth

to act by reinventing it as a premium organization with greater

commitment and practical pursuits of its aims and objectives,

reforming the World Trade Organization (WTO) through the G8

members to promote the new partnership envisaged under NEPAD

and also promoting peace, conflict prevention, management and

resolution. Eze then concluded that the Commonwealth must show

that she is truly committed to the cause of her member states and is

ready to fight for the common good of all her member states by

ensuring equity in the distribution of the benefits of globalization and

also, a corresponding burden-sharing of its negative consequences.

This literature focused extensively on the activities of the


25/105


26/105


27/105

action will be needed on the part of the government in dealing with

the acute energy shortage in Nigeria, especially of petrol and

electricity, and improving its transportation and telecommunications

infrastructure. In this regard, private-public partnerships may have a

role to play in accelerating infrastructure development in the country.

He further went ahead to say that Nigeria is not alone in addressing

the challenges of economic growth and development. The country can

expect support from the international community, including the

Commonwealth, which provided assistance during the last transition

programme, and which stands ready to work with Nigeria in

promoting its fundamental political values of democracy, human

rights, the rule of law and a just and honest government.

Anyaokwu also highlighted the fact that the role the Commonwealth

has played or is playing in the development of Nigeria cannot be

understated. For example, as regards Nigerias huge debt profile, the

Commonwealth has taken a prominent role in drawing attention to the

crippling effect of debt on many countries and has given its support to

agreements to provide deeper, wider and faster debt relief, particularly

for the Heavily-Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs). He finally

reasoned that a realistic approach to Nigeria's requirements will help


28/105

to advance the country's emergence from an unsustainable position.

This work extensively discussed the importance of globalization and

its impact on Commonwealth and member state relations, the vitality

of transparent leadership by those in political offices. It also touched

on issues relating to domestic development, and the need to practice

democracy in the real sense of it. Another pertinent issue discussed

was debt relief and sustainable development.

Adelusi (2006) defined sustainable development as development that

not only generates economic growth but distributes its benefits

equitably, that regenerates the environment rather than destroys it; that

empowers people rather than marginalizing them. It is development

that gives priority to the poor, enlarging their choices and

opportunities and providing for their participation in decisions that

affects their lives. According to him, it is development that is pro-

people, pro-nature, pro-jobs, and pro-woman. (UNDP; HDR, 1994: P.

iii). He views development as an essential component of the ethic of

the universalism of life.

Douthwaite (1999) defined sustainability as the ability of the world to

engage in processes by which all things are produced, and once


29/105

established, would be capable of being continued for an indefinite

period of time without causing a progressive deterioration in any

factor, human or environmental, that they affected or on which they

relied.

Ogunyemi (2005) argued that the term "Sustainable development" has

meant different things to different writers. Whilst some have tended to

focus on production and thus narrowly viewed it as a process of

achieving a buoyant economy (e.g. Stepanov, 2004; Adesanya, 2004),

others who focus on the natural environment (e.g. Taranets & Alyona,

2004; Raheem, Hanninem & Ogunyemi, 2004), believe sustainable

development is all about achieving an ecological balance. And yet for

others (e.g. Scoullos, 2004; Newman, 2004), the process goes beyond

what is expressed in these two constricted standpoints, to include all

what mankind and nature require for their survival both at the present

moment as well as in the future. It is particularly important to note

that there are at least three major groups who employ the term

sustainable development for very different and often contradictory

goals i.e economic, social, and environmental (Goodland and Daly,

2006).


30/105

This last definition/view is particularly evident in the popular report of

the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)

which asserts that sustainable development is "a process in which the

exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation

of technological development, and institutional change are all in

harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human

needs and aspirations" (WCED 1987, p.43). This particular definition

of sustainable development has been amplified to integrate issues of

economic growth, social development and environmental security

following the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 and the Johannesburg World

Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of 2002.

Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 of the Rio Summit underscores the

importance of education in achieving sustainability principles or

sustainable living. The Rio conference specifically called on all

countries to develop and implement an Education for Sustainable

Development Strategy by 2002. The World Conservation Union

explains that, since Rio and Johannesburg, Education for Sustainable

Development (ESD) has been understood beyond the traditional view

of education about sustainability which focuses merely on

dissemination of knowledge. Rather, ESD is seen as a process of


31/105

adaptive management and systems thinking, requiring creativity,

flexibility and critical reflection. And central to this process is

learning to access and influence systems for public participation for

decision-making (IUCH, 2003).

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO), (2003) identified four principles or conditions of

sustainable development (SD) accompanied with associated

educational skills for attaining them. The first condition is

"recognition of the challenge"; this requires skills in "learning to

know". Secondly, SD demands "collective responsibility and

constructive partnership": the skill needed here is "learning to live

together". The third condition for attaining SD is "acting with

determination"; this calls for skills in "learning to do". The last

principle of SD is "the indivisibility of human dignity"; with the

educational task of "Learning to be". To implement these principles

within the ESD framework, UNESCO (2003) highlights four domains

which are basic education, reorienting existing education programs,

developing public awareness and understanding of sustainability, and

training. It is thus hoped that the implementation of the SD principles


32/105

in concurrence with the associated educational tasks, within these four

domains, would translate into sustainable living.

Sustainable development as an aspiration is global; as an ongoing

process, it is local. Gaining inspiration from the Brundtland (WCED,

1987) definition of 1987, sustainable development at the global level

is now generally understood as development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs. This has broad appeal and little specificity, but

some combination of development and environment is found in most

attempts to describe it. The Brundtland commission therefore

considered population control, food security, and energy supply as the

critical components of sustainability (Charles Hall, 2000). Many in

the scientific community have adopted the notion of a sustainability

transition, one in which basic human needs are met, hunger and

poverty are reduced, all while sustaining the life support systems of

the planet. (NRC-BSD, 1999).

