CITY OF LAKEWOOD’S 2015 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INVENTORY SUMMARY REPORT

OCTOBER2016

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Contents WhyaGreenhouseGasEmissionInventoryMatters.....................................................................1

WhatWeCanLearnfromaGHGInventory...................................................................................2

PracticingAccountabilityandLeadership.......................................................................................2

InventoryMethodology..................................................................................................................3

2007InventoryMethodology.....................................................................................................3

2015InventoryMethodology.....................................................................................................3

EmissionsAnalysis..........................................................................................................................5

KeyFindingsfrom2015Inventory..............................................................................................5

ComparisonbetweenInventories..................................................................................................6

FactorsInfluencingEmissions.........................................................................................................9

EmissionFactorTrends...............................................................................................................9

CommunityIndicatorTrends......................................................................................................9

EconomicTrends.......................................................................................................................11

EnergyTrends...........................................................................................................................11

TransportationTrends..............................................................................................................12

WasteTrends............................................................................................................................13

Consumption-basedTrends......................................................................................................13

ConclusionsandNextSteps..........................................................................................................14

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Why a Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Matters Thegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsinventorydescribedinthisdocumentisacriticalstepinmaintainingLakewood’sleadershipinlocalclimateaction.

Naturally occurring gases dispersed in the atmosphere determine the Earth’s climate bytrappingsolar radiation.Thisphenomenon isknownas thegreenhouseeffect.OverwhelmingscientificevidenceclearlyshowsthathumanactivitiesareincreasingtheconcentrationofGHGsandchangingtheglobalclimate.Themostsignificantcontributionstoclimatechangearetheburning of fossil fuels for transportation and energy and the breakdown of waste, whichintroduce large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and other GHGs1into theatmosphere. Collectively, these gases intensify the natural greenhouse effect, causing globalaveragesurfaceandloweratmospherictemperaturestorise.

WhileColorado isalreadyexperiencingsomechangesduetoclimatechange,variousstudies2releasedinthelastfewyearsdetailpotentiallysevereimpactsofclimatechangeinColorado.Commonthemesinclude:

• Average temperatures are expected to increase by 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit to 4.5degreesFahrenheit.

• Seasonalshiftsinprecipitation.• Reductionsinavailablewater.• Increaseinthenumberofdaysthatexceed90degreesand100degrees.3• Moreseverestormsandfloodingandmoreextremewildfires.• Increaseinheatrelatedillnessesandpoorairquality.• Increaseinpinebeetleandrelatedtree-killingoutbreaks;3.5milliontrees infested

todate.4

Colorado’s ecosystems, public health and safety, and economic viability (particularly tourismand agriculture industries) are at risk, and Colorado residents, businesses, and municipaloperationswill be impacted.AGHG inventory assesses a community’s contribution to globalclimatechangeandinformscommunitypoliciesandprogramsthatwillreduceGHGemissions.

1ThesixGHGsinclude:carbondioxide,methane,nitrousoxide,hydrofluorocarbons,perfluorocarbons,andsulfurhexafluoride.2Resultsfromvariousstudiescitedin:http://www.coclimatenetwork.org/images/ColoLocalResilienceProjectRpt-lowres.pdf.3Formoreinformationsee:http://www.denverpost.com/2016/09/22/front-range-climate-change-heat/.4 For more information see: http://csfs.colostate.edu/forest-management/common-forest-insects-diseases/mountain-pine-beetle/

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What We Can Learn from a GHG Inventory TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeestimates thatcitiesproduce60%to80%ofallGHGemissions,makingcitiesacriticalparticipantandpartnerinthesustainabilitymovement.5,6

Lakewood’s GHG inventory provides a picture of GHG emissions created by the activities ofLakewood residents, businesses, institutions, and industries. By comparing inventories overtime,Lakewoodcantrackthesuccessofexistingandfutureclimatechangerelatedpoliciesandprograms.Thesecomparisonscreateadynamicfeedbackloopthatcaninformandshapefutureimprovementstrategies.

Practicing Accountability and Leadership In2015,LakewoodcommittedtotheglobalCompactofMayors(Compact),aworldwideefforttohighlighttheleadershipofcitiesinaddressingclimatechangeanddemonstratethecollectiveimpact of city efforts. One of the requirements of the Compact is the completion of a GHGinventory that is Global Protocol for Community-Scale GHG Emissions (GPC) compliant.Lakewood’s 2015 GHG inventory is GPC compliant and fulfills the first step Lakewood hascommittedtoundertheCompact.

