CITIZEN AND CIVIC AWARNESS SUBJECT CODE : 18MPA45S ...
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CITIZEN AND CIVIC AWARNESS
• SUBJECT CODE : 18MPA45S
• PREPARED BY : DR.P.MAGUDAPATHY
Asst. Professor
• DEPARTMENT : PG & Research Department Of Public
Administration
• CONTACT NO. : 9994672379
• E-mail id : [email protected]
The content is prepared according to the text book and reference book given in the
syllabus.
CITIZEN AND CIVIC AWARNESS
Year Subject Title Sem. Sub Code
2018 -19
Onwards
Citizen and civic awarness IV 18MPA45S
UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION
Need for Political Education – Citizen Obligation under Indian Constitution – Citizenship
Training – Political Culture.
UNIT – II: GOVERNMENT SERVICES
Approaching Government Agencies for various welfare Programmes – Appling for Ration Card
– Birth and Death Certificates – Voter Registration – Voter Identity Card – PAN Card –
Enrolling Membership for Central and State Government Programme– Employment
Registration –– Consumer forum and its uses for citizens – Redressing of Citizen Grievances.
UNIT – III: CITIZEN CHARTER
Citizens Charter – Meaning, Origin – Need for Citizen Charter.–E .Governance – Delivery of
Services
UNIT – IV: NON–GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
NGO – Meaning , Significance – Dimensions – Organization and Functions of NGO –
Regulatory Mechanism at Central and State level Government over NGOs – Sources of Finances
of NGOs – Expenditure, Account and Audit of NGOs.–Self Help Group and Women
Empowerment.
UNIT – V: RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT
Right to Information Act 2005–.Right to Education and Employment–MGNREGA–
Entrepreneurship.
Books Recommended for Study:
1. Hoveyda.A. Indian Government And Politics Dorling KindersLey India Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi–
2011.
2. Mehra.A.K. Party system in India Lancer Publisher, New Delhi.2013.
3. Sankndher.M.M. Democratic Politics and Governance in India , Deep & Deep Publication
,New Delhi,2003.
CITIZEN AND CIVIC AWARNESS
SEMESTER: IV SUB.CODE:18BPA45S
UNIT V
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT 2005
Right to Information (RTI) is an act of the Parliament of India which
sets out the rules and procedures regarding citizens' right to information. It
replaced the former Freedom of Information Act, 2002. Under the provisions of
RTI Act, any citizen of India may request information from a "public authority" (a
body of Government or "instrumentality of State") which is required to reply
expeditiously or within thirty days. In case of matter involving a petitioner's life
and liberty, the information has to be provided within 48 hours. The Act also
requires every public authority to computerize their records for wide dissemination
and to proactively publish certain categories of information so that the citizens
need minimum recourse to request for information formally.[1]
The RTI Bill was passed by Parliament of India on 15 June 2005 and came into
force with effect from 12 October 2005. Every day on an average, over 4800 RTI
applications are filed. In the first ten years of the commencement of the act over
17,500,000 applications had been filed.[2]
Although Right to Information is not included as a Fundamental Right in
the Constitution of India, it protects the fundamental rights to Freedom of
Expression and Speech under Article 19(1)(a) and Right to Life and Personal
Liberty under Article 21 guaranteed by the Constitution. The authorities under RTI
Act 2005 are called public authorities. The Public Information Officer (PIO) or the
First Appellate Authority in the public authorities perform quasi judicial function
of deciding on the application and appeal respectively. This act was enacted in
order to consolidate the fundamental right in the Indian constitution 'freedom of
speech'. Since RTI is implicit in the Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression
under Article 19 of the Indian Constitution, it is an implied fundamental right.
Information disclosure in India had traditionally been restricted by the Official
Secrets Act 1923 and various other special laws, which the new RTI Act
overrides . Right to Information codifies a fundamental right of the citizens of
India. RTI has proven to be very useful, but is counteracted by the Whistle
Blowers Protection Act, 2011.
