Circuit I Lab Manual -- 2013 Backup

8/10/2019 Circuit I Lab Manual -- 2013 Backup

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3201

Faculty of Engineering Sciences

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of

Engineering Sciences and Technology

ES-211L Circuit Analysis I Lab



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Table of ContentsLab - 1: Introduction to the Lab ................................................................. 7

1.1 The Digital Multimeter (DMM) ........................................................................................................ 7 1.2 The Oscilloscope .................................................................................................................................... 9 1.3 The Function Generator ................................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Digital Analog Training System .................................................................................................... 17 1.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 20

Lab - 2: Introduction to PSpice ................................................................. 21 2.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................... 21 2.2 Circuit Analysis using PSpice ......................................................................................................... 22 2.3 Constructing and Simulating a DC Circuit ................................................................................ 23 2.4 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 28 2.6 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 29

Lab - 3: Measurement on DC circuits ....................................................... 30 3.1 Introduction and Test Circuits ...................................................................................................... 30 3.2 Theoretical Work ................................................................................................................................ 31 3.3 Experiments .......................................................................................................................................... 31 3.4 Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 3 3.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 35

Lab - 4: DC Circuits in MATLAB ................................................................. 36 4.1 MATLAB Fundamentals ................................................................................................................... 36 4.2 Matrix Operations .............................................................................................................................. 38 4.3 Example .................................................................................................................................................. 42 4.4 M-Files ..................................................................................................................................................... 4 4.5 Example .................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.6 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 44 4.7 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 44 4.8 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 45

Lab - 5: Y-∆ Transformation ..................................................................... 46 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 46 5.2 Δ to Y Transformation ...................................................................................................................... 46 5.3 Y to Δ Transformation ...................................................................................................................... 47 5.4 Exercise – I ............................................................................................................................................ 47 5.5 Exercise – II ........................................................................................................................................... 48 5.6 Exercise – III ......................................................................................................................................... 48 5.7 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 49

Lab - 6: Simulating OpAmps in Multisim .................................................. 50 6.1 Basic Elements ..................................................................................................................................... 50 6.2 Customizing the MultiSim 2001 Interface ............................................................................... 52 6.3 Example – OpAmp .............................................................................................................................. 54 6.4 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 63 6.6 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 64

Lab - 7: Operational Amplifiers ................................................................ 65 7.1 Introduction and Test Circuits ...................................................................................................... 65 7.2 Theoretical Work ................................................................................................................................ 65 7.3 Experiments .......................................................................................................................................... 66 7.4 Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 6

7.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 69 Lab - 8: Circuit Analysis Techniques – I ..................................................... 70

8.1 Techniques in Circuit Analysis ...................................................................................................... 70



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8.2 Theoretical Work ............................................................................................................................... 71 8.3 Experiments ......................................................................................................................................... 71 8.4 Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 73 8.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 74

Lab - 9: Circuit Analysis Techniques – II ................................................... 75

9.1 Techniques for circuit simplification ......................................................................................... 75 9.2 Theoretical Work ............................................................................................................................... 76 9.3 Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 76 9.4 Experiments ......................................................................................................................................... 77 9.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 80

Lab - 10: DC Power Supply ........................................................................ 81 10.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 81 10.2 Power supply types ........................................................................................................................... 81 10.3 Experiment – 5V DC Power supply ............................................................................................. 85 10.4 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 87

Lab - 11: Variable Regulated Power Supply ............................................... 88

11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 88 11.2 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 89 11.3 Assessment Sheets ............................................................................................................................. 92

Lab - 12: First Order RL and RC Circuits ...................................................... 93 12.1 Introduction and Test Circuits ...................................................................................................... 93 12.2 Natural response ................................................................................................................................ 93 12.3 Experiments ......................................................................................................................................... 94 12.4 Step response ....................................................................................................................................... 95 12.5 Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 96 12.6 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 97

Lab - 13: Second Order RLC Circuits ........................................................... 98

13.1 Introduction and Test Circuits ...................................................................................................... 98 13.2 Natural response ................................................................................................................................ 99 13.3 Step response .................................................................................................................................... 100 13.4 Experiments ...................................................................................................................................... 100 13.5 Assessment Sheet ............................................................................................................................ 104



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Instructions for Students 1. Attendance is mandatory for students in all the labs. If a student is absent from a

lab due to any reason, he/she will have to get written permission of the Dean toperform that lab. The Dean will allow students to perform lab if he feels that thestudent has a genuine excuse.

2. Students should bring their text books to the lab, so that they can refer to theoryand diagrams whenever required.

3. Labs will be graded in double entry fashion; one entry in the assessment sheetgiven at the end of every lab and anot her entry in the instructor’s record. Thissystem of keeping records will keep students aware of their performancethroughout the lab.

4. The assessment sheet at the end of every lab looks like this:

Name: __________________________Reg. No. : _______________________Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – …….

2 – …….

LabPerformance

Schematics

Working

Viva

Total Score in Lab – 1

Instructor’s Verification

5. The tentative marks distribution for final grade is as follows:

Lab Performance – 60 %Mid Exam – 10%Lab Final – 30 %



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Lab - 1: Introduction to the Lab

The following lab is designed to give a brief description of how to use the necessaryequipment to perform most of the labs you will encounter in E211. You will useprimarily four pieces of equipment; the multimeter (DMM), the oscilloscope, thefunction generator, and the trainer. The following is a brief description of yourpurpose for using each piece of equipment:

The multimeter measures both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R). The multimeter also measuresfrequency in Hertz (cycles per second.)

The digital oscilloscope displays and measures voltage waveform and frequency; italso has several other useful, yet convenient, functions.The function generator generates sine, triangle, and square waves at the selectedfrequency and amplitude. The function generator could be regarded as your ACpower supply.The trainer contains the nodes for your circuit layout. It also contains variable DCpower supplies, its own function generator, LED outputs, an 8 speaker, twovariable resistors, and various switches.

