Cog lifespan 5 cognitive (1)
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Lifespan DevelopmentLifespan DevelopmentCognitive development
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Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who devised ingenious procedures for examining the cognitive development of young children
Piaget studied when and how children gained insights into the world
Piaget focused on how people think instead of what they think
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Cognitive changeCognitive change
Schemes – psychological structure of making sense of experience
Adaptation – process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environmentAssimilation: using current schemes to interpret
external worldAccommodation: create or modify schemes to
handle the environment that is not completely captured
Organisation – internal process of rearranging and linking schemes to create strongly interconnected cognitive system
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Central conceptsCentral concepts
A schema is an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing the world
Schemata guide thoughts based on prior experiences
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Central conceptsCentral concepts
Schemas can change through adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation
Accommodation is when a child discovers that actions bring results, and those results affect future behaviour
Schemata are organized into more complex mental representations
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Central conceptsCentral concepts
In assimilation, new ideas and experiences are incorporated into existing mental structures and behaviours
In accommodation, previously developed mental structures and behaviours (schemata) are modified to adapt them to new experiences
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Sensorimotor 0 – 2 years Imitation, permanence (a)
Preoperational 2 – 7 years Egocentrism (f), centration (f), irreversibility (f)
Concrete Op 7 – 11 years Decentration (a), conservation (a)
Formal Op 11+ Abstract reasoning
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
a = accommodation/assimilation; f = flaw
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Piaget proposed four invariant stages of development
Newborns are dependent, reflexive organisms
At 2 to 3 months, infants develop memory for past events
The sensorimotor stage extends from birth to age 2
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I: Sensorimotor StageI: Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage, comprising six sub-stagesReflexive schemesPrimary circular reactionsSecondary circular reactionsCoordination of secondary circular reactionsTertiary circular reactionsMental representations
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i) Reflexive schemesi) Reflexive schemes
Birth – 1 monthInfant activity are largely reflexiveUnderstanding of environment is based
on reflex action- Sucking- Looking around- Startle
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ii) Primary circular reactionsii) Primary circular reactions
1 – 4 monthsCoordinating sensation and new schemas
- Accidental action- Sensation of pleasure- Intentional repetition of the action
- Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance)
- Main focus is on infant's body.
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iii) Secondary circular iii) Secondary circular reactionsreactions
4 – 8 monthsInfant becomes more focused on the world
and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment.
Development of habits. Infants are more object-oriented, moving
beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results
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iv) Coordination of iv) Coordination of secondary circular reactionssecondary circular reactions
8 – 12 monthCombine schemas in order to achieve a
desired effectExploration and imitation Understanding of objects – children begin to
recognise certain objects as having specific qualities
Coordination of vision and touch – hand-eye coordination;
Responses become coordinated into more complex sequences. Actions take on an "intentional" character
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v) Tertiary circular reactionsv) Tertiary circular reactions
12 – 18 monthsTrial-and-error experimentation Infants become intrigued by the many
properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behaviour.
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vi) Mental representationsvi) Mental representations
18 – 24 monthsEarly Representational Thought through
Mental Combination Develop symbols to represent events or
objects in the worldEvidence of an internal representational
system. Symbolising the problem-solving sequence before actually responding. Deferred imitation.
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Cognitive achievementsCognitive achievements
Object permanence Intentionality of actionsAwareness of properties of objectsImitation
Attainment of these four cognitive skills will mark the end of the sensorimotor stage, whereby the child will then move into the next stage
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Object permanenceObject permanence
Ability of the brain to retain and utilise visual images.
Object permanence is the understanding that objects exist even when out of sight, whereby the child recognises that although the person or object is not within sight, it still exists
Often handled approximately eight (8) months
In the second half of the sensorimotor stage, children begin to use language to represent the world
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The preoperational child The preoperational child
The preoperational stage lasts from about age 2 to age 6 or 7
In this stage, children represent reality through symbolic thought
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Limitations of preoperational Limitations of preoperational thought thought
Egocentricism: failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from own view
Centration: focusing on only one attributeAnimistic thinking: belief that inanimate
objects have lifelike qualities
Conservation: certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same even when their outward appearance changes
The turning point!