The Right to Information (Amendment) Bill, 2019, seeks to amend Sections 13,
16, and 27 of the RTI Act. Section 13 of the original Act: It sets the term of the
central Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners at five
years (or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier).[5] Finally in ashwanee k. singh
case on 20 September 2020, it is stabilised that right to information is a
fundamental right [6]
SCOPE
The Act extents to the whole of India.[a][7] It covers all the constitutional
authorities, including executive, legislature and judiciary; any institution or body
established or constituted by an act of Parliament or a state legislature. It is also
defined in the Act that bodies or authorities established or constituted by order or
notification of appropriate government including bodies "owned, controlled or
substantially financed" by government, or non-Government organizations
"substantially financed, directly or indirectly by funds".
Private bodies
Private bodies are not within the Act's ambit directly. In a decision of Sarbjit
roy vs Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission,[8] the Central Information
Commission also reaffirmed that privatised public utility companies fall within the
purview of RTI.[9] As of 2014, private institutions and NGOs receiving over 95%
of their infrastructure funds from the government come under the Act.[10]
Political parties
The Central Information Commission (CIC) held that the political parties
are public authorities and are answerable to citizens under the RTI Act. The CIC
said that seven national parties -
Congress, BJP, NCP, CPI(M), CPI and BSP and BJD - has been substantially
funded indirectly by the Central Government and have the character of public
authorities under the RTI Act as they perform public functions.[11][12] But in August
2013 the government introduced a Right To Information (Amendment) Bill which
would remove political parties from the scope of the law. Currently no parties are
under the RTI Act and a case has been filed for bringing all political parties under
it.[13]
Amendment
The Right to Information Act 2019 passed on July 25, 2019[14] modified the terms
and conditions of service of the CIC and Information Commissioners at the centre
and in states.[15] It had been criticized as watering down the independence of the
information commissions.[16]
Supreme Court judgement
Supreme Court of India on 13 November 2019, upheld the decision of Delhi High
Court bringing the office of Chief Justice of India under the purview of Right to
Information (RTI) Act.
PROCESS
The Right to information in India is governed by two major bodies:
• Central Information Commission (CIC) – Chief Information commissioner who
heads all the central departments and ministries- with their own public
Information officers (PIO)s. CICs are directly under the President of India.[]
• State Information Commissions – State Public Information Officers or SPIOs
head over all the state department and ministries. The SPIO office is directly
under the corresponding State Governor.
State and Central Information Commissions are independent bodies and Central
Information Commission has no jurisdiction over the State Information
Commission.[17]
Fees
A citizen who desires to seek some information from a public authority is required
to send, along with the application (a Postal order or DD (Demand draft) or a
bankers cheque) payable to the Accounts Officer of the public authority as fee
prescribed for seeking information. If the person is from
a disadvantaged community, he/she need not pay. The applicant may also be
required to pay further fee towards the cost of providing the information, details of
which shall be intimated to the applicant by the PIO (Public Information Officer)
as prescribed by the RTI ACT.
Digital right to information systems
A digital portal has been set up, RTI Portal,] a gateway to the citizens for quick
search of information on the details of first Appellate Authorities, PIOs etc.
amongst others, besides access to RTI related information[21] / disclosures
published on the web by various Public Authorities under the government of India
as well as the State Governments. It is an initiative taken by Department of
Personnel and Training, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.[22]
The Right to information in India has been mired with controversies ranging
from their use in political battles, asking for educational degrees of political rivals,
or cases of blatant refusals to provide information on high-profile projects to
allegations of misuse by civil society.[23][24][25] The backlash against RTI by the
state hampered the citizen's right to know.[26]
Attacks on RTI activists and protection suggestions
Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) data points to over 310
cases[27] across India where people were either attacked, murdered, physically or
mentally harassed or had their property damaged because of the information they
sought under RTI. The data throws up over 50 alleged murders and two suicides
that were directly linked with RTI applications filed.[28]
There is a consensus felt that there is a need to amend the RTI Act to provide for
the protection of those seeking information under the Act.[29] The Asian Centre for
Human Rights recommends that a separate chapter, "Protection of those seeking
information under the (RTI) Act", be inserted into the Act.