You will not use all of the options on the equipment, some control descriptions havebeen left off of the following equipment drawings.

1.1 THE DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM)

1.1.1 Measuring DC VoltageInsert the appropriate red lead into the top right opening (the + end of the V);Insert the appropriate black lead into the middle opening (the – end of the V.)Next, press the DC V button.Then, apply the clips at the end of the leads as shown in Figure 1.1 (In the examplebelow, the voltage is being measured across the resistor.The rest of the circuit has been excluded for simplicity.)The display will read the DC voltage across the resistor.

Figure 1-1: Measuring Voltage

1.1.2 Measuring DC CurrentInsert the appropriate red lead into the bottom right opening (the + end of the I);Insert the appropriate black lead into the middle opening (the – end of the I.)



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Next, press the Shift button and then the DC V button. Then, apply the clips at theend of the leads as shown in Figure 1.2The rest of the circuit has been excluded for simplicity.) The display will read theDC current through the resistor.

Figure 1-2

1.1.3 Measuring AC Voltage

Insert the appropriate red lead into the top right opening (the + end of the V);insert the appropriate black lead into the middle opening (the – end of the V.)Next, press the AC V button.Then, apply the clips at the end of the leads as shown in Figure 1.1.The display will read the AC voltage (RMS) across the resistor.

1.1.4 Measuring AC CurrentInsert the appropriate red lead into the bottom right opening (the + end of the I);insert the appropriate black lead into the middle opening (the – end of the I.)Next, press the Shift button and then the AC V button. Then, apply the clips at theend of the leads as shown in Figure 1.2.The display will read the AC current (RMS) through the resistor.Note: AC current below about 0.5 mA cannot be resolved with this meter. If suchcurrent measurements are desired, measure the voltage across the appropriateresistor and divide by the resistance to give current.

Important Note: When measuring AC voltage or current, the displayed value is theRMS value. The RMS values for the various waves we will use are given below (onlyvoltages are shown – these also apply to currents):

Sine wave: Displayed Voltage =

Square Wave: Displayed Voltage =Triangle wave: Displayed Voltage =

1.1.5 Measuring ResistanceInsert the appropriate red lead into the top right opening (the + end of the V);Insert the appropriate black lead into the middle opening (the – end of the V.) Afterdoing the above, press the 2W button.Remove at least one of the ends of the resistor from the circuit (the correctresistance of the resistor cannot be measured while the resistor is in the circuit.)Next, place the clips across the resistor to be measured.The display will read the resistance of the resistor.



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1.1.6 Measuring FrequencyFollow the steps for measuring voltage, but press the Freq. Button instead of a voltagebutton. The display will give the frequency of the voltage or current.

1.1.7 Measuring Time Period

Follow the steps for finding frequency except press the Shift button and then the Freq.Button. The display will give the period of the voltage or current.

1.1.8 Exercises1. Measure the voltage of the AC line.2. Measure the frequency of the line AC voltage.3. Measure the resistance of the given resistors.

1.2 THE OSCILLOSCOPEUnlike the multimeter, the oscilloscope can display two channels of voltage (such asthe voltage across two resistors); however, the black clip of both channels must beconnected to the ground of the circuit. In other words, if you were measuring thevoltage across a resistor, one of its ends must be connected to ground in the circuit(with the black clip connected to the grounded end); otherwise, you will not get acorrect reading and may damage the oscilloscope and/or the circuit! The oscilloscopeis able to display both a picture of the voltage over time, called a waveform, andmeasured information about the waveform such as frequency or amplitude.

Figure 1-3: Oscilloscope in your labs



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1.2.1 Measuring DC VoltageGenerally, the oscilloscope is not used to measure DC voltages; however, it is possibleto do so with the oscilloscope.

First, connect the cable leads making sure the – end is connected to ground.The cable is connected to the oscilloscope at the BNC connector labeled 1 X(channel 1) or 2 Y (channel 2).After doing this, turn the corresponding Volts/Div knob until a signal is observed.You may also need to turn the Time/Div knob if the oscilloscope is slowlydisplaying your signal.Besides the signal, additional information will be present on the screen.The channel gain settings (in volts/division) are displayed in the upper left cornerof the screen.

The channel gain determines the Y-axis scale.The time/division (X-axis scale) is displayed at the top-middle portion of thescreen.The time/div setting is not important for DC measurements.Once a signal is observed on the screen, the channel gain can be used to calculatethe DC voltage.Count the number of graticule divisions (grid lines) between the channel groundreference (the small ground symbol on the right edge of the screen) and the signalyou are measuring.The voltage is calculated by multiplying the channel gain (Volts/div) by thenumber of divisions.In order to simplify the division counting, you may wish to move the position of thechannel ground reference onto a graticule line by adjusting the correspondingposition knob.This procedure is also used for measuring low frequency AC signals (below 100Hz.)

1.2.2 Measuring AC VoltageConnect the leads of the channel(s) of the oscilloscope making sure the negative (-)end is connected to ground.After doing so, press the auto-scale button (AS).

The waveform(s) should be displayed on the screen.Note: if you are only measuring one waveform, you should disconnect the leads ofthe channel you are not using, otherwise the oscilloscope may have a difficult timedisplaying the signal after pressing auto-scale.



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In addition to the signal, other information will be present on the screen.The channel gain settings (in volts/division) are displayed in the upper left cornerof the screen.The channel gain determines the Y-axis scale.The time/division (X-axis scale) is displayed at the top-middle portion of screen.

1.2.3 Adjusting the DisplayAfter pressing auto-scale, you may want to modify the display.For example, you may want to show more periods of the waveform.This can be accomplished by increasing the amount of Time/div.This is achieved by turning the Time/div knob counter-clockwise.Similarly, you may want to adjust the amplitude display of the signal.Turn one of the Volts/Div knobs to change the display scale (there is one knob foreach channel.) You also may want to move one of the waveforms up of down thescreen.