Douthwaite (1999) in Richard Munck and Denis OHearns Critical

Development Theory questioned the possibility of building a

sustainable world. According to him, the wide gulf and deepening


33/105

conflict between the developed and developing world has led to the

absence of a consensus on the creation of a harmonized global policy

that would help engender a sustainable world. He further argued that

another reason the global system is unsustainable is because resources

are being depleted faster than they can be replaced. As a result, we

witness desertification, deforestation, animal endangerment and

extinction, as well as a general Tragedy of the Commons. The

unsustainability of the world was illustrated with the problems created

by the growing use of chemicals alone. According to the United

Nations (1997), The increasing, pervasive use and spread of

chemicals to fuel economic development is causing major health risks,

environmental contamination, and disposal

problems..Environmental emergencies involving chemicals appear

to be steadily increasing.

In conclusion, it is very evident from the above that Nigeria is still a

long way off, if she really aims to achieve the millennium goals and

indeed, the seven point agenda of President YarAdua, which aims

towards rapid growth and development of Nigeria. It is truly

unfortunate that after the much celebrated Independence Day on the

1st of October 1960, 49 years on, Nigeria still does not have much to


34/105

celebrate about. The sorry state of our infrastructure and economy has

prompted the intervention of various international and non-

governmental organizations in various aspects of the Nigerian

economy in order to help stem an otherwise negative trend. Thus, this

project will be taking a look at the British Commonwealth, and how it

has been able to impact upon sustainable development in Nigeria.

1.10 Theoretical framework

In this study, the theoretical framework to be employed shall be the

development theory. The development theory was adopted because it

best captures the essence of this project work, and would provide

valuable insights into development in nations. It will also help explain

the development phenomena in the pursuit of sustainable development

which entails capacity building, and the utilization of resources in

such a way as to ensure the sustainability of the environment.

In recent years, development programming has been focused on the

overriding issues of equity and equality in the distribution of the gains

from developmental efforts. A lot of concern has been expressed

about the predication of the rural poor and the imperatives of several

baseline requirements for human development. These include access


35/105

to land and water resources, agricultural inputs and services; including

extension and research facilities, and participatory development

strategies to tackle rural poverty, with social equity and social

participation viewed as essential to well rounded socio-economic

development.

Development theory emerged as a stable, academic field of inquiry

after WW2 when European countries were trying to keep their former

colonies at arms length. Throughout these years, development theory

and practice was strongly characterized by the transmission of moral

values from industrialized countries to less developed ones.

Development has been primarily measured by increase in the gross

national product (GNP). Early development theorists such as Bert

Hoselitz, Simon Kuznets, W. Arthur Lewis, etc were among the first

economists to begin analyzing development as a distinct subject

(Berbantti, 2004:1)

This relatively new system has produced concepts such as people-

centred development, participatory development and sustainable

development. The concept of people-centred development emphasizes

the need for meaningful development to be human centred, since


36/105

development entails the full utilization of a nations human and

material resources for the satisfaction of diverse human needs.

According to Chinsman (1995), a development programme that is

people-oriented should achieve the following;

Enable people realize their potential, build self-confidence and

lead lives of dignity and fulfillment.

Free people from poverty, ignorance, filth, squalor, deprivation

and exploitation, recognizing that underdevelopment has wider social

consequences; and

Correct existing social, economic or political injustices

The notion of participatory development bridges the interrelated goals

of development and empowerment of people. Development has to be

designed to capture what the people themselves perceive to be their

interests and needs.

Development should be understood as a process, not a product.

Societies are always changing. Some improve, others degenerate or

worsen. Development theory aims at explaining both processes.

Development practice intends to provide tools that can be applied to


37/105

entire societies or specific communities. Such interventions are

intended to move communities or societies from a situation in which

they are believed to be worse off, to a situation in which they are

assumed to be better off. Critics of development theory such as

Jonathan Crush and Arturo Escobar, see development as a set of

rational, managerial prescriptions through which industrialized

nations have largely imposed their views and models onto the

beneficiaries of aid, forcing to some extent, a change in the identities

of those who have benefitted (Berbantti, 2004:1).

Globalization and development intervention are intended to move

societies from a situation in which they are believed to be worse off,

to situations in which they are assumed to be better off. However,

there is a great deal of contention or argument on what determines

who is worse and who is better (Adelman, 1998:2).

In conclusion, if society is to become more sustainable, major

alterations will be needed to the nature of government, personnel

behavior, ethics and ability to cope with uncertainty. Therefore,

societies most sympathetic to the wind of positive change will most

likely experience development. Therefore, this framework is


38/105

applicable to this work in that it helps bridge the gap between

development efforts and actual development and whether such

development can be termed as sustainable on the long run

1.11 Outline of Chapters

This study would comprise of four chapters, they include:

Chapter one comprises of the background of study, problem of

research, research questions, research objectives, rationale for study,

scope/ limitations of study, literature review, theoretical framework

and then research methodology.

Chapter two comprises of the history of the Commonwealth in Nigeria

and Commonwealth-Nigeria relations.

Chapter three focuses on the case study. It comprises of an analysis on

the Commonwealth and sustainable development in Nigeria.

Chapter four comprises of the Summary, Conclusion and

Recommendations


39/105

References

Adeleke, A. (2004), Nigeria and the Commonwealth in Ogwu.U(ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos:Printserve Limited.