Protection measures suggested include:
• Mandatory, immediate registration of complaints of threats or attacks against
RTI activists on the First Information Report and placing such FIRs before the
magistrate or judge of the area within 24 hours for issuance of directions for
protection of those under threats and their family members, and periodic review
of such protection measures
• Conducting inquiry into threats or attacks by a police officer not below the rank
of Deputy Superintendent of Police/Assistant Commissioner of Police to be
concluded within 90 days and we also use RTI and get its benefit.
Intellectual property rights
Many civil society members have recently alleged the subversion of the right to
information Act by the invocation of Intellectual Property rights argument by the
government agencies from time to time.
Most notable are:
• The Right to Information denied by RBI on Demonetization citing Intellectual
Property Laws.
• The Right to Information Denied by Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Department after
more than 8 months of a wait on under construction Gomti Riverfront
Development Project. A group of researchers requested for environment Impact
and Project Report on the project which is flagged for negative impacts, tax
money wastage by environmental scientists and research reports.
Rejection of RTIs
Scholars argue that the Right to Information Act's original intent to make
government transparent and accountable is faltering as RTI requests are rejected
and the bureaucratic systems are bogged down by millions of requests.
Many RTIs are rejected because the bureaucratic requirements (including the
technocratic language used) of filing are too onerous and legalistic for ordinary
citizens. Sixty percent of the RTI appeals made to Information Commissioners in
Delhi are rejected for a variety of reasons, including that appeals are not typed or
not written in English, or lack an index of the papers attached or a list of date. This
bureaucratic barrier, worse for those without access to higher education or
information, makes the right to information inaccessible. Many citizens have to
seek out NGOs, RTI activists, or lawyers, to file their RTIs.[
Benefits
Many activists view the Right to Information Act as a final liberation from British
colonialism; they describe the RTI law as “a tool for empowering ordinary citizens
and changing the culture of governance by making it transparent, less corrupt,
participatory, and accountable". They also note that RTI requests provide strategy
and substance for activists on a broad range of social issues, including "land and
environmental rights, social security benefits, the working of financial institutions,
political party financing reform, civic infrastructure, and even public-private
partnerships”
MGNREGA
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), also known as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MNREGS) is Indian legislation enacted on August 25, 2005.
The MGNREGA provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment
in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do
public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage.
The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD), Govt of India is monitoring the entire
implementation of this scheme in association with state governments
• This act was introduced with an aim of improving the purchasing power of
the rural people, primarily semi or un-skilled work to people living below
poverty line in rural India. It attempts to bridge the gap between the rich and
poor in the country. Roughly one-third of the stipulated work force must be
women.
• Adult members of rural households submit their name, age and address with
photo to the Gram Panchayat. The Gram Panchayat registers households
after making enquiry and issues a job card. The job card contains the details
of adult member enrolled and his /her photo. Registered person can submit
an application for work in writing (for at least fourteen days of continuous
work) either to Panchayat or to Programme Officer.
• The Panchayat/Programme officer will accept the valid application and issue
dated receipt of application, letter providing work will be sent to the
applicant and also displayed at Panchayat office. The employment will be
provided within a radius of 5 km: if it is above 5 km extra wage will be paid.
Key facts that users should know about MNREGA
1. MGNREGA guarantees hundred days of wage employment in a financial
year, to a rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled
manual work.
2. Individual beneficiary oriented works can be taken up on the cards of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, small or marginal farmers or
beneficiaries of land reforms or beneficiaries under the Indira Awaas Yojana
of the Government of India.
3. Within 15 days of submitting the application or from the day work is
demanded, wage employment will be provided to the applicant.
4. Right to get unemployment allowance in case employment is not provided
within fifteen days of submitting the application or from the date when work
is sought.
5. Receipt of wages within fifteen days of work done.
6. Variety of permissible works which can be taken up by the Gram
Panchayaths.
7. MGNREGA focuses on the economic and social empowerment of women.
8. MGNREGA provides “Green” and “Decent” work.
9. Social Audit of MGNREGA works is mandatory, which lends to
accountability and transparency.
10. MGNREGA works address the climate change vulnerability and protect the
farmers from such risks and conserve natural resources.
11. The Gram Sabha is the principal forum for wage seekers to raise their voices
and make demands. It is the Gram Sabha and the Gram Panchayat which
approves the shelf of works under MGNREGA and fix their priority.