Turn one of the position knobs to move the waveforms.Note that a ground reference point for each displayed waveform is shown on theright side of the screen.

1.2.4 Voltage MeasurementAlthough you can manually make voltage measurements by multiplying thechannel gain setting by the number of divisions, the oscilloscope will do this foryou.After displaying the waveform on the screen press the voltage button (V) which islocated in the Measurement section of the control faceplate.You will now see various voltage options (average, rms, peak-to-peak, and channel#) located on the screen above the hot keys. Press the desired key, and themeasurement will be listed at the bottom of the screen.You can also measure the voltage difference between two waveforms by pressingthe Cursors buttons located in the Measurement section of the control faceplate.You will now see various cursor options (V1, V2, t1, and t2) located on the screenabove the hot keys.Press the V1 key, and move the horizontal dashed line using the control knob justbelow the Cursors button to the desired position.Next press the V2 key and do the same for that dashed line.You will then see the location of each of the two cursors displayed on the bottom of

the screen as well as the difference in voltage, V.1.2.5 Time Measurement

Although you can manually make time measurements by multiplying the time/divsetting by the number of divisions, the oscilloscope will do this for you.After displaying the waveform on the screen press the time button (T) which islocated in the Measurement section of the control faceplate.You will now see various voltage options (frequency, period, duty cycle, andchannel #) located on the screen above the hot keys.Press the desired key, and measurement will be listed at the bottom of the screen.You can also measure the time difference between two waveforms by pressing theCursors buttons located in the Measurement section of the control faceplate.You will now see various cursor options (V1, V2, t1, and t2) located on the screenabove the hot keys.



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Press the t1 key, and move the horizontal dashed line using the control knob justbelow the Cursors button to the desired position.Next press the t2 key and do the same for that dashed line.You will then see the location of each of the two cursors displayed on the bottom ofthe screen as well as the difference in voltage, t.

1.3 THE FUNCTION GENERATORThe function generator produces sine, triangle, and square waveforms of variousamplitudes and frequencies. Although there are additional functions listed on thefaceplate, you will only need to concern yourself with those mentioned above.

1.3.1 Waveform SelectionThe three waveforms listed have corresponding buttons located approximately in thecenter of the faceplate (the fourth button is a one-time pulse which you will not use.)To select the desired waveform, simply press the button corresponding to the desired

waveform. An LED should be lit inside the selected waveform ’s button (in thedrawing, the sine wave is selected.)

1.3.2 Frequency SelectionThe frequency is selected by first pressing the frequency button until both the FRQwording is lit as well as the FRQ button LED. Once these are all lit, the verniersmay be pressed to change the display.Note that the three buttons each operate on one of the digits in the display.The range of the frequency is viewed by viewing the appropriate LEDs (thosehaving Hz in the unit.)The range may be changed by pressing the range button up or down.

1.3.3 Signal OutputThe appropriate leads should be connected to the output terminal.Note: NEVER apply a voltage input to the OUTPUT terminal.Before the function generator will supply the appropriate output, the DISABLE LEDshould be off.If it is not off, press the DISABLE button.

1.3.4 Exercises1. Look over the oscilloscope at your bench. Find the major controls, as described in

your manual.2. Each bench is equipped with a signal generator. Look it over, and set it up to

produce a triangular waveform output at about 1 kHz.3. Connect the output of the signal generator to the oscilloscope and get a stable

display. Use Normal Trigger. Do not use AUTO triggering. Set it up to trigger onthe channel connected to the signal generator. Set the trigger polarity to rising (+).Adjust the output of the signal generator to 1V peak to peak. Adjust theoscilloscope sensitivity so that the waveform is as large as possible, using standardsettings only. Adjust the time scale so that at least 2 and no more that 5 completecycles are displayed.

4. Experiment with the trigger level control. Notice how it sets where in the

waveform the display begins. You should be able to move the starting point of thetrace back and forth along the ramp in the triangular wave. Notice how the tracedisappears as the level is set above or below the top or bottom of the waveform.



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5. Set the trigger polarity to falling (-), and observe that the trace now begins on thefalling ramp of the wave.

6. Connect both probes of the oscilloscope to the oscilloscope probe calibrationconnection on the front of the scope. Adjust the oscilloscope so that bothwaveforms are displayed simultaneously.

7. Use the RUN/STOP button to freeze an image of the signals. Use the cursors todetermine the frequency, period, and amplitude of the signal being measured.

8. Change the signal generator waveform to a different type, and experiment withviewing it. There is no substitute for familiarity when it comes to operating anoscilloscope.

1.4 DIGITAL ANALOG TRAINING SYSTEM

Figure 1-4 1. Power switch/Power indicator2. Variable positive power3. Variable negative power4. Potentiometers(VR1=1KΩ,VR2=100KΩ) 5. Frequency variable6. Waveform Amplitude variable7. Frequency range8. Waveform selector9. 8 bits data switches10. Removable breadboard11. Two pulse switches12. Speaker(1 ¼ inch,8Ω,0.25w) 13. Adapter14. Digital displays15. 8 bits Led displays16. Universal connector fixed holders

1.4.1 DC Power supplyThere are three DC power supplies available on the trainer: a fixed +5V, a variable+5 to +15V (which actually varies from approximately +3V to +20V), and a variable-5 to -15V (which actually varies from approximately –3V to –20V.)



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The +5V supply can b e accessed by tapping into the entire first (top) row of “dots”(connection points.) Similarly, the +5V to +15V supply can be accessed by tappinginto the entire third row.The fourth row is ground.There are two knobs located at the top center of the trainer to adjust the variablesupplies.

1.4.2 Breadboard Nodes A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea.No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components.Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.

