LEARNING

Definition:

“Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior, which is due

to experience or practice."

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• Learning involves change in behavior• Change is due to experience or

practice• The change must last for a fairly long

time.

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Paradigms of learning

• Conditioning: Classical Conditioning Instrumental/Operant Conditioning

• Observational Learning• Cognitive Learning• Verbal Learning• Concept• Learning• Skill Learning

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Conditioning

“…a process by which people or animals are trained to behave in a particular way

when particular things happen.”

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Classical Conditioning

Proposed by: Dr. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a famous Russian physiologist. He had won Nobel Prize for this discovery.

Other names of CC: Respondent Conditioning/ Pavlovian Conditioning.

Definition: “…learning that takes place when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.”

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How Pavlov Discovered CC?

• Actually Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dog. During his studies he noticed that his dogs, started secreting saliva as soon as they saw the empty plate in which food was served.

• Ideally, plate is not a stimuli that is sufficient to activate hunger drive and secrete saliva. So he designed the experiment to see if other neutral stimuli can also do the same job.

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The Experiment Setup: Dog is kept hungry on experimental table

fitted with mechanically controlled devices observer is hidden from dog but he can see the dog through mirrors .

Procedure:1. Bell sound Food is produced.2. Dog Sees food Salivates.3. Step 1 is repeated several times.4. Bell Sound Dog Salivates.

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What Actually happened During The Experiment??

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Concept of US, UR, CS, CR• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): produces response

without prior learning (eg. Food)• Unconditioned Response (UR): the response to US.

This is not due to learning. (eg., salivation on seeing food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): it is that stimulus which was previously neutral. It produces response after learning/ Classical Conditioning has occurred. (eg., sound of bell).

• Conditioned Response (CR): the response to CS. This is due to learning. (eg., salivation on hearing bell).

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Before conditioning US UR

(Food) (Salivation on seeing food)

During conditioning CS+US UR

(Food + Bell) (Salivation on seeing food)

After Conditioning CS CR

(Bell) (Salivation on hearing bell sound.)

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Determinants of Classical Conditioning

1. Time Relations between Stimuli:a) Simultaneous Conditioningb) Delayed Conditioningc) Trace Conditioningd) Backward Conditioning

a), b), c) are also called as forward conditioning. 2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli:

a) Appetitiveb) Aversive.

3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli

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Time Relations between Stimuli:a) Simultaneous conditioning: CS and US are

presented and terminated together.b) Delayed conditioning: CS is presented, leave

it for a while present US and terminate CS & US together. This is most effective way.

c) Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before US is presented.

d) Backward conditioning: CS is presented after US is terminated.

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NOTE: Delayed conditioning is found to be most effective way

of producing a strong conditioned response. According to Ross & Ross (1971), whichever sequence

is used, the time between the stimuli may be critical. The optimal interval between the onset of CS and the onset of US is very short, Typically between one- half and one second. As this interval increases, CS usually weakens. When this gap is more than several seconds, no learning is achieved. Except in learning aversions to certain tastes.

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Type of Unconditioned Stimuli : The US used in studies of CC are basically of two types:

i. Appetitive US automatically elicits approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. These responses give satisfaction and pleasure.

ii. Aversive US such as noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injections, etc. are painful, harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape responses.

Appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires greater number of acquisition trials, but aversive classical conditioning is established in one, two or three trials depending on the intensity of the aversive US.

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Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli

• This influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning.

• More intense CS are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of CR.

• The more intense the CS, the fewer are the number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning.

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Some important concepts• Extinction: Repetition of CS without US

vanishes CR.• Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, if CS

is repeatedly followed by US, CR will once again be produced. (Re-learning)

• Stimulus Generalization : CR is produced on stimuli that are similar to CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: CR is produced on specific CS only.

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Application• Most fears are produced by CC.

Therefore, CC techniques are used to eliminate phobia. Most of the treatments for phobia are based on CC principles.

• Addictions are also developed by CC itself. Like phobia, CC principles are used to treat addiction as well.

• CC plays an important role in hypertension as well. Research says that high B.P. is easily conditioned to stressful events. Thus, a person who has experienced many stressful events at home/workplace, shows high B.P. by simply walking into that environment.

• Systematic desensitization is a form of therapy which was used to treat anxiety disorders. Its no more used now-a-days.

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