Implementation Status
• The scheme was introduced in 200 districts during financial year 2006-07
and 130 districts during the financial year 2007-08
• In April 2008 NREGA expanded to entire rural area of the country covering
34 States and Union Territories, 614 Districts, 6,096 Blocks and 2.65 lakhs
Gram Panchayat.
• The scheme now covers 648 Districts, 6,849 Blocks and 2,50,441 Gram
Panchayats in the financial year 2015-16.
Relationship between Mahatma Gandhi NREGA and Mahatma Gandhi NREGS
Activities covered under MGNREGA
:
• Union Rural Development Ministry has notified works under MGNREGA,
majority of which are related to agricultural and allied activities, besides the
works that will facilitate rural sanitation projects in a major way.
• The works have been divided into 10 broad categories like Watershed,
Irrigation and Flood management works, Agricultural and Livestock related
works, Fisheries and works in coastal areas and the Rural Drinking water
and Sanitation related works.
• Briefing the MGNREGA 2.0 (the second generation reforms for the rural job
scheme) the priority of the works will be decided by the Gram Panchayats in
meetings of the Gram Sabhas and the Ward Sabhas.
• The Rural development also informed that the 30 new works being added in
the Schedule 1 will also help the
• Rural sanitation projects, as for the first time toilet building, soak pits and
solid and liquid waste management have been included under MGNREGA.
Though the overall 60:40 ratio of labour and material component will be
maintained at the Gram Panchayat level but there will be some flexibility in
the ratio for certain works based on the practical requirements.
• Construction of AWC building has been included as an approved activity
under the MGNREG Act. ‘Guidelines for construction of Anganwadi
Centres’ under MGNREGS have been issued jointly by Secretary, WCD and
Secretary, Ministry of Rural Development, on 13th August, 2015. Under
MGNREGS, expenditure up to Rs.5 lakh per AWC building for construction
will be allowed. Expenditure beyond Rs. 5 lakh per AWC including
finishing, flooring, painting, plumbing, electrification, wood work, etc. will
be met from the ICDS funds.
History
Since 1960, 30 years were expended in struggling to find suitable employment
schemes in India's vast rural hinterland. The experiences of these decades provided
important lessons to the government. These included the ‘Rural Manpower
Programme’ which exposed the tribulations of financial management, the ‘Crash
Scheme for Rural Employment’ on planning for outcomes, a ‘Pilot Intensive Rural
Employment Programme’ of labourintensive works, the ‘Drought Prone Area Past
Scenario …Programme’ of integrated rural development, ‘Marginal Farmers and
Agricultural Labourers Scheme’ of rural economic development, the ‘Food for
Work Programme’ (FWP) of holistic development and better coordination with the
states, the ‘National Rural Employment Programme’ (NREP) of community
development, and the ‘Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme’ of
focus on landless households. [9] The Planning Commission later approved the
scheme and it was adopted on national scale. [10]On 1 April 1989, to converge
employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural
areas, the government integrated NREP and RLEGP [n 1] into a new scheme JRY.
The most significant change was the decentralization of implementation by
involving the local people through PRIs and hence a decreasing role of
bureaucracy. [12]
On 2 October 1993, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was initiated by
the then Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao to provide employment to agricultural
hands during the lean agricultural season. P.V. Rao had started discussions on
thisact in the year 1991. [13] The role of PRIs was reinforced with the local
selfgovernment at the district level called the ‘Zilla Parishad’ as the main
implementing authority. Later, EAS was merged with SGRY in 2001. [14] On 1
April 1999, the JRY was revamped and renamed to JGSY with a similar objective.
The role of PRIs was further reinforced with the local self-government at the
village level called the ‘Village Panchayats’ as the sole implementing authority. In
2001, it was merged with SGRY. [15][16]In January 2001, the government
introduced FWP(Food for Work Programme) similar to the one that was initiated
in 1977. Once NREGA was enacted, the two were merged in 2006. [17] On 25
September 2001 to converge employment generation, infrastructure development
and food security in rural areas, the government integrated EAS and JGSY into a
new scheme SGRY. The role of PRIs was retained with the ‘Village Panchayats’
as the sole implementing authority. [18] Yet again due to implementation issues, it
was merged with Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in 2006. [19]The total government
allocation to these precursors of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA had been about three-
quarters of ₹1 trillion (US$14 billion).