Figure 1-5

The Vertical Rowso There are 12 vertical rows of dots on the breadboard.o Each vertical row up to the rivets present in the middle of the board is

separate nodes.o For example, take the first vertical row on the left.o As you can see, the vertical row consists of groups of 5 “dots.”o Starting with the first dot and proceeding down, the first 5 sets of 5 dots (25

dots) are all the same point, or same node.o The same is true with the vertical rows to the right of the first row

(remember, the rivet is the dividing point).o This is repeated for the bottom half of vertical rows.

The Horizontal Rowso Be careful! The horizontal rows do not follow the same pattern as the

vertical rows.o The horizontal rows are grouped in sets of 5 dots each.o Each set of 5 dots is a separate node (not 10!)

1.4.3 Function GeneratorThe function generator on the trainer performs essentially the same features (asfar as ECE 376 is concerned) as the HP function generator.However, the range of frequencies and amplitudes is more limited on the trainerand there is not of the exact frequency or amplitude of the signal output.The oscilloscope can be used to measure the frequency and amplitude when usingthis function generator.In addition, there is a TTL (transistor-transistor logic) node.



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This is a square wave varying between 0 and +5V of the frequency of the functiongenerator.

1.4.4 LEDs RowThere are eight LEDs. Each LED is internally grounded, thus only a positive voltage

input is necessary.Each LED turns on at a set voltage (it does not get brighter as the voltage isincreased.)Do not apply excessive voltage to the LED (keep the voltage less than 10V.)As you can see, there are two connection points for each LED.

1.4.5 PotentiometerThe pots are variable resistors. One varies from 0 – 10 k Ω; the other varies from 0– 1 k Ω.In order to achieve a variable resistor, one connection must be made to one of thefour middle dots, and the other must be made to one of the four outside dots.If both connections are made to the outside dots, then you will have a 10 k Ωresistor or a 1 k Ω resistor.The knob below each bank of dots varies the resistance.

1.4.6 DIP SwitchesThese may be used for the last experiment (digital logic.)The switch to the right of the bank of switches should be in the GND position whenperforming that experiment.The previous sections are designed to give a basic overview of the equipment youwill use.

If functions other than those described on the previous pages will be used, they willbe explained in detail.

1.4.7 Exercise1. Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.2. Measure each voltage drop across each resistor with the help of DMM.3. Measure all the currents through each resistor.

Figure 1-6

Current I 6 I7 I8 I9 I10 IT Voltage V R6 VR7 VR8 VR9 VR10

Theoretical Theoretical

Measured Measured% Error % Error



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1.5 ASSESSMENT SHEET

Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

DMM Tasks

Oscilloscope Tasks

Training Board Tasks

LabPerformance

Working

Viva





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Lab - 2: Introduction to PSpice

Electronic circuit design requires accurate methods for evaluating circuit performance.Because of the enormous complexity of modern integrated circuits, computer-aidedcircuit analysis is essential and can provide information about circuit performancethat is tedious to obtain with laboratory prototype measurements. Computer-aidedanalysis makes possible the following procedures:1. Evaluation of the effects of variations in such elements as resistors, transistors, and

transformers.2. Assessment of performance improvements or degradations.

3.

Evaluation of the effects of noise and signal distortion without the need forexpensive measuring instruments4. Sensitivity analysis to determine the permissible bounds determined by the

tolerances of all element values or parameters of active elements5. Fourier analysis without expensive wave analyzers6. Evaluation of the effects of nonlinear elements on circuit performance7. Optimization of the design of electronic circuits in terms of circuit parametersSPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a general-purposecircuit program that simulates electronic circuits. It can perform analyses on variousaspects of electronic circuits, such as the operating (or quiescent) points of transistors,time-domain response, small-signal frequency response, and so on. SPICE containsmodels for common circuit elements, active as well as passive, and it is capable ofsimulating most electronic circuits. It is a versatile program and is widely used in bothindustry and academic institutions.

2.1 BACKGROUNDPSpice is a member of the SPICE family of circuit simulators, all of which originatefrom the SPICE2 circuit simulator, whose development spans a period of about 30year. During the mid-1960s, the program ECAP was developed at IBM [1]. In the late1960s, ECAP served as the starting point for the development of the program CANCERat the University of California (UC) at Berkeley. Using CANCER as the basis, SPICE wasdeveloped at Berkeley in the early 1970s. During the mid-1970s, SPICE2, which is animproved version of SPICE, was developed at UC –Berkeley. The algorithms of SPICE2are robust, powerful, and general in nature, and SPICE2 has become an industry-standard tool for circuit simulation. SPICE3, a variation of SPICE2, is designedespecially to support computer-aided design (CAD) research programs at UC –Berkeley. As the development of SPICE2 was supported using public funds, thissoftware is in the public domain, which means that it may be used freely by all U.S.citizens.

SPICE2, referred to simply as SPICE, has become an industry standard. The inputsyntax for SPICE is a free-format style that does not require data to be entered in fixedcolumn locations. SPICE assumes reasonable default values for unspecified circuitparameters. In addition, it performs a considerable amount of error checking to ensurethat a circuit has been entered correctly.



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PSpice, which uses the same algorithms as SPICE2, is equally useful for simulating alltypes of circuits in a wide range of applications. A circuit is described by statementsstored in a file called the circuit file . The circuit file is read by the SPICE simulator.Each statement is self-contained and independent of every other statement, and doesnot interact with other statements. SPICE (or PSpice) statements are easy to learn anduse. A schematic editor can be used to draw the circuit and create a Schematics file,which can then be read by PSpice for running the simulation.

2.2 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING PSPICEPSpice allows various types of analysis. Each analysis is invoked by including itscommand statement. The types of analysis and their corresponding dot commands are described in the following text.