Adelusi, O. (2006), Development Policies and Analysis: A Reader.Akure: Standard Mass Concept Company

Adelman, I. (1998), Theories of economic growth and development.PaloAlto: Stanford Press.

Akinrinade, S (1993), Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Quo Vadis?in Owoeye, J (ed.) (1993) Nigeria in International Institutions.

Ibadan: College Press Limited.

Anyaokwu, E (1999), Nigeria Resumes Full CommonwealthMembership Retrieved fromhttp://www.thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 28th ofAug. 2009.


40/105

Anyaokwu, E (2000),Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Asobie, H (1993), Nigeria in International Institutions: Review ofLiterature and Methodological Issues in Owoeye, J (ed.)(1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: CollegePress Limited

Awolowo, O. (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Chief ObafemiAwolowo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg 309.

Bolaji, A. (1983), A farewell to policy: Valedictory lecture byDirector-General of the Nigerian Institute of InternationalAffairs. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. pg 14.

Chinsman, B. (1995), Putting people first. Summit for SocialDevelopment 20 February.

Douthwaite, R (1999), Is it Possible to Build a Sustainable World?

in Munck, R and OHearn, D (eds.) Critical DevelopmentTheory. United Kingdom: Bidles Limited.

Eze, O (2004), The Challenge for Sustainable Development inAfrica: What Role for the Commonwealth? in Ogwu. U (ed.)(2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos:Printserve Limited.

IUCH (2003), Supporting the United Nations Decade of Education forSustainable Development 2005-2015. The World Conservation

Union. Switzerland

Oshuntokun, A. (2004), Britain, Nigeria and theCommonwealth.inOgwu. U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa andthe Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited.


41/105

Obasanjo, O (2004), Message from the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of Reconstruction: Selected

Foreign Policy Speeches of Olusegun Obasanjo. Lagos: NationalInstitute of International Affairs.

Obasanjo, O (2005), The Commonwealth in the 21st Century:Prospects and Challenges in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of

Reconstruction: Selected Foreign Policy Speeches of OlusegunObasanjo. Lagos: National Institute of International Affairs.

Owoeye, J. (1983), Nigeria in international institutions ed. Ibadan:College Press Limited.

Sam, E. (1964), Nigeria Speaks: Speeches of Alhaji TafawaBalewa.Lagos: Longman Publishers pg 4-6.

Scoullos, M. (2004), Science, Culture and Education for SustainableDevelopment. Paper presented at the UN Decade of Educationfor Sustainable Development conference, Braga, Portugal, May19-22, 2004.

UNDP (1990), Human Development Report,1990.Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. p.10

UNESCO (2003), United Nations Decade for SustainableDevelopment (January 2005-December 2014): Framework for aDraft International Implementation Scheme. UNESCO, July2003.

WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development).1987. Our Common Future (Brundtland Report). New York:Oxford University Press.

World Bank (1984), Towards Sustained Development in Sub-SaharanAfrica: A Joint Programme of Action. Washington D.C


42/105

CHAPTER TWO

HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH IN NIGERIA AND

RELATIONS BETWEEN NIGERIA AND THE

COMMONWEALTH.

2.1 The History of Commonwealth-Nigeria Relations

On January 1st 1901, Nigeria became a protectorate of the British

Empire, which was the worlds foremost power at the time. By 1914,

the area which was formally made up of the Protectorates of Eastern

Nigeria, Northern Nigeria and Western Nigeria and the Crown colony

of Lagos, was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of

Nigeria. Nigeria was granted full independence on the 1st of October

1960, under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary system of

government, and a substantial measure of self-autonomy for the

countrys three regions. The Commonwealth of Nations, usually

known as the Commonwealth and previously as the British

Commonwealth, is an inter-governmental organization of fifty-three

independent member states. Most of them were formerly parts of the

British Empire. They co-operate within a framework of common

values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These

common core values include the promotion of democracy, human
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisation


43/105

rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty,

egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.

The Commonwealth was established on 11 December 1931. It is not a

political union, but an intergovernmental organization through which

countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are

regarded as equal in status. Its activities are carried out through the

permanent Commonwealth Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-

General; biennial Meetings between Commonwealth Heads of

Government; and the Commonwealth Foundation, which facilitates

activities of non-governmental organizations in the so-called

'Commonwealth Family'. The symbol of this free association is the

Head of the Commonwealth, which is a ceremonial position currently

held by Queen Elizabeth II.

The formal organization of the Commonwealth has its origins in the

Imperial Conferences of the late 1920s (conferences of British and

colonial prime ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where

the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of

dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at

the Imperial Conference in 1926, when UK and its dominions agreed

they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_libertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Foundationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Imperial_Conferenceshttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1920shttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1887http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Self-governing_colonyhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dominionhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Balfour_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_libertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Foundationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Imperial_Conferenceshttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1920shttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1887http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Self-governing_colonyhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dominionhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Balfour_Declaration


44/105

any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by

common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of

the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was

eventually formalized by the Statute of Westminsterin 1931.

According to Asobie (1993), Nigeria formally joined the

Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations as soon as it

became independent in 1960. As a former colony of the British

Empire, close ties were maintained in the aftermath of independence

and this encouraged Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth,

which was to become one of the veritable tools of Nigerian foreign

policy, and acted as a means through which some national interests

were pursued and achieved. Over the years, the degree of importance

Nigeria places on international organizations has varied. From 1960 to

1966, the Commonwealth and the United Nations ranked highest in

Nigerias official diplomatic thinking and practice. In contrast, from

1970 onwards, the Commonwealth was slightly relegated, with the

Organization of African Unity (OAU) gaining Nigerias prime

attention and focus.

