CIVIL WAR“THE DIE IS CAST”

Who caused the Civil War?

Caesar? “ His ambition had soared so high because he was conscious of his power to become the master of the Empire.’ Gelzer

Pompey and Caesar?” Pompey for his part was reluctant to let anyone stand on the same pinnacle as himself. For this reason and because he had been listening to Caesar’s enemies he had completely severed his friendly connections with Caesar.” Caesar

‘Absolute power has been what he and Pompey sought.’ Cicero Senate? “ A precedent has been created in government; in the recent

past, armed force restored the tribunes veto; now armed force is repressing and overriding it.”Caesar

“The Roman Senate, which had sole responsibility for foreign policy and warmaking, became reluctant to finance the large standing army necessary to police and defend this territory.  The result was that control and support of Rome’s armies gradually fell to its generals… “ Jimenez

“ The nobility gloried in idleness and at the same time trembled for their wealth, the use and the increase of which they accounted greater than eternal life itself.”Aurelius Victor

A broader view? .”On broader grounds it may be confidently said that the civil war was not of Caesar's making.....Caesar in 49 like Sulla in 83 was offered the choice between self defense and political extinction......therefore the 22 extremist senators who insisted on Caesar's recall were in fact insisting on Civil War. To them the feud with Caesar had become a higher object than the welfare of the State."  Cary 

Lucan’s Pharsalia

Such were the hidden motives of the chiefs;But in the public life the seeds of warTheir hold had taken, such as are the doomOf potent nations: and when fortune pouredThrough Roman gates the booty of a world,The curse of luxury, chief bane of states,Fell on her sons. Farewell the ancient ways!Behold the pomp profuse, the houses deckedWith ornament; their hunger loathed the foodOf former days; men wore attire for damesScarce fitly fashioned; poverty was scorned,Fruitful of warriors; and from all the worldCame that which ruins nations

Great was the glory in the minds of men,Ambition lawful even at point of sword,To rise above their country: might their law:Decrees were forced from Senate and from Plebs:Consul and Tribune broke the laws alike:Bought were the fasces, and the people soldFor gain their favour: bribery's fatal curse

Triumvirate

Wealth from empire

Declining moral values

Ambition

Violence

corruption

The Protaganists“When the principal combatants are Roman and members of the elite, the difference between us and them is blurred”Cynthia Damon

Caesar’s reality was that he had begun a Civil War with one legion. All of Rome’s legions were under Pompey’s command, but dispersed.

Justifying actions

".They [the hostile senators] have seduced Pompey . . . and led him astray, through jealous belittling of my merits . . . I ask you to defend my reputation and standing against the assaults of my enemies.“

Caesar, The Civil War, I.8.

A General and an Orator

"Fellow-soldiers - you are joined with me in the greatest of undertakings - neither the winter weather, nor the delay of our comrades, nor the want of suitable preparations shall check my onset. I consider rapidity of movement the best substitute for all these things...Let us oppose our good fortune to the winter weather, our courage to the smallness of our numbers, and to our want of supplies the abundance of the enemy, which will be ours to take as soon as we touch the land... It is needless to tell you that the most potent thing in war is the unexpected...For my part I would rather be sailing than talking, so that I may come to Pompey's sight while he thinks me engaged in my official duties in Rome.“

Caesar's speech to his soldiers in Brundisium after Pompey's forces had escaped.

After the Rubicon?

The senatorial party had given command to Pompey but, as Pompey slowly gathered his legions, Caesar took city after city in northern Italy, almost all by peaceful surrender. It appeared that all of northern Italy would fall to Caesar without a serious battle. Pompey was now in his late '50s, and had not commanded troops in the field for 15 years. His slow response to Caesar's invasion may have been a sign of age, or possibly a sign that the legions available to the Republic in Italia had, in many cases, fought with Caesar's legendary Gallic legions: their loyalty was debatable.

Pompey’s Strategy

Pompey intended to fight Caesar, not in Italia, but in Asia, an area of the Roman world in which he had strong connections and many client-kings.

Unfortunately, in the scramble to evacuate Rome,

neither Pompey nor the Senators thought to take charge of Rome's treasury, stored under the Temple of Saturn. Caesar would find it intact when he entered Rome and impounded the lot - 15,000 bars of golden, 30,000 bars of silver, and 30,000,000 sesterces in coin.