According to the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–12), the number of Indians living
on less than $1 a day, called Below Poverty Line (BPL), was 300 million that
barely declined over the last three decades ranging from 1973 to 2004, although
their proportion in the total population decreased from 36 per cent (1993–94) to 28
percent (2004–05), [21] and the rural working class dependent on agriculture was
unemployed for nearly 3 months per year. [22] The UPA Government had planned
to increase the number of working days from100 to 150 before the 2014 Lok Sabha
Elections in the country but failed. [23] The NDA government has decided to
provide 150 days for rain hit areas. [24] The registration process involves an
application to the Gram Panchayat and issue of job cards. The wage employment
must be provided within 15 days of the date of application. The work entitlement
of ‘120 days per household per year’ may be shared between different adult
members of the same household. [25]The law also lists permissible works: water
conservation and water harvesting; drought proofing including afforestation;
irrigation works; restoration of traditional water bodies; land development; flood
control; rural connectivity; and works notified by the government. The Act sets a
minimum limit to the wage-material ratio as 60:40. The provision of accredited
engineers, worksite facilities and a weekly report on worksites is also mandated by
the Act. [26] Furthermore, the Act sets a minimum limit to the wages, to be paid
with gender equality, either on a time-rate basis or on apiece-rate basis. The states
are required to evolve a set of norms for the measurement of works and schedule of
rates. Unemployment allowance must be paid if the work is not provided within
the statutory limit of 15 days. [27] The law stipulates Gram Panchayats to have a
single bank account for NREGA works which shall be subjected to public scrutiny.
To promote transparency and accountability, the act mandates ‘monthly squaring
of accounts’. [28] To ensure public accountability through public vigilance, the
NREGA designates ‘social audits’ as key to its implementation. [29]The most
detailed part of the Act (chapter 10 and 11) deals with transparency and
accountability that lays out role of the state, the public vigilance and, above all, the
social audits. [30] For evaluation of outcomes, the law also requires management
of data and maintenance of records, like registers related to employment, job cards,
assets, muster rolls and complaints, by the implementing agencies at the village,
block and state level. [31] The legislation specifies the role of the state in ensuring
transparency andaccountability through upholding the right to information and
disclosing information proactively, preparation of annual reports by the Central
Employment Guarantee Council for the Parliament and State Employment
Guarantee Councils for state legislatures, undertaking mandatory financial audits
by each district along with physical audit, taking action on audit reports,
developing a Citizen's Charter, establishing vigilance and monitoring committees,
and developing a grievance redressal system. The Act recommends establishment
of ‘Technical Resource Support Groups’ atdistrict, state and central level and
active use of Information Technology, like creation of a ‘Monitoring and
Information System (MIS)’ and a NREGA website, to assure quality in
implementation of NREGA through technical support. [33] The law allows
convergence of NREGA with other programmes. As NREGA intends to create
‘additional’ employment, the convergence should not affect employment provided
by other programmes.
The law and the Constitution of India
The Act aims to follow the Directive Principles of State Policy enunciated in Part
IV of the Constitution of India. The law by providing a 'right to work' is consistent
with Article 41 that directs the State to secure to all citizens the right to The
Constitution of India – India's fundamental and supreme law.work. [35] The statute
also seeks to protect the environment through rural works [36] which is consistent
with Article 48A that directs the State to protect the environment. [37] In
accordance with the Article 21 of the Constitution of India that guarantees the right
to life with dignity to every citizen of India, this act imparts dignity to the rural
people through an assurance of livelihood security. [38] The Fundamental Right
enshrined in Article 16 of the Constitution of India guarantees equality of
opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from
discriminatingagainst anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of
religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them.
[39] NREGA also follows Article 46 that requires the State to promote the interests
of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
and protect them from discrimination and exploitation. [40] Article 40 mandates
the State to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and
authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-
government. [41] Conferring theprimary responsibility of implementation on Gram
Panchayats, the Act adheres to this constitutional principle. Also the process of
decentralization initiated by 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India that
granted a constitutional status to the Panchayats [42] is further reinforced by the
Mahatma Gandhi NREGA that endowed these rural self-government institutions
with authority to implement the law.