FIGURE1.COMPACTREQUIREMENTS

5Formoreinformationsee:http://www.unep.org/SBCI/pdfs/Cities_and_Buildings-UNEP_DTIE_Initiatives_and_projects_hd.pdf6FormoreinformationontheroleofcitiesandclimatechangeseeLotus’blog:ThePowerofMunicipalities:http://www.lotussustainability.com/blog/2015/8/11/the-power-of-municipalities.

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Inventory Methodology The2015LakewoodGHGinventoryusestheapproachandmethodsprovidedbyGPC.TheGPCis the official protocol specified by the Compact ofMayors, and defines what categories ofemissionsmustbereportedandhow. Inaddition, this inventorydrawsonmethods fromtheU.S. Community Protocol, which provides more detailed methodology specific to U.S.communities.

2007 Inventory Methodology A Lakewood community inventory was previously completed for 2007 emissions using aDemand-Centered,HybridLife-CycleMethodology.TheGPCandtheDemand-Centered,HybridLife-Cyclemethodologiesaligninsomewaysbutalsohavesomenotabledifferences.

Forconsistency,Lakewoodrevisedthe2007inventorytobeGPCcompliant.

2015 Inventory Methodology The GPC protocol was released in 2014 and provides a transparent GHG accountingmethodology for reporting community GHG emissions, and unlike many other protocols,provides a consistent structure that will enable better comparisons among different cities.7Therearetworeportinglevelsforthecommunityframework:

• BASIC:TheBASICmethodologycoversstationaryenergy,in-boundarytransportation,andcommunity-generatedwaste.

• BASIC+:TheBASIC+levelincludesBASICemissionsources,aswellastrans-boundarytransportation;energytransmissionanddistributionlosses;industrialprocessesandproductuse;andagriculture,forestryandotherlanduses.

7Formoreinformationsee:http://www.ghgprotocol.org/city-accounting.

TABLE1.DIFFERENCESBETWEEN2007AND2015METHODOLOGIES

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Basedonavailabledata, Lakewoodhas chosen theBASIC reporting level,which is consistentwith many other cities to date. To ensure consistency with previous inventories, the 2015inventory includes additional BASIC+ sources. While the GPC protocol excludes avoidedemissionsfromrenewableenergycreditsandrenewableenergy,theseavoidedemissionswerecalculatedasinformation-onlyitems.

GPCdefinesemissionscopesbywhetheremissionsoccurwithinthecityboundaryoroutsidethecityboundary,whereasBASICemissionscopesaredefinedasfollows:

• Scope1:GHGemissionsfromsourceslocatedwithinthecityboundary,including:o Energyandtransportationfuelcombustion.o Fugitiveemissions.o Solidwastetreatedwithinthecity.o Wastewatertreatedwithinthecity.

• Scope 2: GHG emissions occurring as a consequence of the use of grid-suppliedelectricity,heat,steamand/orcoolingwithinthecityboundary.

• Scope 3: GHG emissions that occur outside the city boundary as a result of activitiestakingplacewithinthecityboundary,including:

o Solidwastetreatedoutsidethecity.o Wastewatertreatedoutsidethecity.

• Non-GPCScope3(Consumption-Based):AllGHGemissionsthatarenotrequiredtobereportedperGPCprotocolbutmayhelp citiesbetterunderstandGHGemissions thatresultfromconsumption-basedactivities.ForLakewood,consumption-basedemissionswereoriginallycalculatedinthe2007inventoryandwerecalculatedagainforthe2015inventorytosupportcomparisons.Thesesourcesinclude:

o Treatingdrinkingwater.o Well-to-pumpfuelproduction.o Cementuse.o Foodpurchases.

Itshouldbenotedthattrans-boundaryaviation,airlinetravelfromDenverInternationalAirport(DIA)attributedtoLakewood,wasrecordedasaBASIC+Scope3emissionsource.