Caesar’s approach- gently ,gently

"...I had of my own accord decided to show all possible clemency and to do my best to reconcile Pompey. Let us try whether by this means we can win back the goodwill of all and enjoy a lasting victory, seeing that others have not managed by cruelty to escape hatred or to make their victories endure, except only L. Sulla, whom I do not propose to imitate. Let this be the new style of conquest, to make mercy and generosity our shield."  

 Cicero, quoting Caesar, Selected Letters, 68. 

BLITZKREIG

The suddenness of Caesar’s advance surprised everyone, including Pompey. He quickly left Rome declaring that it could not be defended. Most magistrates and the two Consuls left with him Many Romans were uncertain as to which side to joinThe first clash came at Corfinium where Domitius Ahenobarbus had mustered new recruits, planning to hold the city

Clemency of Corfinium

By February Caesar had united the 13th and 12th legions. They soon blockaded the town

Ahenobarbus received a letter from Pompey refusing aid and in his panic the soldiers and tribunes arrested him and sent envoys to Caesar acknowledging their surrender.

Ahenobarbus requested poison from his physician but on hearing of Caesar’s clemency went out to surrender. He was accompanied by 50 senators and equestrians.

Caesar repeated to them how unjustly he had been treated, reminding them of personal favours he had done many of them in the past.

After that they were allowed to go free. Never had so many distinguished Romans received such clemency at the hands of an enemy.

Cicero’s reaction

 " But do you see what sort of man this is into whose hands the state has fallen, how clever, alert, well prepared? I verily believe that if he takes no lives and touches no man's property those who dreaded him most will become his warmest admirers." "  Cicero, Selected Letters, 67

Brundisium

Caesar was joined at Brundisium by the veteran Eighth legion. Caesar now had 6 legions and cohorts from Transalpine Gaul.

Caesar made further attempts to negotiate with Pompey but on the night of March 17 Pompey escaped with his legions in ships to Greece. In time he planned to raise more troops and march on Rome. He often declared to those who would listen “ Sulla did it, why shouldn’t I.”

For the moment Caesar could not follow due to lack of ships. Rather than waste time Caesar very shrewdly chose to turn his attention to Spain which contained Pompey’s best legions

He remarked that he was going to fight “ an army without a general” and that then he would deal with “ a general without an army”

Stages of the Civil WarStage 1Aug 49Caesar defeats Pompey’s forces in Spain & controls MassiliaOctober Caesar appointed Dictator of RomeStage 2Dec 49Caesar pursuesPompey to BrundisiumAnd transports Troops toDyrrachiumStage 3Jan 48 Defeat at DyrrachiumStage 4Aug 48 Victory atPharsalusAugust 48 Caesar appointed Consul for 5 yearsStage 547,46,45 BCCaesar fights the remnant Pompeian forces in the Battles of Zela, Thapsus and Munda44BC Caesar appointed Dictator Perpetuos

Caesar in Spain

In Spain Caesar’s troops were almost defeated because of the loose order of the Spanish army. Floodwaters had also blocked off the supply routes but Caesar devised a solution by building bridges and transport ships. He relentlessly pursued the Pompeians who were surprised by his celeritas

It took Caesar's augmented legions less than six months - to August, 49 - to break the resistance of the port of Massilia (Marseilles), which had effectively declared for Pompey, and to destroy Pompey's armies in Spain.

October- Caesar appointed Dictator in Rome

Caesar wrote to Cicero. “Have no doubt that many

times I have been grateful to you…This is no more than you deserve. First though, I implore you and draw on your counsel, goodwill, dignity and assistance of every kind.”

• The main confrontation came when Caesar attempted to use the State Treasury.

• Metellus stood in front of the Treasury and imposed his veto. The soldiers ignored this and using axes chopped the doors down

• However Caesar wished to present a façade of normality.

• The praetor Marcus Lepidus appointed Caesar as Dictator but Caesar was to be elected as Consul for 48BC, unorthodox but legal..

• After just 11 days Caesar resigned as Dictator and set out to pursue Pompey

Transporting the legions across the Adriatic

Dyrrachium, The importance of Logistics

Dyrrhachium was one of the rare defeats in Caesar's career, which he readily admitted: "Today my enemies would have finished the war if they had a commander who knew how to win a victory." (Appian, II, 62). But as Caesar was consistent, so also was Pompey. At the critical moment, he hesitated and lost his chance of delivering the decisive blow. When Caesar rallied his soldiers and moved southeast, hoping to lure Pompey away from his all-important supply lines, Pompey initially pursued him but then gave it up after a few days, holding war councils instead about what to do next. He apparently viewed what was to come largely as a mopping-up operation. He finally set off after Caesar only to meet him at Pharsalus.