Academic research has focused on many dimensions of the NREGA: economic
security, self-targeting, women's empowerment, asset creation, corruption, how the
scheme impacts agricultural wages. An early overall assessment in the north Indian
states suggested that NREGA was "making a difference to the lives of the rural
poor, slowly but surely." [44] Self-targeting evidence suggests that though there is
a lot of unmet demand for work. Another fundamental objective of NREGA was to
improve the bargaining power of labour who often faced exploitative market
conditions. Several studies have found that agricultural wages have increased
significantly, especially for women, since the inception of the scheme. This
indicates that overall wage levels have increased due to the act, however, further
research highlights that the key benefit of the scheme lies in the reduction of wage
volatility. [50] This highlights that NREGA may be an effective insurance scheme.
Ongoing research efforts try to evaluate the overall welfare effects of the scheme; a
particular focus has been to understand whether the scheme has reduced migration
into urban centres for casual work.
Another important aspect of NREGA is the potential for women's empowerment
by providing opportunities for paid work, as well as mechanisms to ensure equal
pay for equal work. One third of all employment is reserved for women, and there
is a provision for equal wages to men and women, provision for child care Women
employed under NREGA for de-silting a tankfacilities at the worksite - these are
three important provisions for women in the Act. [52] More recent studies have
suggested that women's participation has remained high, though there are inter-
state variations. [53] One study in border villages of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Gujarat studied the effect on short term migration and child welfare. [54] and
found that among children who do not migrate, grade completed is higher. The
study found that demand for NREGA work is higher, even though migrant wages
are higher. [55] Over the last decade, it has been observed that more than half the
NREGA funds havebeen spent on water related projects. This was very much
needed because water bodies have been shrinking, especially in rural India. India
became a water deficient nation 5 years ago, and every year since then, the water
level has shrunk further.
Though over Rs 20,000 crores under MGNREGA has been spent each year during
the last decade on developing rural water bodies, wells, aquifers, catchment areas,
etc, these were not permanent assets. There have not been too many detailed
studies on asset creation. A few studies focusing on the potential for assetcreation
under NREGA suggest that (a) the potential is substantial; (b) in some places, it is
being realized, and (c) lack of staff, especially technical staff, rather than lack of
material are to blame for poor realization of this potential. [56][57] Others have
pointed out that water harvesting and soil conservation works promoted through
NREGA "could have high positive results on environment security and
biodiversity and environment conservation" [58] A study conducted by researchers
at the Indian Institute of Science and other collaborators attempts to quantify the
environmental and socio-economicbenefits of works done through the NREGA
[59] Corruption in government programmes has remained a serious concern, and
NREGA has been no exception. According to recent estimates, wage corruption in
NREGA has declined from about 50% in 2007-8 to between 4-30% in 2009-10.
[60] Much of this improvement is attributable to the move to pay NREGA wages
through bank and post office accounts. [61] Some of the success in battling
corruption can also be attributed to the strong provisions for community
monitoring. [62] Others find that "the overall social audit effects onreducing easy-
to-detect malpractices was mostly absent". [63] A few papers also study the link
between electoral gains and implementation of NREGA. One studies the effect in
Andhra Pradesh - the authors find that "while politics may influence programme
expenditure in some places and to a small extent, this is not universally true and
does not undermine the effective targeting and good work of the scheme at large."
[64] The two other studies focus on these links in Rajasthan [65] and West Bengal.
[66] Several local case studies are also beingconducted to identify the regional
impacts of NREGA.
Assessment of the act by the constitutional auditor
The second performance audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of
India covered 3,848 gram panchayats (GPs) in 28 states and 4 union territories
(UTs) from April 2007 to March 2012. [68] This comprehensive survey by the
CAG documents lapses in implementation of the act. [69][70] The main problems
identified in the audit included: a fall in the level of employment, low rates of
completion of …works (only 30.3 per cent of planned works had been completed),
poor planning (in one-third of Gram Panchayats, the planning process mandated by
the act had not been followed), lack of public awareness partly due to poor
information, education and communication IEC) by the state governments,
shortage of staff (e.g., Gram Rozgar Sewaks had not been appointed in some
states) and so on. Not withstanding the statutory requirement of notification, yet
five states had not even notified the eight-years-old scheme. The comprehensive
assessment of the performance of the law by theconstitutional auditor revealed
serious lapses arising mainly due to lack of public awareness, mismanagement and
institutional incapacity. The CAG also suggested some corrective measures.
