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Classification of Matter

PURE SUBSTANCE: ELEMENT: COMPOUND: MIXTURE: SOLUTIONS: MECHANICAL MIXTURE:

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He

Elements and the Periodic

Table: A Review

The Elements All matter is made up of atoms

of various elements. There are 109

elements known to date. Every

element has a unique set of physical

and chemical properties that make it

different from the rest. Every

element has a unique:

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Grouping of Elements on the

Periodic Table The Periodic Table was derived by a

Russian scientist named

_________________________________

who spent his life’s work studying properties

of elements.

Elements on the PT are subdivided:

groups

periods

Metals

Non – metals

Metalloids

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H O C 1

1 6

12 8

16

Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams Recall:

A Bohr-Rutherford (B/R) diagram is used to represent the

electron configuration of an atom of any element. The

following information is required on all B/R diagrams.

1. Number of Electrons:

2. Number of Protons:

3. Number of Neutrons:

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Predicting Chemical Reactivity The outermost energy level of an atom

(____________________) will tell us a lot about the

element’s chemical reactivity. Elements with 8 electrons in

their outer energy level appear to have a special

significance. They are essentially non-reactive and are

considered stable. We call this the Stable Octet.

The Stable Octet

o

o

Ions

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Factors That Determine

Chemical Reactivity

1. The number of electrons in the outer energy level.

Rules:

a.

b.

c.

2. The Atomic Radius (number of energy levels / shells)

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Ions Negatively Charged Ions = Anions

Positively Charged Ions = Cations

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Electron Dot Diagrams (EDD)

A Bohr – Rutherford diagram represents an atom and

all its electrons.

A simpler way to represent atoms and ions of atoms is

with electron dot diagrams.

Electron Dot Diagrams

o

Examples:

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Nomenclature: Binary Ionic, Polyatomic, and Multivalent

1. BONDING CAPACITY (VALENCE) The number of bonds an atom can make. For a Cation, the bonding capacity is the number of electrons lost to become stable. For an Anion, the bonding capacity is the number of electrons gained to fill the outer energy level to eight. Ex. For sodium the bonding capacity is one. For oxygen the bonding capacity is two. 2. OXIDATION NUMBERS The charge of the ion of an atom. Ex. For sodium the oxidation number is +1. For oxygen the oxidation number is -2. 3. NAMING ELEMENTS All elements (substances composed of only one type of atom) are named as on the periodic table. Ex. Mg Magnesium Fe Iron 4. NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS Binary ionic compounds are compounds containing only two elements (a metal and a non-metal) RULES: 1. Write the cation (metal) first, using the name of the element as on

the periodic table. 2. Write the anion second, dropping the usual ending (-ine, -ium,

-ogen etc.) and replace it with -ide. Ex. NaCl sodium chloride KBr potassium bromide K2O potassium oxide

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chemical formula

chemical name

NaI

BeF2

MgO

Na2O

Li2S

BCl3

Al2O3

K2S

5. WRITING FORMULA FOR BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS RULES: 1. Write the symbol for the cation (metal) then write the symbol for the

anion (nonmetal) beside. 2. Write the charge of the ion (oxidation number) for each element

above the element. 3. Use the zero sum rule to balance the charges of the ions. 4. Write the required number of atoms that satisfy the zero sum rule as

subscripts behind the ion to which it refers. Ex. # 1 potassium oxide Ex # 2 calcium nitride

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chemical name

chemical formula

sodium fluoride

lithium chloride

beryllium bromide

magnesium oxide

boron iodide

aluminum sulfide

potassium oxide

calcium fluoride

8. WRITING NAMES FOR POLYATOMIC IONS Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms which act as a unit. They consist of two or more different non-metal atoms joined by a covalent bond. The bonding capacity of the polyatomic ion is the same as the charge.

PO4-3 phosphate ClO3

-1 chlorate

SO4-2 sulfate NO3

-1 nitrate

CO3-2 carbonate OH-1

hydroxide

NH4+1 ammonium HCO3

-1 hydrogen carbonate

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RULES: 1. Write the cation first, using the name of the element as on the periodic table. 2. Write the name of the polyatomic ion with the -ate ending. Ex. Na2(SO4) sodium sulfate

9. WRITING FORMULA FOR POLYATOMIC IONS RULES: 1. Write the symbol for the cation or polyatomic ion named first then

write the symbol for the polyatomic ion or anion named second. 2. Write the charge of the ion (oxidation number) for each element

or polyatomic ion above each element or polyatomic ion. Put brackets around the polyatomic ion.

3. Use the zero sum rule to balance the charges of the ions. 4. Write the required number of atoms that satisfy the zero sum rule as

subscripts behind the ion to which it refers. Ex. # 1 Magnesium sulfate Ex # 2 ammonium chloride

chemical name

chemical formula

chemical formula

chemical name

ammonium sulfate

H3PO4

sodium hydroxide

K2CO3

magnesium sulfate

H2SO4

hydrogen carbonate (NH4)2S

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Nomenclature: Molecular compounds

1. NAMING DIATOMIC GASES The following gases exist in nature in a diatomic form having the general chemical formula "X2". The names of these binary compounds are found by just using the element's name from the Periodic Table.