Ofuegbu (1978) argued that Nigeria joined the Commonwealth for

five main reasons. Adopting David Eastons systems theoretical
http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Statute_of_Westminster_1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Statute_of_Westminster_1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/1931


45/105

framework, he perceived the Commonwealth as a structural device

within the international environment that exerts considerable pulls on

nations and their leaders. One prime reason was the belief that all

members of the Commonwealth were politically autonomous and

legally equal and thus, Nigeria had nothing to lose, but much to gain

by joining the organization.

Another reason he held was that Nigerian leaders felt we could

benefit from the collective wisdom of the association with its wealth

of experience and intelligence, on military and economic matters, as

well as the knowledge that technical assistance and financial aid

schemes from which Nigeria could benefit, existed under the auspices

of the Commonwealth. In analyzing Commonwealth-Nigeria

relations, he stated that before 1967, Nigerias foreign policy priorities

were the Commonwealth, the world, and Africa in that order.

However, the events of the Civil war removed the Commonwealth

from its dominating position, which it had occupied between 1954 and

1967, and replaced it with a new emphasis on Africa, a more realistic

position towards Europe, and a genuine cultivation of the friendship

of Russia and Eastern Europe.


46/105

The importance Nigeria places on the Commonwealth cannot be

overemphasized, as evidenced by statements from various Nigerian

leaders after independence. Awolowo declared that:

Nigeria should take herplace in the Commonwealth ofNations, and should not hesitate tomake clear beyond any shadow ofdoubt her attitude towards the idealsfor which Western democracies stand.In so far as it is compatible with herhonest convictions, national interestsand her legitimate obligations as aloyal member of the Commonwealthof Nations, she should maintaincordial relations with all other nationsof the world (Awolowo, 1960)

According to Odion-Akhaine (2003), Nigerias participation and

influence in the Commonwealth started immediately after her

membership and this was evidenced by the role Alhaji Tafawa Balewa

played in the evolution of the Commonwealths regulatory

mechanism, by suggesting the creation of a charter of guiding

principles during the Prime Ministers Meeting (PPM) in 1964. The

Commonwealth hitherto did not have a charter of guiding principles

that existed to guide the actions of member states, as well as serve as a

sign-post that displays all that the Commonwealth stands for.


47/105

Odion-Akhaine further argued that another notable influence of

Nigeria on the Commonwealth was in the area of peace-making and

reconciliation, as well as the fight against racism and apartheid in

Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Lagos, Nigeria served

as the venue where the Ian Smith led racist government in Southern

Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) was engaged in talks in January 1966, over the

segregation and oppression of the majority blacks in Zimbabwe. The

Rhodesian crisis was called a crisis of confidence about British

intentions, as it revealed Britains support for the continued control

of Zimbabwe by the minority white imperialists.

By 1979, Nigeria increased the pressure on Britain by severing

diplomatic relations with Britain, and nationalized the British

Petroleum Company Nigeria Limited through decree No. 56 of

August 31, 1979. Nigeria also led the fight for the liberation of South

Africa from colonialism and apartheid by contributing to the exit of

South Africa from the Commonwealth in 1961 and also mobilizing for

the boycott of the Commonwealth games of 1986, which was hosted

by Britain. This pressure, in conjunction with other frontline states

bore fruit as a seven-nation Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group

(EPG) was set up in Nassau, in 1985. The group was co-chaired by


48/105

Malcolm Fraser of Australia and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, both

of whom made attempts to bring an end to the apartheid system and

the restoration of Black majority rule in South Africa.

Nigerias role during those years was one of democratic engagement,

and the South African Question (Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa and

Namibia) led to the articulation of some concrete guiding principles

that were integrated into the final communiqu of the Singapore

summit of 1971; these principles are known as The declaration of

Commonwealth Principles. They were in essence, democratic

principles that could be regarded as the forerunner of the Harare

Principles. That declaration stressed in part that:

We believe in the liberty of

the individual, in equal rights for allcitizens regardless of race, colour,creed or political belief, and in theirinalienable right to participate bymeans of free and democratic political

process in framing the society inwhich they live. We therefore strive to

promote in each of our countries thoserepresentative institutions and

guarantees for personal freedomunder the law that are our commonheritage.. (Singapore, 1971)


49/105


50/105

draconian hold on political power. Nigeria endured military rule for

nearly 15 years following the demise of her Second Republic, until

May 1999 when the democratically elected government of Chief

Olusegun Obasanjo assumed power. The Nigerian political history has

weathered various storms, characterized by seven military regimes

and two democratically elected governments since it gained

independence from Britain in 1960. From 1967-1970, Nigeria fought

a 30-month civil war due to a failure of governance at the national

level. Also, between 1986-1993, a costly transition programme was

initiated by the military regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. It

consequently resulted in the election of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the

Social Democratic Party (SDP) flag bearer.

The June 12, 1993 elections was consensually adjudged to be the most

free and fair in the countrys electoral annals, although it was annulled

by the Babangida led military regime. The various peaceful protests

embarked upon by Nigerians, as well as pressures from external states

and organizations through sanctions forced the Babangida government

out of power on 27 th August 1993. A hurriedly arranged interim

government (ING), headed by Chief Ernest Shonekan was put in place

to fill the ensuing power vacuum. However, the highly delegitimized


51/105

government was declared illegal by a court ruling on October 10 1993

and by 17 November the same year; the military staged a comeback

that witnessed the emergence of General Sani Abacha as the head of

state. Under the leadership of Gen. Sani Abacha, Nigeria gained

widespread international notoriety for her abysmally poor human

rights record, which was evidenced by the lack of press freedom, the

jailing of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the winner of the annulled 1993

presidential elections, and the hanging of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the

Ogoni 9.