Even though the mass social audits have a statutory mandate of Section 17 (As
outlined in Chapter 11 of the NREGA Operational Guidelines), only seven states
Major recommendations of the CAG audit on MGNREGAhave the institutional
capacity to facilitate the social audits as per prescribed norms. [73] Although the
Central Council is mandated to establish a central evaluation and monitoring
system as per the NREGA Operational Guidelines, even after six years it is yet to
fulfill the NREGA directive. Further, the CAG audit reports discrepancies in the
maintenance of prescribed basic records in up to half of the gram panchayats (GPs)
which inhibits the critical evaluation of the NREGA outcomes. The unreliability of
Management Information System (MIS), due to significant disparity between
thedata in the MIS and the actual official documents, is also reported.
To increase public awareness, the intensification of the Information, Education
and Communication (IEC) activities is recommended. To improve management of
outcomes, it recommended proper maintenance of records at the gram panchayat
(GP) level. Further the Central Council is recommended to establish a central
evaluation and monitoring system for "a national level, comprehensive and
independent evaluation of the scheme". The CAG also recommends a
timelypayment of unemployment allowance to the rural poor and a wage material
ratio of 60:40 in the NREGA works. Moreover, for effective financial
management, the CAG recommends proper maintenance of accounts, in a uniform
format, on a monthly basis and also enforcing the statutory guidelines to ensure
transparency in the disposal of funds. For capacity building, the CAG recommends
an increase in staff hiring to fill the large number of vacancies. For the first time,
the CAG also included a survey of more than 38,000 NREGA beneficiaries. An
earlier evaluation of the NREGA by the CAG was criticized for its methodology.
Evaluation of the law by the government
Ex-Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh released an anthologys of research
studies on the MGNREGA called "MGNREGA Sameeksha" in New Delhi on 14
July 2012, about a year before the CAG report. [78] Aruna Roy and Nikhil Dey
said that "the MGNREGA Sameeksha is a significant innovation to evaluate policy
and delivery". [79] The anthology draws on …independent assessments of
MGNREGA conducted by Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs) and others in collaboration with United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) published from 2008 to 2012. [80] The Prime
Minister said: The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA story in numbers is a story worth
telling... the scheme scores high on inclusivness...no welfare scheme in recent
memory has caught theimagination of the people as much as NREGA has ... under
which ₹1,10,000 crore (about USD$25 billion) have been spent to pay wages to
1,200 crore (12 billion) people.
1. Since its inception in 2006, around ₹1,10,000 crore (about USD$25 billion) has
gone directly as wage payment to rural households and 1200 crore (12 billion)
person-days of employment has beengenerated. On an average, 5 crore (50 million)
households have been provided employment every year since 2008.
2. Eighty per cent of households are being paid directly through bank/post office
accounts, and 10 crore (100 million) new bank/post office accounts have been
opened.
3. The average wage per person-day has gone up by81 per cent since the Scheme’s
inception, with state-level variations. The notified wage today varies from a
minimum of ₹122 (USD$1.76) in Bihar, Jharkhand to ₹191 (USD$2.76) in
Haryana.
4. Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) have accounted for 51 per
cent of the total person-days generated and women for 47 per cent, well above
themandatory 33 per cent as required by the Act.
5. 146 lakh (14.6 million) works have been taken up since the beginning of the
programme, of which about 60 per cent have been completed.
6. 12 crore (120 million) Job Cards (JCs) have been given and these along with the
9 crore (90 million) muster rolls have been uploaded on the Management
Information System (MIS), available for public scrutiny. Since 2010–11, all details
with regard to the expenditure of the MGNREGA are available on the MIS in the
public domain.