DC analysis is used for circuits with time-invariant sources (e.g., steady-state DCsources). It calculates all node voltages and branch currents for a range of values, andtheir quiescent (DC) values are the outputs. The dot commands and their functionsare:

DC sweep of an input voltage or current source, a model parameter, ortemperature over a range of values (.DC) Determination of the linearized model parameters of nonlinear devices (.OP)DC operating point to obtain all node voltagesSmall-signal transfer function with small-signal gain, input resistance, and outputresistance (Thevenin’s equivalent; .TF) DC small-signal sensitivities (.SENS)

Transient analysis is used for circuits with time-variant sources (e.g. AC sources and

switched DC sources). It calculates all node voltages and branch currents over a timeinterval, and their instantaneous values are the outputs. The dot commands and theirfunctions are:

Circuit behavior in response to time-varying sources (.TRAN) DC and Fourier components of the transient analysis results (.FOUR)

Figure 2-1 Analysis Setup in PSpice Schematics version

AC analysis is used for small-signal analysis of circuits with sources of variablefrequencies. It calculates all node voltages and branch currents over a range offrequencies, and their magnitudes and phase angles are the outputs. The dot

commands and their functions are:Circuit response over a range of source frequencies (.AC)Noise generation at an output node for every frequency (.NOISE)



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In Schematics versions, the commands are invoked from the setup menu, as shown inthe figure 2-1.

2.3 CONSTRUCTING AND SIMULATING A DC CIRCUITLet’s draw the simple DC circuit in Figure 2-2 using Schematics.

Figure 2-2Let’s get Schematics using the Start/Programs/ PSpice Student/Schematics sequenceof pop-up menus. When Schematics opens, your screen will change to SchematicEditor window in Figure 2-3. Notice that the window bar across the top informs usthat this is a new schematic. Also, note the Help menu -- it’ll ge t some use. A quicklook under the Draw menu, Figure 2-4 , shows the options we’ll need to create our

schematic -- namely, Get New Part and Wire. Let’s get started.

Figure 2-3

Figure 2-4

A. Getting PartsFirst, let’s get the voltage source. This is done by left clicking the Draw menu andselecting Get New Part. The Part Browser dialog box in Figure 2-5 appears listing allthe parts in the evaluation version. Since we don’t know the Schematics name for a dcvoltage source, we select Libraries, and the Library Browser window in Figure 2-5appears listing the various libraries the parts are divided into. For example, resistors,capacitors and inductors are in the ANALOG.slb library. Integrated circuit parts in theEVAL.slb library. Of interest to us is the SOURCE.slb library, which has already beenselected in Figure 2-5. Select the part VDC and OK. The box in Figure 2-5 shouldreappear. Select Place & Close and you’re back to the schematic page with onedifference: the mouse pointer is now a dc voltage source! Just point it any place insidethe drawing area and left click ONCE. The result is a voltage source in our schematic.Since we need only one source, we click the right mouse button to stop placing sourcesand the mouse pointer returns to its original status as shown in Figure 2-6. Notice thatSchematics calls the source V1.If we had continued to left click, we would have createdV2, V3, etc.. Also, note the grid dots. Schematics always align whatever you draw to

the grid dots even if you place the part between dots. Finally, the two ‘leads’ extendingfrom the source will be used to make wiring connections to the resistors RA and RB.This, ‘real world feel’ is one feature that makes Schematics so popular.



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Figure 2-5

Now we'll place the resistors. We repeat the process of Draw/Get New Part except thistime, when the Part Browser Basic dialog box appears; we type in R and select OK.Now the mouse pointer is a resistor. We left click once to place R1, MOVE THE MOUSESOME DISTANCE, and left click to place R2. To stop adding resistors, click once.

Figure 2-6 Moving the mouse between part placements keeps them from stacking atop oneanother in the diagram. Figure 2-6 shows the present condition. Although you maynot be able to see it in this black and white print, R2 is red meaning it is still selectedand may be edited. Note that the resistors are automatically assigned values of 1 kΩ.

B. Changing a Part’s Att ributesTo change the voltage source’s attributes (its name and value), simply double click onthe name V1 and the Edit Reference Designator window in Figure 2-7 appears. Type inthe new name, in this case Vin, and select OK. To change the source’s value, doubleclick on the value in Figure 2-6, to open the Attributes window in Figure 2-7. Enter10V and select OK. Do likewise for the resistors, renaming them Ra and Rb and settingtheir values at 4 kΩ and 6 kΩ respectively.



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Figure 2-7

C. Arranging Parts and Pin NumbersEvery pin (external connection) on every part in every Schematics library isnumbered. When arranging parts in Schematics, it is vital to understand therelationship between the passive sign convention in Figure 2-2, current directions in

PSpice and the part’s pin numbers. When a part is placed, it is automatically orientedeither vertically or horizontally. As shown in Figure 2-8, vertically placed parts havepin 1 at the top and pin 2 at bottom, while horizontally oriented parts have pin 1 onleft and pin 2 on right.

Figure 2-8

Figure 2-9 Now consider R2 in our circuit in Figure 2-9. We need to rotate it for appearance sake.Also, the current of interest, I, flows downward through Rb in Figure 2-2. SelectingRotate from the Edit menu (or CNTL-R) will spin Rb 90° counterclockwise, putting pin1 at the bottom. Should we ask for the current in Rb, we will get the negative of I. It isbetter to rotate Rb 270°, leaving pin 1 at the top. Now the current in Rb as PSpice sees

it is the same as I. Of course, a part can be dragged to a new position. To make ourschematic match Figure 2-2, we ’ll rotate R2 three times (270°total) and drag it at theright end of the diagram. A diagram similar to Figure 2-9 should result.



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D. Wiring PartsTo connect the parts, go to the Draw menu and select Wire. Now the mouse pointerturns into a symbolic pencil. To connect the top of the source to Ra, use the mouse toplace the pencil at the end of the wire stub from Vin, click once and release. Next,move the mouse up and over to the left end of Ra. The wire is drawn up and over at90° angles as the dashed lines in Figure 2-9. DASHED LINES ARE NOTYET WIRES!