According to Odion-Akhaine (2003), Nigeria-Commonwealth

relations were most strained during the regime of Gen. Sani Abacha.

Following the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential elections

by General Ibrahim Babangida, Nigeria began the perilous march

towards international isolation. Also, the failure of the ING to

stabilize the nation, following the persistent challenges of legitimacy

and credibility, led to the emergence of Gen. Sani Abacha through a

palace coup. The popular demands by pro-democracy activists such as

Femi Falana, Prof. Wole Soyinka, Late Chief Gani Fawehinmi, etc

and other human rights activists for the revalidization of the June 12

electoral mandate only strengthened Abachas resolve to remain in


52/105

power. He re-introduced the unpopular decree no.2 of 1984, invented

by the erstwhile regime of his past predecessor, General Muhammadu

Buhari. This, among other became the fighting tools of his regime.

Many journalists, pro-democracy campaigners and human rights

agitators were arrested and detained indefinitely without trial.

Abachas resolve to hold onto power indefinitely became strengthened

with the discovery of two coup plots between 1995 and 1997. The duo

of General Olusegun Obasanjo and Major General Shehu Musa

YarAdua, innocent civilians, and some top military personnel in the

Abacha regime were accused of complicity in the attempted coup and

sentenced to death.

The disregard for the pleas by the international community to Gen.

Abacha to respect the rule of law and fundamental human rights of

Nigerians drew the ire of the International Community, especially the

Commonwealth Secretariat in London. The Secretary-General of the

body, Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, a Nigerian, rose to condemn the gross

violation of human rights abuses and pleaded for fair trial and the

release of Chief Abiola and others, who had been unjustly jailed and

punished for their role in the phantom coups. He consequently warned

the regime to desist from acts of state terrorism or face sanctions,


53/105

which may include the suspension of the country from the

Commonwealth. However, all these seemed to only motivate Abacha

the more and more pro-democracy activists were arrested without trial

and human rights fighters such as Pa Alfred Rewane, and Mrs.

Kudirat Abiola, wife of Chief M.K.O Abiola were assassinated by

state agents. All these led to the labeling of Nigeria as a pariah state

by the International Community.

The Nigeria-Commonwealth relations suffered a major setback over

the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others of his Ogoni

kinsmen. The highly profitable crude oil export Nigeria engaged in

was causing extensive and far- reaching damage to humans and the

environment in the Niger-Delta, as oil wealth had become a nightmare

for the people of the oil producing areas to which Ogoni people

belong. However, the fact that they are a minority ethnic group,

coupled with the intricacies of the Nigerian political system, helped

relegate the Ogonis and their interests to the background. They argued

that the wealth being exploited from their environment is being used

to develop other areas with no special attention to them, the oil

producers.


54/105

Ken Saro-Wiwa, who found the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni

People (MOSOP) later led a campaign for self determination, as the

Nigerian federation was viewed to have failed the Ogonis in their

quest for a cleaner, more sustainable environment. Saro-Wiwas

struggle was hinged on the need for social justice for minorities,

equity in Nigerian power sharing, amongst others. The MOSOP

campaign was not domestic in nature as the case was taken to the

American government, the United Nations, the London Rainforest

Group, the Unrepresented Nations, and the special conference for

indigenous peoples at The Hague, Netherland. Films and lecture tours

on the vast environmental degradation in Ogoniland were also

produced. The MOSOP action gained widespread attention when it

was able to forcibly stop SHELL operations in Ogoniland, and this

action became a recurring event across the Niger-Delta.

According to Ake (1994), factional conflict within the Ogoni

leadership led to the murder of four Ogoni chiefs, who were suspected

of being counter-revolutionaries, by a mob of Ogoni youths and this

act led to the arrest, detention, trial and conviction of ken Saro-Wiwa

and eight other MOSOP leaders. Also, the persistent pleas for

clemency by the International Community, which included the British


55/105

Prime Minister, the United States Congress, Nelson Mandela, Robert

Mugabe, human rights groups and the international media, yielded no

results.

It is pertinent to note that international reaction to the brutal killing of

Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni 8 was widespread, witnessing

consensual condemnation and the imposition of diverse bans and

suspensions from various international organization. This era

effectively characterized the dark years Nigeria experienced under

military rule and led to the labeling of Nigeria as a pariah state in

the international system. Nigeria and her leaders were called names.

Most notably, Nelson Mandela called Nigerian leaders irresponsible

and reckless, vowing to call for Nigerias expulsion from the

Commonwealth. Mr. Robin Cook of the British Foreign Office also

supported the widespread sanctions and calls for Nigerias expulsion

from the Commonwealth, arguing that Nigeria should not be allowed

to return to the Commonwealth because it has not made progress on

human rights and democracy since its suspension from the

Commonwealth.


56/105

References

Adeoti, D (2003), Nigerias Frosty Relations with TheCommonwealth: The Abacha Period in Faseke, M (ed) (2003)

Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.

Ake, C (1994) A people Endangered by Oil in The Guardian(Lagos), 18 August 1994, P.18.

Akhaine,S.O (2003), The Commonwealth and Democratization inNigeria in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and theCommonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.

Anyaokwu, E (2000),Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Anyaokwu, E (1999), The Missing Headlines: Selected Speeches.Lagos: Heinemann Plc

Asobie, H (1993), Nigeria in International Institutions: Review ofLiterature and Methodological Issues in Owoeye, J (ed.)


57/105

(1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: CollegePress Limited.