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Piaget’s Mountains StudyPiaget’s Mountains Study
To investigate egocentrism
Three 3-D mountains
Ask child to indicate which view he thought E saw from E position
Plaster model make-up
E
C
Younger child answer
Older child answer
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The preoperational childThe preoperational child
Centration is the tendency for preoperational children to become focused on one salient dimension at the expense of others
e.g. show them five black and three white marbles and ask them “Are there more marbles or more black marbles?” they will respond “More black ones!” – evidencing they centred on colour
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The preoperational childThe preoperational child
Animistic Thinking is the attribution of intentions to objects or events
e.g. “the chair was afraid of me so it moved away”
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Preoperational stagePreoperational stage
Dramatic increase in use of symbols, representations
Children had many internal experiences which were labelled with words by the child
By observing children’s make believe play, able to get an idea of child’s inner world
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Make believe play in preschool Make believe play in preschool yearsyears
Detaches from real life conditions associated with it
Play becomes less self centred Play includes more complex
combinations of schemesSociodramatic play indicates awareness
that make believe play is representational activity
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Symbol-real world relationsSymbol-real world relations
Preschoolers realise that each symbol corresponds with a specific state of affairs in daily life.
When does this happen?2½ - 3year olds before children start to
realise that a symbolic object is both an object and a symbol (dual representation)
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Limitations Limitations
Centration: focusing on only one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features
Irreversibility: inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem then reverse direction, returning to starting point
Lacking hierarchical classification: difficulty to organise objects into classes and subclasses based on similarities and differences
Mastering these three is the point at which the child will learn to conserve
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The concrete operational childThe concrete operational child
The concrete operational stage lasts from the age of about 6 / 7 to 11 / 12
In this stage, the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment
The concrete operational child understands rules and the reasons for them
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The concrete operational childThe concrete operational child
A hallmark of the concrete stage is understanding conservation
Conservation is recognising that objects can be transformed visually or physically, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume
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Figure 11.7 Development of ConservationFigure 11.7 Development of Conservation
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
The formal operational stage begins at about age 12
In this stage, the individual can think hypothetically, consider future possibilities, and use deductive logic
An adolescent can engage in abstract thought in the formal operational stage
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Characteristics of Characteristics of formal operational stageformal operational stage
Hypothetico-deductive reasoningPropositional thought
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Hypothetico-deductive Hypothetico-deductive reasoningreasoning
The hypothesis is the starting pointDeduce logicallyMake testable inferences,
systematically isolating and combining variables to see which are confirmed for the real world
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Propositional thoughtPropositional thought
Ability to evaluate the logic of prepositions without referring to real-world circumstances
Reflects the ability to hold the thought in the head – required a symbolic system for representation, to aid the logical manipulation of thought and concept
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Follow-up research Follow-up research
Are children/adolescents really capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning?- Shades of it- Not as capable as adults- Capability improves with age
HDR contradicts with real-world factsEven some adults fail to be capable in
formal operations
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Beyond Piaget:Beyond Piaget:Educational principles derivedEducational principles derived
Understanding of Piaget’s theory allows educational plans take into account the child’s stage of readiness Discovery learning
Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learning
Acceptance of individual differences
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Vygotsky’s Vygotsky’s sociocultural sociocultural
approachapproach
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Central conceptCentral concept
Development applies mainly to mental development, such as thought, language and reasoning process
These abilities were understood to develop through social interactions with others (especially parents) and therefore represented the shared knowledge of the culture
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Role of culture in mental Role of culture in mental processesprocesses
Intellectual abilities is specific to the culture in which the child was reared 1) Children acquire much of their thinking
(knowledge) from it. 2) Children acquire the processes or means of
their thinking (tools of intellectual adaptation) from the surrounding culture.
Culture provides the children with the means to think, what to think and how to think.
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Learning and cognitive Learning and cognitive thoughtthought
Is a dialectical process where the child learns through shared problem solving experiences with someone else (parents, teacher, siblings or peer)
Language dialogue - shares and stimulates thinking- is primary tool of intellectual transformation
Development consists of gradual internalization, primarily through language, to form cultural adaptation
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Zone if Proximal Zone if Proximal DevelopmentDevelopment
Potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span
The gap between what a given child can achieve alone, their potential development as determined by independent problem solving, and what they can achieve through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
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The full development during the ZPD depends upon full social interaction and the more the child takes advantages of an adult’s assistance, the broader is its ‘Zone of Proximal Development’.