Tactics of Seige and starvation

Dyrrachium

Pompeys fleet offshore was unable to land because of Caesar’s blockade and the commander Bibulus died of disease, fatigue and starvation.

Caesar’s troops also short of food resorted to using barley for bread ( usually used as animal feed.) and the root of a plant called charax.

When Pompey heard this he commented that he was fighting beasts not soldiers.

Trusting your Instincts

• But he [Pompey] had around him a great number of senators of equal status to himself .Some of them lacked experience; some were unreasonably elated by the successes at Dyrrhachium; some also by their superiority in numbers; and some were thoroughly tired of the war and keen to put an unduly rapid end to it. They all urged Pompeius to fight, constantly drawing his attention to Caesar, who kept on forming up his army and offering battle.. " 

•  Appian, The Civil War, II, 67

Goldsworthy

“ Another man might perhaps have been able to adhere to the course that he knew to be wiser but Pompeius’ concern for the good opinion of men betrayed him.”

Tacticsview documentary

http://www.geocities.com/i_s_s_alpha/Pharsalus.html

Clemencia

 " When Pompeius' left wing crumbled, even then the legionaries retreated step by step still locked in battle, while the allies retreated headlong, making no resistance and shouting 'We've lost.'.Caesar then made a particularly shrewd move to avoid another trial of strength and to ensure that the result decided not an isolated battle, but the whole campaign. He sent heralds into the ranks all over the battlefield, who ordered the victors not to harm their fellow-countrymen, but attack only the allies.Caesar's men, sweeping through them, began to kill the allies, who were unable to resist, and the most tremendous carnage ensued. " 

 Appian, The Civil War, II, 80

Pompey flees Pharsalus

Not only did Pompey not fight with his soldiers but on seeing the battle turn in favour of the Caesarions he returned to camp, gathered his goods and headed for Egypt where he would rely on the gratitude of Ptolemy Auletes son.

"In Pompey's camp could be seen artificial arbors, a great weight of silver plate laid out, tents spread with fresh turf and . . . covered with ivy, and many other indications of extravagant indulgence and confidence in victory; so that it could readily be judged that they had no fears for the outcome of the day." Caesar, III, 96

In Caesar’s own words

 "They would have it so. I, Gaius Caesar, should have been condemned despite all my achievements had I not appealed to my army for help."

"…they all thought only of offices, financial rewards, vengeance on their personal enemies and of how to exploit their victory instead of how to win it."

Pompey flees to Egypt where Ptolemy V11 presents his head to Caesar .Caesar is supposed to have wept, distraught at the loss of a former friend and accorded him an honorouble Roman burial

Caesar and CleopatraAnother lesson

BELLUM ALEXANDRINUM

1. Caesar arrived in Alexandria , wept at the sight of Pompey’s head and became embroiled in the dynastic dispute between Ptolemy X111 and her sister Cleopatra. Caesar insisted that according to their fathers will, they should rule jointly. He also insisted that the unpaid taxes to Rome should be paid immediately. Pothinus the eunich as Regent to the boy king and his General Achillas summoned an army of 20,000 soldiers and besieged Caesar and his men in the Royal Quarters. They poisoned the canal water leading to the Royal Palace and Caesar and his men were forced to dig wells to obtain drinking water. At one point flaming archers were used to fire at Egyptian ships, however the fire became uncontrollable and spread to the library of Alexandria, famed as the most extensive in the world.

2. The siege continued for many months with much of the fighting taking place in the streets against Egyptian civilians. Caesar tried to break the stranglehold of the Egyptian fleet in the harbor, by using his own small Roman fleet to gain control of Pharos Island. Caesar remarked that whoever controlled the island, controlled Alexandria. Fighting was intense, Caesar’s troops outnumbered and Caesar was forced to call a retreat, jumping from his own ship and swimming back to the Royal quarter.

3. Arsinoe, Cleopatra’s sister, held by Caesar, escaped and made her way to Achillas camp, where she and her advisor Gannymede, poisoned Achillas and took control of the army. ( major sibling rivalry!!!)