Awolowo, O (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Obafemi Awolowo.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, P.308.

Britto, R (2003), Emeka Anyaokwus years in the CommonwealthinFaseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos:JSEP Publishers.

Committee for the Defence of Human Rights (CDHR), 1998, AnnualReport on the Human Rights Situation in Nigeria, P.113-115.

Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the HarareDeclaration (1995) Retrieved from:

http://thecommonwealth.org/. Accessed on the 10th of Sep.2009.

Dates Agreed for Commonwealth Talks with Nigeria (2009)Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org/ . Accessed on the28th of Aug. 2009.

Mcmintyre W.D (2000), Britain and the Creation of theCommonwealth Secretariat, The Journal of Imperial and

Commonwealth History, vol 28, no.1, (January 2000), p.143.

Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership (2009)Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org . Accessed on the26th of Aug. 2009.

Ofuegbu, R (1978), The Nigerian foreign policy. Enugu: Star and

Printing Company. p.7.

Sueni, A.A (2003), Nigeria-Commonwealth Relations: Problem andControversy in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and theCommonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.
http://thecommonwealth.org/http://thecommonwealth.org/


58/105

The commonwealth at the summit, communiqus of CommonwealthHeads of Government Meetings 1944-1986 (London:Commonwealth Secretariat, Malborough House, 1987), p.156.

The Nation Newspapers, Dateline Nigeria pdf in The Nation diskdatabank commemorating Chief M.K.O Abiola 2009.


59/105

CHAPTER THREE

THE COMMONWEALTHAND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (1999-2009)

3.1 Establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations

Keone (1988) defined international institutions as related complexes

of rules and norms identifiable in space and time. Mearshermer (1994)

however defined an institution as a set of rules that stipulate the ways

in which states should cooperate and compete with one another.

International institutions prescribe acceptable forms of state behavior

and proscribe unacceptable kinds of behavior.

According to Faseke (2003), the modern Commonwealth which is

dated to 1949 had its roots in the British Commonwealth of Nations

with its origins in the British Empire. With the first colony in the Irish

Pale in 1169, the English steadily acquired more territory until the

British Empire covered a quarter of the globe, comprising the United

Kingdom, Bermuda (1512), the thirteen American colonies (1514), St.

Christopher (1623), Barbados (1626), Nevis (1628), Bahamas (1629),

and Antigua and Montserrat (1632). Others were Jamaica (1655), the


60/105

Virgin Islands (1713), Dominica (1763), St. Vincent and Grenada

(1763), Ceylon (1798), Guyana (1814), the Seychelles (1814), Burma

(1824), India (1828), Aden (1839), Australia (1840), New Zealand

(1840), the Falkland Islands (1842), Hong Kong (1842), South Africa

(1845) and Singapore (1854). Also there were Lagos (1861), the Fiji

Islands (1874), Cyprus (1878), Northern Nigeria (1885), Trinidad and

Tobago (1889), Uganda (1890), Mauritius (1890), Malaya (1895),

Egypt (1898), Tangayika (1919) and Kenya (1921). At its height in

the early 1900s, the British Empire included over 20 percent of the

worlds land area and more than 400 million people (Encarta

Encyclopedia 2009).

It is pertinent to note that a crucial step in the evolution of the

Commonwealth was taken in the 1840s, with the adoption of the now

famous Lord Durham report that resulted in the acceptance of the

popular demand for self-government in Canada and thus laid the

foundation for the emergence of the first Dominion in 1867. By 1914,

all the other colonies of settlement including Australia (1902), New

Zealand (1907) and South Africa (1910) had also achieved Dominion

status. A dominion status implies a self government status and a

considerable degree of freedom in their foreign relations.


61/105


62/105

According to Babawale (2004), the modern origins of the

Commonwealth could be traced to the London Declaration of 1950,

which allowed the acceptance of the British Monarch as the symbolic

head of the Commonwealth regardless of the constitutional provisions

of member states. Also, the adoption of a set of principles, which

serve as operative guidelines for the Commonwealth, helped create a

sense of purpose and unity within the association.

Article 1 of the Commonwealth clearly states that the Commonwealth

shall operate solely on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its

members. Article 2 of the Commonwealth provides for the following

objectives:

Cooperation in political, economic, ecological, humanitarian,

cultural and other fields;

Comprehensive and well-balanced economic and social

development of the Member States within the framework of a

common economic space, inter-state cooperation and integration;

Ensuring human rights and fundamental freedoms in

accordance with the universally recognized principles and norms of

international law;


63/105

Cooperation among the Member States in safeguarding

international peace and security;

Implementing effective measures for the reduction of

armaments and military expenditures, for the elimination of nuclear

and other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, and for the

achievement of universal and complete disarmament;

Promoting free communication, contacts and free movements

within the Commonwealth for the citizens of the Member States;

Mutual judicial assistance and cooperation in other spheres of

legal relationships;

Peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts among the States

of the Commonwealth.

According to Faseke (2003), another significant step in the evolution

of the Commonwealth began with the independence of India in 1947.

India decided to adopt a republican constitution although they still

maintained their link with the Commonwealth. In 1949, the phrase

common allegiance with the crown was dropped. This singular

action opened the door for newly independent and sovereign states to


64/105

join the associations. Some States that consequently joined included

Ghana (former Gold Coast, 1957), Malaysia (1957), Nigeria, Sierra

Leone, Cyprus (1960), Tanganyika (1961), etc. Also both Nyasaland

and Northern Rhodesia gained their independence in 1964 and came

to be known as Malawi and Zambia respectively.