With theexceptionofelectricityandnatural gasemission factors, theGPCprotocoluses themostup-to-dateemissionfactorsbasedonICLEI’sU.S.CommunityProtocolforAccountingandReporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Version 1.0, July 2013. Electricity and natural gasemissionfactorsaresourcedfromXcelEnergy’s2015AnnualCommunityReport.8

8Formoreinformationsee:https://www.xcelenergy.com/working_with_us/municipalities/community_energy_reports.

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Emissions Analysis Key Findings from 2015 Inventory The2015LakewoodGHGinventorycalculatedatotalemissionvalueof2,391,358mtCO2eandatotalBASICemissionvalueof1,652,223mtCO2e.

FIGURE2.TOTALEMISSIONSANDBASICEMISSIONS

Commercial,institutional,andindustrialbuildingenergyusewerethelargestcontributorstoLakewood’semissionsin2015,contributing25%ofoverallemissions.On-roadtransportation(whichincludesgasolineanddiesel-poweredvehiclesandpublictransit),andenergyuseinresidentialbuildingsfollowcloselybehindat22%and21%ofoverallemissions,respectively.EmissionsforallsectorsareshowninFigure3.Alltogether,thesethreesectorsaccountforapproximately68%ofLakewood’stotalemissions.

FIGURE3.TOTALEMISSIONSBYSECTOR

Itshouldbenotedthatwhenconsumption-basedemissionsareexcluded(i.e.aBASICemissiontotal), commercial, institutional and industrial building energy use accounts for 36% of totalemissions,on-roadtransportationaccountsfor32%oftotalemissions,andresidentialbuildingenergyuseaccountsfor30%oftotalemissions.Thesethreeemissionsourcesrepresent98%oftotalBASICemissions.

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Comparison between Inventories Between2007and2015,overallGHGEmissionsinLakewoodreducedby2.3%.Excludingconsumption-basedGHGemissions(i.e.aBASICemissiontotal),Lakewood’semissionsdecreasedby8.5%between2007and2015.Thisreductionisnotableinlightofa6.6%increaseinthecommunity’spopulationanda10.2%increaseincommunityjobs.SeeFigures4and12formoreinformation.

FIGURE4.COMPARISONBETWEEN2007AND2015GHGINVENTORIES

Whenemissionsarebrokendownbysector,weseethateachsector’scontributionhaschangedbetween2007and2015.Emissionsfrombuildingshavedecreasedby10.5%,andemissionsfromtransportationhavedecreasedby5.5%.However,thetotalreductionwasoffsetbyanincreaseinconsumption-basedemissions(21.6%increase)andwasteemissions(4.5%increase).

Commercial, institutional, and industrial building energy use, residential energy use, and on-road transportationconsistentlyaccount foramajorityofGHGemissions (bothundera totalemissionsprofileandaBASICemissionprofile),asdemonstratedbyFigures5and6.

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FIGURE5.COMPARISONOFTOTALEMISSIONSOVERTIMEBYSECTOR

FIGURE6.COMPARISONOFBASICEMISSIONSOVERTIMEBYSECTOR

Electricity continues to be the largest emission source followed by transportation (on-roadtransportationandairlinetravel).In2015,consumption-basedactivities(includingcementand

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foodpurchasesandtreatingdrinkingwater)makeupalargepercentageoftheGHGemissionsatalmost26%.

Using a BASIC inventory methodology (non-consumption based), the leading sources ofemissionsinLakewood’s2015inventoryremainsconsistentwiththe2007baselineinventory.Thesehigh-emissionssourcesincludeelectricityandnaturalgasusedinbuildingsandfuelusedfortransportation,includingon-roadtransportationandairlinetravel.

FIGURE8.2015TOTALEMISSIONSBYSOURCEFIGURE7.2007TOTALEMISSIONSBYSOURCE

FIGURE 10. 2015 GPC BASIC TOTALEMISSIONSBYSOURCE

FIGURE 9. 2007 GPC BASIC TOTAL EMISSIONSBYSOURCE

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Factors Influencing Emissions Emissions are a product of emission factors and activity data. Activity data is influenced byconsumption and generation behaviors and community indicators (i.e. population, economicgrowth, etc.). Changes in emissions result from the interplayof these factors. Lakewood caninfluencepositivechangesinemissionsthroughvariousprograms,policies,andoutreach,andeducationefforts.Areviewofemissionchangesandthefactors that influencethosechangesinform how well Lakewood’s climate change initiatives are working and may notify whereLakewoodshouldfocusfutureefforts.