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Language is used by children - additional device in solving problems- to overcome impulsive action- to plan a solution before trying it out,
and- to control their own behaviour
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Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky
Both viewed pre-school children in problem solving situations talking to themselves
Piaget labelled the self directed behaviour as egocentric and believed it only minimum relevant to children’s cognitive growth
Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech and essential to cognitive growth
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Cognitive development in Cognitive development in adulthoodadulthood
Changes in the structure of thought- Epistemic cognition- Pragmatic thought, cognitive-emotional
complexity
Expertise and creativityAttending College Vocational choice
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LaBouvie-Vief: Pragmatic LaBouvie-Vief: Pragmatic thought and cognitive-thought and cognitive-emotional complexityemotional complexity
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Changes in structure of Changes in structure of thoughtthought
Pragmatic thought and Cognitive-emotional complexity: LaBouvie-Vief
- Adolescents work within a world of possibilities
- Adulthood involves a shift from hypothetical to pragmatic thought
- Logic is a tool for solving real-world problems
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Children face limitless opportunities, while adults move from hypothetical to pragmatic as they face real-world problems and make conscious commitments to a single path
Adults select one path out of many alternatives, they become more aware of the constraints of everyday life
The need to specialize motivates this change
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As young adults gain reflective capacity, they are better able to integrate cognition and emotion, allowing them to make sense of discrepancies.
Adults become more aware of positive and negative feelings, and are better able to coordinate those feelings into a complex, organized structure
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Cognitive-affective Cognitive-affective complexitycomplexity
Allows mature people to demonstrate increased awareness of the perspectives and motivations of themselves and others
Vital aspect of emotional intelligenceAs young adults mature, they become
aware of multiple perspectives, integrate logic with reality, and develop cognitive-emotional complexity that allows them to become increasingly specialized and context-bound in action and thought that opens higher levels of competence.
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Individuals who demonstrate high cognitive-affect complexity tend to
- Be more tolerant toward events and people
- Be more open-minded toward events and people
- Make sense of conflicting emotions, regulate emotions
- Think rationally about real-world dilemmas
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In summaryIn summary
There are no right or wrong thoughts Qualitative transformations in thinking
Awareness of multiple truthsIntegration of logic with realityCognitive-emotional complexity
Adult thinking must be flexible and adaptive in order to cope in a complex, specialised society
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Experts have domain specific knowledge
Plan aheadRemember and reasonSystematically analyseCategorise elementsConceptualise
possibilities
Novices have superficial understanding
Lacking reasoning ability
Tend to solve challenges by way of trial and error
Expertise = acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavour
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Vocation and choiceVocation and choice
Unavoidable decision in the stage of early adulthood
Vocational development in three stages1) Fantasy period – early and middle
childhood, gaining insight2) Tentative period – between 11 – 16,
consideration of interests3) Realistic period – late teens and early
adulthood: exploration and crystallisation phases
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Factors influencing vocation Factors influencing vocation choicechoice
Personality – complement their personalityInvestigative: enjoy working with ideas → scientific Social: likes interacting, human issues → social workArtistic: emotional, individual expressionRealistic: real-world problems → mechanicalConventional: well-structured tasks, values material
and social status → businessEnterprising: adventurous, persuasive → sales,
supervisory, politics
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Factors influencing vocation Factors influencing vocation choicechoice
Family influenceParent-child vocational similarity is partly a
function of similarity in personality, intellectual abilities, and educational attainment
Parenting practices - High SES promote curiosity, self-direction →
high-status careers- Lower SES emphasise conformity & obedience
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Factors influencing vocation Factors influencing vocation choicechoice
TeachersCloser teacher-student relations Offering encouragement Role models
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Factors influencing vocation Factors influencing vocation choicechoice
Gender stereotypesTraditionally male jobs see women
entering, but at slow paceWomen tended to seek less demanding
careers because of the need to combine work and child rearingAbility – unresolved Interests Training – math and science majors
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Changes in mental ability Changes in mental ability in middle adulthoodin middle adulthood
Decline in short term memory abilityCrystallised intelligence increases
steadily through middle adulthood whereas fluid intelligence begins to decline in the twenties
Reaction time slows down