Entrepreneurship:
Meaning of Entrepreneur
The entrepreneur is defined as someone who has the ability and desire to establish,
administer and succeed in a startup venture along with risk entitled to it, to make
profits. The best example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business
venture. The entrepreneurs are often known as a source of new ideas or innovators,
and bring new ideas in the market by replacing old with a new invention.
It can be classified into small or home business to multinational companies. In
economics, the profits that an entrepreneur makes is with a combination of land,
natural resources, labour and capital.
In a nutshell, anyone who has the will and determination to start a new company
and deals with all the risks that go with it can become an Entrepreneur.
It is classified into the following types:
Small Business Entrepreneurship-
These businesses are a hairdresser, grocery store, travel agent, consultant,
carpenter, plumber, electrician, etc. These people run or own their own business
and hire family members or local employee. For them, the profit would be able to
feed their family and not making 100 million business or taking over an industry.
They fund their business by taking small business loans or loans from friends and
family.
Scalable Startup Entrepreneurship-
This start-up entrepreneur starts a business knowing that their vision can change
the world. They attract investors who think and encourage people who think out of
the box. The research focuses on a scalable business and experimental models, so,
they hire the best and the brightest employees. They require more venture capital
to fuel and back their project or business.
Large Company Entrepreneurship-
These huge companies have defined life-cycle. Most of these companies grow and
sustain by offering new and innovative products that revolve around their main
products. The change in technology, customer preferences, new competition, etc.,
build pressure for large companies to create an innovative product and sell it to the
new set of customers in the new market. To cope with the rapid technological
changes, the existing organisations either buy innovation enterprises or attempt to
construct the product internally.
Social Entrepreneurship-
This type of entrepreneurship focuses on producing product and services that
resolve social needs and problems. Their only motto and goal is to work for society
and not make any profits.
Characteristics of Entrepreneurship:
● Not all entrepreneurs are successful; there are definite characteristics that
make entrepreneurship successful. A few of them are mentioned below:
● Ability to take a risk- Starting any new venture involves a considerable
amount of failure risk. Therefore, an entrepreneur needs to be courageous
and able to evaluate and take risks, which is an essential part of being an
entrepreneur.
● Innovation- It should be highly innovative to generate new ideas, start a
company and earn profits out of it. Change can be the launching of a new
product that is new to the market or a process that does the same thing but in
a more efficient and economical way.
● Visionary and Leadership quality- To be successful, the entrepreneur should
have a clear vision of his new venture. However, to turn the idea into reality,
a lot of resources and employees are required. Here, leadership quality is
paramount because leaders impart and guide their employees towards the
right path of success.
● Open-Minded- In a business, every circumstance can be an opportunity and
used for the benefit of a company. For example, Paytm recognised the
gravity of demonetization and acknowledged the need for online transactions
would be more, so it utilised the situation and expanded massively during
this time.
● Flexible- An entrepreneur should be flexible and open to change according
to the situation. To be on the top, a businessperson should be equipped to
embrace change in a product and service, as and when needed.
● Know your Product-A company owner should know the product offerings
and also be aware of the latest trend in the market. It is essential to know if
the available product or service meets the demands of the current market, or
whether it is time to tweak it a little. Being able to be accountable and then
alter as needed is a vital part of entrepreneurship.
Importance of Entrepreneurship:
● Creation of Employment- Entrepreneurship generates employment. It
provides an entry-level job, required for gaining experience and training for
unskilled workers.
● Innovation- It is the hub of innovation that provides new product ventures,
market, technology and quality of goods, etc., and increase the standard of
living of people.
● Impact on Society and Community Development- A society becomes greater
if the employment base is large and diversified. It brings about changes in
society and promotes facilities like higher expenditure on education, better
sanitation, fewer slums, a higher level of homeownership. Therefore,
entrepreneurship assists the organisation towards a more stable and high
quality of community life.
● Increase Standard of Living- Entrepreneurship helps to improve the standard
of living of a person by increasing the income. The standard of living means,
increase in the consumption of various goods and services by a household
for a particular period.
● Supports research and development- New products and services need to be
researched and tested before launching in the market. Therefore, an
entrepreneur also dispenses finance for research and development with
research institutions and universities. This promotes research, general
construction, and development in the economy.