ThefollowingisanoverviewofthedriversthateffectedtheGHGemissionsbetween2007and2015.

Emission Factor Trends Colorado’sRenewableEnergyStandard9requiresXcelEnergytoincreasetheefficiencyoftheiroperations and source increasing amounts of energy from low- to zero-carbon sources (i.e.renewableenergy,recycledenergy,etc.).Asaresult,themixofenergysourcesthatsupplyXcelEnergy’selectricgridchangeseveryyearandtheresultingelectricityemissionfactordecreaseseveryyear.BasedondatafromXcelEnergy,electricityemissionfactorsdecreasednearly16%from 2007 to 2015. It should be noted that the while Xcel Energy publishes a natural gasemissionfactor,itisnotexpectedtochangeannually.

FIGURE11.CHANGESINEMISSIONFACTORS

ThishasanenormousimpactonLakewood’semissions.Asignificantportionofanyreductioninelectricity-generated emissions is attributable to the reduced emission factor. The reducedemission factor may result in reductions in electricity-generated emissions, even whenelectricityactivitydataincreased.

Community Indicator Trends Between2007and2015,Lakewoodexperiencedsignificantgrowthinpopulationandrevenue,and the number of households, jobs, and businesses. Each of these trends affects GHGemissions through the increase in consumption, square footage, transportation needs, andexpenditures.

9Formoreinformationsee:https://www.xcelenergy.com/staticfiles/xe/Corporate/CRR2013/environment/renewable-energy.html.

Energy Units 2007 2015%ChangeAgainstBaseline

ElectrictyEmissionsFactor MTCO2e/MWh 0.83855 0.70794 -15.6%

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FIGURE12.CHANGESINCOMMUNITYINDICATORS

Whilegrowthcanbenefit thecommunityofLakewoodthroughaddedtaxrevenuesandraiseother city indicators, it makes the task of achieving significant reductions in GHG emissionsmore challenging. Fortunately, Lakewood is reducing overall GHG emissions in the face ofgrowth,andinsomecases,normalizedmetricspresentdrasticreductions.

Alongwitharisingpopulation,thenumberofhouseholds, jobs,andbusinesseshas increasedbetween7%and26%sincethebaselineyear,yettotalnaturalgasconsumptionhasdecreasedby4.6%andelectricityconsumptionhasonlyslightlyincreased(2.3%).

FIGURE13.CHANGESINENERGYACTIVITYDATA

When emissions take into account community indicators (i.e. population, households, andemployees),weseedrasticemission reductions ranging from15.1% to17.8% (seeFigure14)andusagereductionsrangingfrom4.9%to12.6%(Figure15).

Energy Units 2007 2015%ChangeAgainstBaseline

ResidentialElectric kWh 460,547,000 452,426,346 -1.8%ResidentialNaturalGas dTh 3,824,394 3,625,350 -5.2%C&IElectric kWh 649,822,000 683,389,093 5.2%C&INaturalGas dTh 2,435,527 2,345,061 -3.7%TotalElectric kWh 1,110,369,000 1,135,815,439 2.3%TotalNaturalGas dTh 6,259,920 5,970,411 -4.6%ElectrictyEmissionsFactor MTCO2e/MWh 0.83855 0.70794 -15.6%

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FIGURE14.NORMALIZEDEMISSIONDATA

FIGURE15.NORMALIZEDENERGYDATA

Economic Trends Normalizedeconomicmetricsshowsubstantialreductionssincethebaselineyear.Lakewoodisverysuccessfulinreducingtotalemissionsinlightofsignificanteconomicgrowth.