4. A relief army consisting of Rome’s allies, headed by Mithridates of

Pergamum and about 3,000 jews appeared in the Eastern Delta, having come overland from Syria. The strong presence of Jews , led by Hyrcanus and Antipater ( father of Herod the Great)swayed the resident Jews in favour of Caesar. Caesar , left a small contingent in the Royal Quarters and with one legion made his way to the Delta, to join the allied forces and defeat Arsinoe’s army. The outcome was a function of the effectiveness of Roman short sword fighting against the Egyptian long spears. Ptolemy fled down the river but his boat sank and the boy king drowned. Cleopatra was installed as legitimate ruler and Caesar then remained in Alexandria for the next 2 months, causing the resentment of his troops.

In 2004 marine archaeologists claim to have discovered the remains of the palace as well as the remains of the library. The remains clearly suggest a much later burning of the library after the Arab invasion.

Battles over three Continents

ZELA, SYRIA 47BC THAPSUS, AFRICA 46BC MUNDA SPAIN 46/45 BC

ZELA CAESAR QUICKEST VICTORY

As Caesar was starting to build his camp near Pharnaces, he was amazed when the Pontic forces began forming for battle just in front of his camp. Thinking it was a mere show of force on Pharnaces’ part, Caesar’s men kept working on their camp. But the Pontic army began advancing on the Roman position. When it became apparent that the enemy actually intended to do battle, the Romans had little time to assemble. Then the Pontic scythed chariots charged forward, adding to the confusion in the Roman ranks. The chariots were eventually driven back by missile fire. As the main lines came into contact, the VI legion on the right pushed the Pontic forces back in hard fighting. Elsewhere along the line, victory came more slowly, but in the end almost all of Pharnaces’ army was captured or killed. The report of the battle Caesar sent back to Rome was famously brief: “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered.)

Battle of Zela

”Five days after his arrival [approximately August 1, and four hours after catching site of Pharnaces, Caesar won a crushing victory at Zela; and commented drily on Pompey’s good fortune in having built up his reputation for generalship by victories over such poor stuff as this Over a year later, at Caesar’s Pontic triumph, one of the decorated wagons carried only a simple three word inscription, now part of the legend, describing the swift savagery of Caesar’s victory: VENI, VIDI, VICI ("I came, I saw, I conquered").

BATTLE OF THAPSUS

Caesar opposed the pachyderms with light archers and slingers, while taking personal command of his right wing. As the battle began, volleys of missiles sent the elephants reeling. At nearly the same time, Caesar’s infantry, eager for battle, attacked without orders. Many of the elephants stampeded into the center of Caesar’s line, where the 5th legion Alaudae ( the Larks) was advancing. The 5th was a Gallic legion, recruited in Transalpine Gaul. The Larks bravely stood firm against the elephants, and later adopted the elephant as their legionary symbol. Caesar’s horse countered a Numidian cavalry charge and forced them to flee. After the failed charge, the Pompeian line crumbled and the rout was on. Pompeian resistance in Africa had been crushed

TACTICS AND DETERMINATION

A coin minted to pay Caesar’s troops during the Civil War

The FINAL BATTLE MUNDA

It is at this battle that Caesar faces Trebonius, Labienus, Sextus and Gneus Pompey

Fighting for his Life

Pompey deployed in a strong hill top position so Caesar was faced with an uphill battle. Rather than maneuver for advantage, Caesar uncharacteristically ordered a frontal assault on the strong enemy position. Caesar’s cavalry and light troops attacked both enemy wings but gained no advantage. Some of the hardest fighting in Caesar’s life unfolded as the two armies slogged it out. The Pompeians fought with true desperation, for many of those soldiers had been pardoned by Caesar, and then deserted back to Pompey. For them there would be no second chances. Finally, Caesar’s 10th legion on the right managed to push the opposing forces back. Pompey, under council of Labienus, ordered troops to move from his right to the threatened left flank. Caesar’s cavalry on the left saw the move and made a mighty charge that pushed back the Pompeian right wing. The faltering of both wings eventually caused the raw legions in Pompey’s center to bolt back toward the town. About 30,000 Pompeians died – most slaughtered in the rout. Gnaeus Pompey died with them, and also Titus Labienus

" For a moment his troops panicked, and Caesar, who only a few months before had the world at his feet, gave way to terror at the thought of dying on some remote Spanish battlefield. Men remembered that he had 'the look of death on his face' as he plunged into battle; his sudden appearance stemmed the rout. 'On other occasions I fought for victory,' he said, 'but today I fought for my life.' The Roman historian Velleius Paterculus writes that the battle was the bloodiest and most perilous Caesar had ever fought. It was also to be his last."