Others such as Bangladesh joined in 1972, Papua New Guinea (1975),

Seychelles (1976), Solomon Islands, Tivulu, and Dominica joined in

1978. States such as Tonga, Western Samoa and Fiji joined in 1970.

Cameroun and Mozambique joined in 1989 and 2000 respectively.

Today, the Commonwealth is made up of fifty-four sovereign

countries, their dependencies, and two special members- the island

nations of Nauru and Tuvalu (Microsoft Encarta premium 2009).

In conclusion, it is instructive to note that despite the numerous threats

to the existence of the organization, it has continued to survive and

thrive in a largely instable and competitive international system.

3.2 The Commonwealth and Sustainable Development in Nigeria

The task of attaining sustainable development in Nigeria is one that

demands the concerted efforts of the Nigerian government, Nigerian

citizens, and the support of various supranational organizations. The


65/105


66/105


67/105

as jurisprudence, economy, and science and technology. He further

added that whilst development is not necessarily a prerequisite for

democracy and vice-versa, democracy is more likely to succeed in

conditions of economic growth and prosperity than in situations of

widespread poverty and economic decline. Similarly, development is

more likely to occur and to be sustainable in conditions of democratic

accountability, the rule of law and good governance.

3.2.1The Commonwealth and the Educational Sector in Nigeria

The educational development of member countries of the

Commonwealth has always been of paramount interest to the

organization, as it has proven to be invaluable forum through which

human capacity is built and developed. The Commonwealth of

Learning is reputed to be the worlds only intergovernmental

organization solely concerned with the promotion and development of

distance education and open learning. The creation of the

Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in 1987 was to mediate the major

challenges related to learning and skills development, which are vital

for living, and the improvement of livelihood. Developing conceptual

frameworks, influencing policy, enabling technology-mediated


68/105

learning, and strengthening networks and partnerships are some of the

strategies that COL uses for promoting learning and skills for

agricultural development, poverty alleviation, and environmental

protection. In this context, COL aims at building individual and

institutional capacity in the use of information and communication

technologies (ICT) combined with open and distance learning (ODL)

in the way of technology-mediated open and distance education

(TechMODE).

According to the Commonwealth Education Steering Committee,

Nigeria and Pakistan represents one-third of the Commonwealth out-

of-school population numbering about 75 million children. This

therefore necessitates a special state status, and a comprehensive plan

of action in order to curtail the abnormal trend especially in Nigerias

Northern states, where education is not really a priority. Also, 85 per

cent of children out of school in the Commonwealth live in just six

countries: Ghana, India, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Pakistan.

Sixty per cent of these were girls, and these countries account for 30

per cent of the global total of children who do not attend school. In all,

there are 27 million primary aged children out of school in

Commonwealth countries (Malinga, 2007)


69/105

In Nigeria, teacher training institutions and other schools are building

up and introducing new eLearning programmes. Organisations such as

National Teachers Institute and the National Open University of

Nigeria (NOUN) are launching ambitious eLearning initiatives to

upgrade the qualifications of in-service teachers. COL is supporting

these initiatives by providing training in instructional design, audio

and video script writing, video production and designing eLearning

materials, as well as advocacy, facilitating partnerships and quality

assurance (Daniel, 2009).

The goal of achieving sustainable development in the education sector

in Nigeria cannot be achieved using only conventional and traditional

methods. Open and distance learning offers the promise of fashioning

new techniques, new technologies and new approaches to this end.

Also, Nigeria must produce 40,000 teachers annually for the next ten

years in order to cope with the huge growth in student population

nationwide. The National Teachers' Institute, Open University of

Nigeria and the Commonwealth of Learning are partners in meeting

this formidable and ambitious objective (Perinbam, 2003).


70/105

The absence of a national policy on ICT in education is an

impediment to the achievement of sustainable development in the

educational sector in Nigeria. The Ministry of Education created its

ICT department in February 2007, notwithstanding, several

government agencies and other stakeholders in the private sector have

initiated ICT-driven projects and programmes to impact all levels of

the educational sector. The challenge is the lack of electric power and

telecommunications infrastructure in a substantial part of the country.

Mobile telecommunication currently covers 60% of the national

territory, but mobile telephone companies generally power their base

stations using electric power generators since the Power Holding

Company of Nigeria (PHCN) is unable to supply them with regular

power. This phenomenon is prevalent nationwide and constitutes the

bottleneck to effective countrywide deployment of ICT in education

(Agyeman, 2007).

The Commonwealth also aims to develop education not only in

Nigeria but also, in other Commonwealth countries by organizing

events and competitions such as the annual Commonwealth Writers

Prize which have been won by six Nigerians at different times, the

Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards, the Commonwealth Short


71/105

Story Competition, the Commonwealth Education Good Practice

Awards, the Commonwealth Youth Programme Art Competition, etc.

These competitions serve as a veritable avenue through which the

abilities of youths can be positively built-up and enhanced. Some of

these competitions have been won by Nigerians such as Sonde

Emmanuel (CYP Art Competition), Habiba Magaji (Commonwealth

Essay Competition, 2005), Bolatito Eweoya and Uchechukwu

Oniyishi also won the Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards in 2003.

Also, Nigeria's Kachi Ozumba emerged as the winner of the Africa

regional prize of the 2009 Commonwealth Short Story competition.