Name of diatomic gas

Formula for diatomic gas

hydrogen

oxygen

nitrogen

fluorine

F2

chlorine

bromine

iodine

2. NAMING MONATOMIC GASES The elements of Group 8A (Noble gases) exist in nature as monatomic gases. These gases are considered "inert" or unreactive under most conditions. Some may react under extreme pressures or temperatures. These elements are not binary chemical compounds, but you should know the names and formulas of these elements. Use your Periodic Table to determine the noble gas that is at the end of each period.

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period

name of gas

formula or symbol

period 1

period 2

period 3

period 4

krypton

period 5

Xe

period 6

3. NAMING BINARY MOLECULAR (COVALENT) COMPOUNDS Binary molecular (covalent) compounds are compounds containing only two elements (a non-metal and a non-metal) RULES: 1. Attach a prefix that indicates the number of atoms in the chemical formula to the front the name of element that is more to the left on the periodic table. The prefix "mono-" is omitted from the name of the first element if it is the prefix required. The Greek prefixes are as follows. mono - 1 tetra - 4 hepta - 7 deca - 10 di - 2 penta - 5 octa - 8 tri - 3 hexa - 6 nona - 9 2. A second prefix indicating the number of atoms in the chemical formula is attached to the second name of the element. This element is usually found on the right of the periodic table. The name of the second element ends in -ide. 3. The "o" or "a" ending of the prefix is omitted if the cation or anion name starts with an "o" or "a". Ex. P2O3 is called diphosphorous trioxide

N2O5 is called dinitrogen pentoxide

CO2 is called carbon dioxide

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chemical formula

chemical name

CO2

As2O3

NO2

P2O5

CBr4

SF6

SeO2

4. WRITING FORMULA FOR MOLECULAR (COVALENT) COMPOUNDS RULES: 1. Write the elemental symbol for each of the elements named. 2. Use the prefixes to determine the number of elements in each molecule. Ex. dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4

carbon tetrachloride CCl4

diphosphorous trisulfide P2S3

sulfur hexafluoride SF6

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chemical name

chemical formula

nitrogen monoxide

sulfur trioxide

phosphorus pentabromide

dinitrogen trioxide

carbon tetrachloride

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Chemical Bonding

Most substances on earth do not exist as elements, they are

composed of 2 or more different elements joined together called

_______________ .

Compounds are formed from chemically bound atoms or ions.

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they have 8 valence

electrons ( _____________________ ).

When 2 atoms collide, valence electrons on each atom interact

(BONDING ONLY INVOLVES THE VALENCE ELECTRONS!). A

chemical bond forms between them if the new arrangement of their

valence electrons has less energy than their previous arrangement.

For many atoms, that new arrangement of their electrons will be that

of the nearest noble gas.

Atoms may acquire a valence shell like that of its closest noble

gas in one of three ways:

1.

2.

3.

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Ionic Compounds

Substances held together by ionic bonds are called

Ionic compounds. Ionic bonds form between metals and

non-metals.

e.g. NaCl, KCl.

Ionic Bonds occur because of the attraction of cations

and anion for each other. Ionic bonds are the electrostatic

attraction between opposite charges. Electrons are

transferred between the atoms during bond formation.

PROPERTIES INCLUDE:

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Ionic Compounds

We can show ionic bonding with Electron Dot Diagrams.

Na and Cl

K and O

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Molecular Compounds

Substances that are composed of molecules are called

Molecular compounds.

e.g. H2O, O2

Although covalent bonds

between atoms of a

molecule are strong,

bonds between more than one molecule are weak (eg. Moth

crystals, nitrogen gas).

PROPERTIES INCLUDE:

DIATOMIC MOLECULES

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Molecular Compounds

We can use Electron Dot Diagrams to show covalent bonds.

N 2

H2O

O 2

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Balanced and Unbalanced Chemical Equations

The Law of Conservation of Mass states:

Therefore, the number of atoms in the reactants must equal the number atoms in the products!

An unbalanced or skeleton equation does not follow the Law of

Conservation of Mass. The number of atoms on the left side

(reactants) does not equal the atoms on the right side (products).

e.g.

A balanced chemical equation follows the Law of Conservation of

Mass. The number of atoms on the left side (reactants) equals the

atoms on the right side (products).

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How to Write Balanced Chemical

Reactions

1. Write the chemical formula for each reactant and product

followed by the state of each:

2. Adjust the numbers of molecules using coefficients

( )

until there is the same number of atoms of each type on both sides of

the equation. This balances the mass of both the reactants and

products.