Left click once to complete ‘cut’ the connection. The dashed lines become solid and theconnection is made as shown in Figure 2-10. Any leftover wire fragments (dashedlines) can be removed by selecting Redraw from the Draw menu. As for drawing thetwo remaining wires, here’s a Schematics shortcut. To reactivate the wiring pencil, ifyou need to, double right click. This shortcut reactivates whatever the most recentmouse use happened to be. Simply repeat the steps listed above to complete thewiring. Figure 2-10 shows the wired schematic. A note of caution -- be patient whenwiring. This is the area of Schematics where you’re most likely to err, so be careful.

Figure 2-10

E. The GroundPSpice requires that all schematics have a ground, or reference terminal. The voltagethere will be zero and all other node voltages are referenced to it. The part you need iseither the analog ground (AGND) or the earth ground (EGND) in the PORT.slb library.In this example, we’ll get the AGND part and place it at the bottom of the schematic asshown in Figure 2-10 . If the connection dot doesn’t appear in your schematic, simplyselect the AGND part and move until it touches the bottom wire in the diagram. Yourschematic is finished and ready for saving.

F. Saving SchematicsSimply go to File menu and select Save. PSpice will try to save your schematics in theMy Documents directory. It’s much bette r to save your work in a different directory.Schematic files are given the extension .sch.

II. Getting Results A. The NetlistThe netlist is the old- fashioned Spice code listing for the circuit you’ve drawn inSchematics. To create the netlist, go to the Analysis menu and select Create Netlist. Atthe bottom of the Schematic Editor Window, is the either message Netlist Created or adialog box appears informing you of netlist errors. Assuming your netlist is fine; youcan view it by returning to the Analysis menu and selecting Examine Netlist. The



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Windows utility Notepad opens the netlist file shown in Figure 2-11. Notice that allthree of our elements are here along with the proper values. The text $N_0001$N_0002 etc., are the node numbers that Schematics made up when it converted ourdiagram to the netlist. Those of you familiar with Spice will recognize each line of thenetlist as nothing more than the proper data statements for dc voltage sources andresistors. By tracing our way through the node numbers we can assure ourselves thatour circuit is properly connected. The source is 10 volts positive at node 2 and withrespect to 0. AGND is always node number zero. Ra connects 2 to 1 and Rb finishedthe loop between 0 and 1 – it’s perfect. Remember, the order of the node numbers isvery important! Later on, when we ask Schematics for the current through Ra forexample, Schematics will give us the current from node 2 to node 1. This is consistentwith the passive sign convention we discussed earlier. So, while the particular nodenumbers are not vital, their order is: and we find that order in the netlist.

Figure 2-11

B. Naming Nodes

As for we Schematics users, this is about the only use we have for the netlist. After all,the whole idea of the Schematics program is to get away from Spice formats; nodenumbers and data statements. Here’s the rub. We’ll eventually want to know the nodevoltages in our circuit. We need a way to tell Schematics which nodes are of interest tous. The old Spice way was to use the node number but we are trying our best to avoidthose. Schematics allow us to give any node a unique name. Let’s call the output node“Vout”. Simply double click on wire at the output node and the dialog in Figure 2-11will appear. Type in Vout as shown and select OK. The schematic should look likeFigure 2-12. You can drag the Vout label wherever you like.

Figure 2-12

C. Displaying Voltages and CurrentsOn the Schematic In the Analysis menu, you’ll find the Display Results on Schematicoption. When enabled, PSpice will print all dc node voltages and branch currents



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directly on the schematic. This is very convenient since both the circuit and the resultsare on one screen. To delete an undesired result, click on it and press the Delete key.The final circuit is shown in Figure 2-12 where results for Vin, Vout and I are included.

2.4 EXERCISES

1.

Draw a series circuit and find out the voltage drop across each resistor and totalcurrent passing through the circuit.

Figure 2-13

2. Draw a parallel circuit and find out the currents through each resistor and voltage.

Figure 2-14

3. Draw a series and parallel combination circuit and find out the voltages andcurrents through each resistor.

Figure 2-15

Resister R 6 R8 R9 REQ Voltage V s VR6 VR8 VR9 Theoretical TheoreticalMeasured Measured% Error % Error

Resister R 7 R11 R10 REQ Voltage I s IR7 IR11 IR10 Theoretical TheoreticalMeasured Measured% Error % Error

Resister R 1 R2 R3 R4 R5 REQ Voltage V s IR1 IR2 IR3 VR4 VR5

Theor TheoreticalMeas Measured

% Error % Error



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – Example Problem

2 – Series Circuit

3 – Parallel Circuit

4 – Series – Parallel

LabPerformance

Schematics

Working

Viva





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continuing familiarization with the use of the equipment. Set the current compliancevalue of the voltage source to 15 mA.

1. Resistors in series: Assemble the circuit in figure 3-1 with and thecomponent values (as provided in lab). Take measurements to complete theentries corresponding to the experimental values in table 3-1.

2. Resistors in parallel: Assemble the circuit in figure 3-2 with and thecomponent values (as provided in lab). Take measurements to complete theentries corresponding to the experimental values in table 3-2.

3. Series-Parallel combination: Assemble the circuit in figure 3-3 with thecomponent values (as provided in lab). Use . Take measurements tocomplete the entries corresponding to the experimental values in table 3-3. Noticethat the resistor experimental values can be taken from the previousmeasurements in table 3-1 and table 3-2. Measure the voltage across each resistorand use Ohm's law and the resistor experimental values to determine theexperimental values of IR i=1,2,3,4.

4. Voltage divider: Assemble the circuit in figure 3-4 with the component values (asprovided in lab). Take measurements to complete the entries corresponding to theexperimental values in table 3-4.