    Robert Payne, Horizon Ancient Rome,121

Why did Caesar win the Civil War?

1.His army was better and faster, allowing him always to be on the offensive. His veterans were seasoned from the Gallic campaigns and he made use of Gallic cavalry.

2.Caesar’s financial base was strong enough to reward his veterans. In the post Marius era, a generals ability to support the soldiers was paramount in determining his own invincibility.

3.Caesar demonstrated repeatedly, his clemencia to opponents and was thus able to gather forces to his side; “ Caesar…incorporated in his own forces all the contingents of troops which were being raised for Pompey in the various states..”

Reasons for victory

4.Pompey’s strategy was to defeat Caesar using superior naval power. Whereas Caesar had 11 legions, Pompey commanded 7 in Spain and 2 in Italy. In the east however Pompey could call on his clients to supply huge contingents. Caesar did not have a fleet and hence did not pursue him

5.Caesar ,knowing the importance of logistics concentrated on Spain and as well occupied grain supplying Sardinia and Sicily

6.In Spain, despite the disadvantage of blocked supply routes from floodwaters, Caesar built ships and a bridge. His personal qualities of daring relentlessness and celeritas, already shown in Gaul were now ensuring victory in Spain.

Reasons for Victory

7. At the battle of Dyrrachium the nature of generalship proved important. Although Pompey had gained the upper hand and had encircled Caesar’s troops, fearing an ambush, he did not pursue.

As Pompey pursued Caesar into Thessaly, he was reluctant to expose his troops to the more experienced legions of Caesar, but he allowed himself to be pressured by the nobles in the camp who were bent on a quick victory

On the plain of Pharsalus generalship and tactics decided the outcome. Pompey’s forces were double that of Caesar’s. When Caesar saw the army drawn up, with a concentration of cavalry on the left, Caesar quickly reinforced the left flank with 6 cohorts. Despite the numerical disadvantage Caesar’s troops, seasoned, fit and intensely loyal to him were able to defeat Pompey.

Plutarch

“ Pompey’s greatest mistake and Caesar’s cleverist move was in having the battle so far away from any naval engagement.”

“The gift which contributed most largely to Caesar's success was an abnormally energetic ability to get things done. This was conspicuously apparent in the occupation of warfare in which he excelled all his rivals.... His character was an amalgamation of genius, method, culture, thoroughness, intellect and industry.”

Michael Grant

Cary, A History of Rome

“ The war between the Caesarians and Pompeians was unique among the conflicts of ancient history in covering the entire Mediterranean…In this context the legions of Caesar proved themselves the most efficient infantry of ancient times and their commander exploited to the utmost their tactical skill and endurance in marching and entrenching.”

Historians on the Civil War

" For Caesar publicly declared that only two things were needed to rule, soldiers and money, and armies could only be held together with money… since the Roman citizen force had inevitably changed into an army of professional soldiers, the imperator with his veterans took the political place of the patron and his clients. What some had feared and others aspired to, for decades, was fully realized in the person of Caesar; the conqueror of Gaul whom the old powers refused to recognize overwhelmed all resistance and, on the strength of an authority based solely on the loyalty of his soldiers, was reaching for the government of the Empire."  

 Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman

Epilogue: Triumph and Tragedy

it was estimated that the display of spoils in the processions totaled over 300 million sesterce. This grand total was partially doled out to Caesar's veterans and the population of Rome. His surviving veterans received 5,000 denarii (20,000 sesterce) each, the Centurions received 10,000 and his Tribunes 20,000 denarii each. The citizens of Rome received 300 sesterce each, were treated to a lavish dinner on a grand scale and were additionally given a free grain and oil dole amounting to 10 pecks and 10 pounds respectively. The games, held in the Circus Maximus, were spectacular as well. Over 1,000 gladiators fought in combat, countless animals were slaughtered and the Campus Martius was flooded to provide a mock naval battle. The triumphs of Caesar did much to secure the love of the people, and alleviate their fears, but the Senate would prove to be another story.