FIGURE16.ECONOMICTRENDS

Energy Trends AsshowninFigure15,residentialelectricityusageperpersondecreasedby7.9%from2007to2015. This decrease was somewhat offset by population growth, with overall residentialelectricityusedecreasingonly1.8%(seeFigure13).Between2007and2015,electricityusageperemployeedecreasedby4.6%(seeFigure15).Thisdecreasewasnotlargeenoughtooffsetgrowthinbusinessesandnumberofemployees,andoverallcommercialelectricityuseincreasedby5.2%(seeFigure13).In addition to a drastic reduction in electricity emission factors, electricity-generated GHGemissionsareafunctionofreducedelectricityconsumption.Figure 13 showed that Lakewood experienced a 4.6% reduction in natural gas consumptionbetween2007and2015.Thismay,inpartbedrivenbythereductioninHeatingDegreeDays

PERCAPITAEMISSIONSMETRICS Units 2007 2015%ChangeAgainstBaseline

ResidentialEmissionsperHousehold MTCO2e/HH 9.51 8.07 -15.1%ResidentialEmissionsperperson MTCO2e/person 3.99 3.28 -17.8%C&IEmissionsperemployee MTCO2e/FTE 9.75 8.04 -17.5%

ECONOMICMETRICS Units 2007 2015%ChangeAgainstBaseline

Totalcityrevenueperemissions MTCO2e/$ 0.01358 0.01074 -20.9%Collectedsalestaxperemissions MTCO2e/$ 0.03338 0.02429 -27.2%Jobsperemissions MTCO2e/FTE 29.132 24.184 -17.0%

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(HDD). 10 Between 2007 and 2015, Lakewood experienced a 9.9% decrease in HDD’s(presumablyreducingnaturalgasandelectricitytoheatbuildings)and12%decreaseinCDD’s(presumablyreducingelectricityusetocoolbuildings).LookingatresidentialnaturalgasusageperpersonperHeatingDegreeDay, usagedecreasedby1.4%, andusageperhouseholdperHeating Degree Day increased by 1.8% (average number of people per household increasedslightly, explaining the difference between per household and per person comparisons).Conversely,allweathernormalizedmetricsforelectricityincreased.Thissuggeststhisisanareawhereactionsmaybeneededtopreventemissionincreasesinthefuture.11

FIGURE17.COMPARISONOFENERGYFACTORS

Transportation Trends AsshowninFigure4,emissionsfromtransportationwerereducedby5.5%between2007and2015.The2015 transportationvalue includesvehicle travel fromon-roadgasolineanddieselvehiclesandpublictransitandairlinetravelfromDIA.Emissiondataisbasedonseveralfactors:emission factors, fuel efficiencies, vehicle miles traveled, and vehicle type distribution byvehiclefuel.Theemissionfactorsforgasoline,diesel,andjetfuelarenotexpectedtochangesignificantlyeachyear,whichsuggeststhatdecreasesintransportationemissionsarearesultofchanges in activity data. Figure 18 provides more information on the 2015 breakdown oftransportationactivitydata

10AHeatingDegreeDay (HDD) and CoolingDegreeDay (CDD) are roughly proportional to the energy used for heating andcoolingabuilding.Theyarecalculatedbytakingthedifferencebetweentheaveragedailytemperatureandthebalancepointtemperature. The balance point temperature is the average daily outside temperature at which a building maintains acomfortable indoortemperaturewithoutheatingorcooling.Whentheaveragedailytemperature isabovethebalancepointtemperature,theresultiscoolingdegreedays(i.e.youneedtocoolthebuildingtomaintainthebalancepointtemperature).Whentheaveragedailytemperatureisbelowthebalancepointtemperaturetheresultisheatingdegreedays(i.e.youneedtoheatthebuildingtomaintainthebalancepointtemperature).

11Note:Thatwithoutcompletingalinearregressionforeachfueltypeitisimpossibletounderstandifthereisastrongenoughcorrelationbetweenenergyusageanddegreedaystoextrapolateatrendforfutureyears.Inotherwords,itisimpossibletoknowifLakewood’sbuildingenergywillvarysignificantlyastemperaturechanges.

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FIGURE18.BREAKDOWNOFTRANSPORTATIONACTIVITYDATA

VehicleMiles Traveled for on-road transportation decreased between 2007 and 2015.Whilethedifferencecouldbethediscrepancyindatacollection12,itcouldalsobeapartialfunctionofashift intransportationmodality;2015sawadramatic increaseinpublictransitandlightrailridershipcomparedto2007.

Jetfuelconsumptiondropped9.4%between2007and2015.Thereasonsbehindthisdropareunknownbutcouldbeduetoreducedtravel(unlikely)ormoreefficientairplanes(morelikely).

Waste Trends AsshowninFigure19,emissionsfromwasteincreasedby4.5%between2007and2015.