5. Current divider: Assemble the circuit in figure 3-5 with the component values (asprovided in lab). Set the voltage compliance value of the current source to 15 V.Take measurements to complete the entries corresponding to the experimental values in table 3-5.

Figure 3-1: Resistors in Series

Table 3-1

Figure 3-2: Resistors in Parallel

Table 3-2

Resister R 1 R2 R3 REQ Voltage V s VR1 VR2 VR3 Theoretical TheoreticalMeasured Measured% Error % Error

Resister R 4 R5 R6 Req Currents I s IR4 IR5 IR6 Theoretical TheoreticalMeasured Measured% error % error



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Figure 3-3: Combination of Series and Parallel

Table 3-3Param Theor Exper %error Param Theor Exper %Error

R7 IR7 R8 IR8 R9 IR9 R10 IR10 REQ IT

Figure 3-4: Voltage Divider

Table 3-4Parameter R 11 R12 Vs V1 V2 Vo

TheoreticalExperimental% Error

Figure 3-5: Current Divider

Table 3-5Parameter R 13 R14 Is I 1 I2 IT

TheoreticalExperimental% Error



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3.4 ANALYSIS1. Calculate the error percentage between measure and theoretical data and complete

all the corresponding entries in table 3-1 through 3-5. The error percentage isgiven by:

Where and are theoretical and measured data respectively.

2. From the above results comment on the three parameters with the highest errorpercentage and the three with the lowest error percentages. Discuss the possiblecauses for error and comment on the overall agreement between the measuredand theoretical data.



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – Series Resistors

2 – Parallel Resistors

3 – Series-ParallelCombination

4 – Voltage divider

5 – Current divider

Lab

Performance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 4: DC Circuits in MATLAB

4.1 MATLAB FUNDAMENTALSMATLAB is numeric computation software for engineering and scientific calculations.The name MATLAB stands for MATRIX LABORATORY. MATLAB is primarily a tool formatrix computations. MATLAB was originally written to provide easy access to thematrix computation software packages LINPACK and EISPACK.

MATLAB is a high-level language whose basic data type is a matrix that does notrequire dimensioning. There is no compilation and linking as is done in high-level

languages, such as C or FORTRAN. Computer solutions in MATLAB seem to be muchquicker than those of a high-level language such as C or FORTRAN. All computationsare performed in complex-valued double precision arithmetic to guarantee highaccuracy.

MATLAB has a rich set of plotting capabilities. The graphics are integrated in MATLAB.Since MATLAB is also a programming environment, a user can extend the functionalcapabilities of MATLAB by writing new modules.MATLAB has a large collection of toolboxes in a variety of domains. Some examples of

MATLAB toolboxes are control system, signal processing, neural network, imageprocessing, and system identification. The toolboxes consist of functions that can beused to perform computations in a specific domain.

4.1.1 MATLAB BASIC OPERATIONSWhen MATLAB is invoked, the command window will display the prompt >>. MATLABis then ready for entering data or executing commands. To quit MATLAB, type thecommand

exit or quitMATLAB has on- line help. To see the list of MATLAB’s help facility, type

helpThe help command followed by a function name is used to obtain information on aspecific MATLAB function. For example, to obtain information on the use of fastFourier transform function, fft , one can type the command

help fftThe basic data object in MATLAB is a rectangular numerical matrix with real orcomplex elements. Scalars are thought of as a 1-by-1 matrix. Vectors are considered asmatrices with a row or column. MATLAB has no dimension statement or typedeclarations. Storage of data and variables is allocated automatically once the data andvariables are used. MATLAB statements are normally of the form:

>> variable = expressionExpressions typed by the user are interpreted and immediately evaluated by the

MATLAB system. If a MATLAB statement ends with a semicolon, MATLAB evaluatesthe statement but suppresses the display of the results. MATLAB is also capable ofexecuting a number of commands that are stored in a file. Consider the matrix Z:



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This matrix may be entered in MATLAB as follows:>> A = [1 2 3; 2 3 4; 3 4 5];

Note that the matrix entries must be surrounded by square brackets [ ] with rowelements separated by blanks or by commas. The end of each row, with the exceptionof the last row, is indicated by a semicolon. A matrix A can also be entered across threeinput lines as:

>> A = [1 2 32 3 4

3 4 5];In this case, the carriage returns replace the semicolons. Consider a row vector B withfive elements:

>> B = [6 9 12 15 18]This vector can be entered in MATLAB as:

>> B = [6 9 12 15 18];Or

>> B = [6, 9, 12, 15, 18]For readability, it is better to use spaces rather than commas between the elements.The row vector B can be turned into a column vector by transposition , obtained by:

>> C = B’ The above results in

>> C =69

121518

Other ways of entering the column vector C are>> C = [6

9121518]

OrC = [6; 9; 12; 15; 18]

MATLAB is case sensitive in naming variables, commands and functions. Thus b and Bare not the same variable. If you do not want MATLAB to be case sensitive, you can usethe command

4.1.2 casesen offTo obtain the size of a specific variable, use the built in function size . For example, tofind the size of matrix A, you can execute the command size(A). The result will be arow vector with two entries. The first is the number of rows in A, the second thenumber of columns in A.

4.1.3 Whos

There will be a display of variable names and dimensions. Table 4.1 shows the displayof the variables that have been used so far in this book:



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Table 4-1: Display of an output of whos command

The grand total is 21 elements using 168 bytes. Table 4.2 shows additional MATLABcommands to get one started on MATLAB. Detailed descriptions and usages of thecommands can be obtained from the MATLAB help facility or from MATLAB manuals.