3. Usually, balancing is easiest when hydrogen and oxygen

atoms are left until the end.

NOTE: Do not change the subscript in a formula to balance an equation.

Changing these numbers changes the molecular structure of the

molecule.

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Chemical Equations and

Reactions

A chemical equation is a description of a

chemical reaction using chemical symbols, not

words! Steps:

1)

2)

3)

4)

e.g. Word Equation

Hydrogen gas plus chlorine gas produces hydrogen chloride gas

e.g. Chemical Equation H2 ( g ) + Cl2 ( g ) HCl ( g )

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Types of Chemical Reactions SYNTHESIS

Involves the combination of smaller atoms and

/or molecules into larger molecules

Two or more reactants combine to make one

product

DECOMPOSITION Opposite to synthesis

Involves the splitting of a large molecule into elements or smaller molecules

One reactant breaks apart into two or more products

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SINGLE DISPLACEMENT

Involves one element replacing or displacing a second

element in a compound

A metal element will only displace a metal in a compound.

e.g.

A non-metal will only displace a non-metal in a compound.

e.g.

DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT

Involves both elements in different compounds displacing each

other or exchanging places.

The metals switch places and the non-metals switch places

o Analogy - two couples dancing and they switch partners

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ACIDS AND BASES

Acids and Bases Acids are solutions that contain a large amount of H+ ions

Bases are solutions that contain a large amount of OH- ions

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Properties of Acids and Bases

Property Acids Bases

Taste

Touch

Indicator Tests

Reaction with metals

Type of oxide reacting with water

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RATES OF REACTIONS

The rate of a reaction is the amount of ______________ produced during a given time.

The __________________________ states that the rate of reaction is affected by the

number of reactant molecules. Molecules in a

or a ________________ are constantly colliding with each other.

Factor Affecting the Rate of Reaction

Molecules during a slow rate of reaction

Molecules during a fast rate of reaction

Temperature

Concentration

Surface Area

Catalyst

Provide an example for each factor that changes the rate of reaction

a) Temperature: __________________________________

b) Concentration: _________________________________

c) Surface Area: __________________________________

d) Catalyst: ______________________________________

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pH Indicators

Indicators:

Examples: 1. Litmus paper

2. Phenolphthalein

Indicators can be made from flowers, fruits,

vegetables, leaves (eg. Red cabbage).

Synthetic indicators are easier to use than natural

indicators because they:

1 .

2 .

Examples of synthetic indicators:

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Neutralization

Neutralization occurs when hydroxide ions (base) and

hydrogen ions (acid) are mixed to make water. The general

word equation is:

After neutralization, the solution no longer has a high

concentration of either ion.

Careful inspection of the beakers will reveal that the ions that have

undergone reaction are the H+ and OH- ions. The Na+ ions and Cl-

ions remain unchanged before and after the reaction. The Na+ ions

and the Cl- ions are called spectator ions.

Before Neutralization:

After Neutralization:

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If we leave out the spectator ions, and write the equation

involving those ions that participated in the reaction, we write the

net ionic equation of neutralization.

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The pH Scale! Definition of pH:

The change in 1 pH unit represents a 10-fold increase (or decrease) in the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution. A pH of 2 is 10x stronger than a pH of 3 A pH of 2 is _____ stronger than a pH of 5 A pH of 2 is _____ stronger than a pH of 7

The scale is numbered from 0 to 14:

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The Strength of Acids and Bases The strength of an acid or base depends on 2 factors:

1 .

2.

THE pH OF ACIDS – strength of acids The number of ___________ produced when an acid is mixed

with water will determine the strength of the acid.

Strong Acid Weak Acid

THE pH OF BASES – strength of bases The number of ____________ produced when a base is mixed

with water will determine the strength of the base.

Strong Base Weak Base

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Acids and Bases Problems 1. Strength of acids and bases on the pH scale. a) Base #1 has a pH of 9. Base #2 has a pH of 13. Which is more basic? How many more times basic is your choice? b) Lemon juice has a pH of 2. Vinegar has a pH of 5. Which is more acidic? How many times more acidic is your choice? 2. What are the products of the following reactions? Write balanced chemical equations for each reaction. a) nitrogen dioxide plus water produces ? b) lithium oxide plus water produces ? c) magnesium oxide plus water produces ? d) carbon dioxide plus water produces? 3. Neutralization of acids and bases. Identify the salt produced in each of the following neutralization reactions and balance the reaction. a) HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) b) H2SO4 (aq) + LiOH (aq) c) H2CO3 (aq) + KOH (aq) d) H3PO4 (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) e) HNO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq)

4. You are required to make the salt Ca(SO4) in the lab, but are given only the following chemicals:

BaO CaO SO4 CO3 SO3 LiO2 K2O H2O SO2 CO2

Use balanced chemical reactions to make the necessary acid and the base. You will then use a balanced chemical reaction to show how your acid and base can be used to make Ca(SO4).