Emission data is based on the amount of waste generated, waste characterization, andemissionfactors.Thesameassumptionsofwastegenerationperhouseholdandperbusinesswere applied for both inventories; therefore, estimated waste emissions increased inproportion to the increase in number of households and number of businesses. Improvedtracking of solidwaste collectionwould allowamore informative comparisonof solidwasteemissions between inventories in the future. Wastewater treatment emissions are simply afunction of the population served, and the increase in associated emissions matched theincreaseinLakewood’spopulation.

FIGURE19.BREAKDOWNOFWASTEACTIVITYDATA

Consumption-based Trends Both the 2007 and 2015 inventories include consumption-based emissions, covering thecategories of cement usage, food usage, and upstream emissions from the production of12ThisresultshouldbeinterpretedwithcautionbecausethetypeofdatausedforVMTwasnotthesamebetweenthetwoyears.Thedatasource foron-roadtransportationusedbetweenthetwo inventories isslightlydifferent.The2007 inventoryused a value for community-wideVMTproducedby theDenver Regional Council ofGovernments (DRCOG) demandmodel,whilethe2015inventoryusedafigureforper-capitaVMT,alsoprovidedbyDRCOG.

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transportationfuels.Theconsumptionbasedemissionsincreasedby21.6%from2007to2015.The increased consumption of food is largely responsible for the increase; however,considerable caution should be taken in interpreting this result. The methodology used forthese emissions is based on national consumption trends, rather than data on localconsumption. In addition, the method does not distinguish between changes in spendingbecauseoffoodpricechangesandchangesintheamountortypesoffoodconsumed(i.e.localproduce,lessmeatconsumption).

FIGURE20.BREAKDOWNOFCONSUMPTION-BASEDTRENDS

Conclusions and Next Steps AspartoftheCompact,Lakewoodmustcompletefourphaseswithinthreeyears:

• Phase1-RegisterCommitment.LakewoodhascompletedthisPhasebysigningontotheCompactofMayors

• Phase2-TakeInventory:Withinoneyearofitscommitment,LakewoodmustassessthecurrentimpactsofclimatechangeonLakewoodby:

o 2.1: Completing a GHG emissions inventory utilizing Global Protocol forCommunity-ScaleEmissions(GPC)standard;

o 2.2:Identifyclimaterisks;ando 2.3:ReportonbothviatheCDPorcarbonnquestionnaires.

• Phase 3 - Create Targets: Within two years of signing onto the Compact, Lakewoodmust:

o 3.1:UpdateitsGHGInventory.o 3.2:SetatargettoreduceitsGHGemissions;o 3.3: Conduct a “climate change vulnerability assessment” using the Compact

Standard;ando 3.4:Reportbothinthechosenplatform.

• Phase4–EstablishAnActionPlan:Withinthreeyears,Lakewoodmust:o 4.1:ShowhowitwillmeetitsGHGreductioncommitment;o 4.2:Developclimateresiliencyplan;ando 4.3:Reportbothinthechosenplatform.

EMISSIONS Units 2007 2015%ChangeAgainstBaseline

Treatingdrinkingwater MTCO2e 882 1,007 14.2%Well-to-pumpfuelproduction MTCO2e 185,240 158,418 -14.5%Cementuse MTCO2e 82,080 62,159 -24.3%Foodpurchases MTCO2e 241,450 398,198 64.9%

TotalConsumption-based MTCO2e 509,652 619,782 21.6%

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ThisinventoryfulfillsLakewood’scommitmenttoTasks2.1:CompleteaGHGemissionusingtheGPCstandard.SeveralotheraforementionedtaskshavebeencompletedthroughthecreationofLakewood’s2015SustainabilityReportandtheGHGreductiontargetsof:

• Reducecommunity-wideGHGemissionsby20%below2007levelsby2025;• ReducecommunitywideGHGemissionsby50%below2007levelsby2050;and• ReducemunicipalGHGemissionsannuallythrough2025.

Inadditiontotheabovesteps,itisrecommendedthatLakewoodcompleteare-inventoryataregular interval. This will allow the City to track effectiveness of the sustainability plan andprogress towards theemissions reduction targets.When settingupprogramsandpolicies toreduceemissions,theCityshouldalsoplanforcollectingdataneededtomeasuretheimpactoftheseindividualpoliciesandprojects.