His story, The one-armed thief, was adjudged as the best from the

region in the yearly competition. Three other Nigerians were named in

the Highly Commended' category. They include, Ayobami Adebayo

for his story Dreams', Akinwumi Akinwale for LIFO and Mbofung

Carlang for The Father's blessings'. Uwem Akpans Say You're One

of Them also won the 2009 Commonwealth Writers' Prize, whilst

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichies Purple Hibiscus won the same award in

2005


72/105

The Good Practice awards were also introduced in 2005, to identify

and reward a number of worthy projects during the year-long period

of adjudication. Good practices are regarded as projects, policies,

strategies or significant interventions which have made a positive

difference to primary school children and their teachers or to the

school system of a country. A number of Nigerian schools and

institutions have been recipients, including the Federal Polytechnic,

Ado-Ekiti, for their Innovation Enterprise Empowerment training

Programme (IEEP), Youth Cultural Association of Nigeria for

empowering youths through information and education, the Federal

Polytechnic Kaura Namoda, for improving quality in education,

Federal Polytechnic, Nekede, for improving quality in education

through Information & Communication Technology, Federal Ministry

of Education, Federal Secretariat, for achieving Universal Primary

Education in Nigeria, University of Ilorin for mitigating the impact of

HIV/AIDS, University of Ilorin for their Centre for Supportive

Services for the Deaf, amongst many others.

In evidence of the Commonwealths interest in educational

development in Nigeria and other African states, the Commonwealth

Teacher Recruitment Protocol was adopted in 2004 to advocate for the


73/105

rights of teachers to migrate internationally, on a temporary or

permanent basis, while also ensuring the protection of the integrity of

national education systems and to prevent the exploitation of the

scarce human resources of poorer countries (Degazon-Johnson, 2008).

It also made provisions for the creation of a well-managed programme

of teacher exchanges and of trade in skills to boost professional

development of teachers as well as strengthen and enrich education

systems. They also called for the development of a code of

professional ethics for teachers as a means of strengthening their

status, as well as the implementation of a leadership development

programme for school managers and administrators.

In furtherance of the Commonwealths commitment to Nigeria, an

expert was provided on behalf of the Commonwealth Secretariat to

the Psychiatric Hospital in Yaba, Lagos, to establish a School of

Occupational Therapy and to train local experts. The Psychiatric

Hospital in Yaba is known for its specialist care but the number of

qualified occupational therapists in public hospitals has declined

despite an increase in demand for care, particularly care related to

drug abuse and poverty-related stress. The project helped address the


74/105

national shortage of occupational therapists

(www.thecommonwealth.org).

Although school enrolments and teacher supply have expanded

significantly since the Dakar Forum on Education for All in 2000,

many challenges remain. Net enrolment ratios in primary school are

still in the range 6090% in developing Commonwealth countries,

including Nigeria. The situation is particularly critical in Sub-Saharan

Africa which projects a requirement of 4 million teachers in 2015, up

from 2.4 million in 2004. The increased need for teachers is dramatic,

especially in Nigeria, witnessing an increase from 580,000 to 706,000.

Also, a significant portion of Nigerian teachers are untrained with a

reported 44% of the teacher population (www.col.org/openschooling).

Schemes such as the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan

(CSFP) have also helped individuals and countries into prestigious

educational heights and it is envisaged that a revision of the CSFP can

help a greater number of beneficiaries through awards, grants,

scholarships, and other forms of motivation and support tools (Agwu,

2004). Also, a total of 37 Nigerian Universities (federal and state-
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/http://www.col.org/openschoolinghttp://www.thecommonwealth.org/http://www.col.org/openschooling


75/105

owned) are under various forms of Commonwealth-sponsored

Masters/PHD scholarships.

In conclusion, the work of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the

Commonwealth of Learning (COL), the Association of

Commonwealth Universities (ACU), the Commonwealth Foundation,

the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Scholarship and

Fellowship Plan (CSFP), and many other non-governmental

community based organizations within the Commonwealth constitute

invaluable assets through which sustainable development in the

educational sector in Nigeria and other member countries can be

achieved.

3.2.2 The Commonwealth and the Sports Sector in Nigeria.

Sports, is a key part of the Commonwealths identity. Commonwealth

Heads of Government have recognized the benefits of physical

activity and the importance of sport as an effective instrument for

social and economic development. Regular meetings of

Commonwealth Ministers of Sport are usually held to increase

Commonwealth collaboration in this important area. The last meeting

was held in Melbourne on 14 March 2006 where Ministers agreed to
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/


76/105

promote: the health benefits of sport and physical activity, promote

education through sport, use sport to develop leadership and

participation in the community, and also build inclusive communities

through sport. The Commonwealth Secretariat, through its Sports

Adviser, is taking forward this work in collaboration with Ministers of

Sport and the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport (CABOS).

The Commonwealth Games have been described by Secretary-

General Don McKinnon as the biggest manifestation of the

Commonwealth in action. Usually referred to as the Friendly

Games it is an important event on the global sporting calendar and it

serves as a means through which unity and cooperation is fostered

within and among the Commonwealth states.

In Nigeria, much has been achieved through the use of sport as a

means through which manpower development is achieved. Over the

years, Nigeria has been successful at the Commonwealth games,

which are held every four years. Nigeria has been competing in the

Commonwealth Games since 1950, and has won a total 143 medals. It

is also pertinent to note that Yusuf Alli, a Nigerian, holds the

Commonwealth Games Men's Long Jump record with a jump of 8.39
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/144435/cabos/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/144435/cabos/


77/105

metres at the Auckland Games in 1990. Another Nigerian, Emmanuel

Ifeajuna established a games high jump record of 6ft 8in in 1954

(Falode, 2003).

This shows that if given the opportunity, youths can use sports as a

springboard for successful careers in their chosen fields. The

Commonwealth Games helps in the discovery and nurturing of fresh

talents into world beaters in their areas of expertise. T

Commom Wealth

Documents

Transcript of Commom Wealth