Table 4-2: Some basic MATLAB commands

4.2 MATRIX OPERATIONSThe basic matrix operations are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), and

conjugate transpose (‘) of matrices. In addition to the above basic operations, MATLABhas two forms of matrix division: the left inverse operator \ or the right inverseoperator /. Matrices of the same dimension may be subtracted or added. Thus if E andF are entered in MATLAB as

>> E = [7 2 3; 4 3 6; 8 1 5];>> F = [1 4 2; 6 7 5; 1 9 1];>> G = E - FG =

6 -2 1-2 -4 17 -8 4

>> H = E + FH =

8 6 510 10 119 10 6

A scalar (1-by-1 matrix) may be added to or subtracted from a matrix. In thisparticular case, the scalar is added to or subtracted from all the elements of anothermatrix.

>> J = H + 1 J =

9 7 611 11 1210 11 7



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An array operation for left and right division also involves element-by-elementoperation. The expressions A1./B1 and A1.\B1 give the quotient of element-by-element division of matrices A1 and B1. The statement

>> D1 = A1. /B1D1 =

0.3333 1.7500 2.00004.0000 3.0000 2.5000

>> E1 = A1.\B1E1 =

3.0000 0.5714 0.50000.2500 0.3333 0.4000

The array operation of rising to the power is denoted by .^ . The general statement willbe of the form. If r1 and s1 are matrices of the same dimensions, then the result q isalso a matrix of the same dimensions. For example, if

>> r1 = [7 3 5];>> s1 = [2 4 3];>> q1 = r1. ^s1>> q1 =

49 81 125>> q2 = r1. ^2q2 =

49 9 25>> q3 = (2). ^s1q3 =

4 16 8Note that when one of the operands is scalar, the resulting matrix will have the same

dimensions as the matrix operand.4.2.2 THE COLON SYMBOL (:)The colon symbol ( :) is one of the most important operators in MATLAB. It can be used(1) to create vectors and matrices, (2) to specify sub-matrices and vectors, and (3) toperform iterations. The statement

>> t1 = 1:6will generate a row vector containing the numbers from 1 to 6 with unit increment.MATLAB produces the result

>> t1 =1 2 3 4 5 6

Non-unity, positive or negative increments, may be specified. For example, thestatement

>> t2 = 3:-0.5:1>> t2 =

3.0000 2.5000 2.0000 1.5000 1.0000The statement

>>t3 = [(0:2:10) ;( 5:-0.2:4)]>> t3=

0 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.00005.0000 4.8000 4.6000 4.4000 4.2000 4.0000

Other MATLAB functions for generating vectors are linspace and logspace . Linspace generates linearly evenly spaced vectors, while logspace generates logarithmicallyevenly spaced vectors. The usage of these functions is of the form:



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>> linspace(i_value, f_value, np)>> logspace(i_value, f_value, np)

Where i_value is the initial value, f_value is the final value, and np is the total numberof elements in the vector. For example,

>> t4 = linspace(2, 6, 8)t4 =

2 2.5714 3.1429 3.7143 4.2857 4.8571 5.42866.0000

Individual elements in a matrix can be referenced with subscripts inside parentheses.For example, t2(4) is the fourth element of vector t2. Also, for matrixt3, t3(2,3)denotes the entry in the second row and third column. Using the colons one of thesubscripts denotes all of the corresponding row or column. For example, t3(:,4) is thefourth column of matrix t3. Thus, the statement

>> t5 = t3(:,4)>> t5 =

6.00004.4000

>> t6 = t3 (2,:)>> t6 =

5.0000 4.8000 4.6000 4.4000 4.2000 4.0000If the colon exists as the only subscript, such as t3(:), the latter denotes the elements ofmatrix t3 strung out in a long column vector. Thus, the statement

>> t7 = t3 (:)>> t7 =

05.0000

2.00004.80004.00004.60006.00004.40008.00004.200010.0000 4.0000



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4.3 EXAMPLEThe voltage, v, across a resistance is given as (Ohm’s Law), , where i is thecurrent and R the resistance. The power dissipated in resistor R is given by theexpression . If R = 10 Ohms and the current is increased from 0 to 10 A withincrements of 2A, write a MATLAB program to generate a table of current, voltage andpower dissipation.

Solution:MATLAB Script diary ex1_1.dat% diary causes output to be written into file ex1_1.dat% Voltage and power calculationR=10; % Resistance valuei=(0:2:10); % Generate current valuesv=i.*R; % array multiplication to obtain voltagep=(i.^2)*R; % power calculation

sol=[i v p] % current, voltage and power values are printedDiary% the last diary command turns off the diary state

MATLAB produces the following result:sol =Columns 1 through 60 2 4 6 8 10Columns 7 through 120 20 40 60 80 100Columns 13 through 180 40 160 360 640 1000

Columns 1 through 6 constitute the current values, columns 7 through 12 are thevoltages, and columns 13 through 18 are the power dissipation values.

4.4 M-FILESNormally, when single line commands are entered, MATLAB processes the commandsimmediately and displays the results. MATLAB is also capable of processing asequence of commands that are stored in files with extension .m . MATLAB files withextension m are called m-files. The latter are ASCII text files, and they are created witha text editor or word processor. To list m-files in the current directory on your disk,you can use the MATLAB command what . The MATLAB command, type , can be usedto show the contents of a specified file. M-files can either be script files or function files . Both scriptand function files contain a sequence of commands. However, function files takearguments and return values.

4.4.1 Script filesScript files are especially useful for analysis and design problems that require longsequences of MATLAB commands. With script file written using a text editor or wordprocessor, the file can be invoked by entering the name of the m-file, without theextension. Statements in a script file operate globally on the workspace data. Normally,when m-files are executing, the commands are not displayed on screen. The MATLABecho command can be used to view m-files while they are executing. To illustrate the



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4.6 SUMMARYThe following is a summary of the rules for writing MATLAB m-file functions:1. The word, function, appears as the first word in a function file. This is followed by

an output argument, an equal sign and the function name. The arguments to thefunction follow the function name and are enclosed within parentheses.

2. The information that follows the function, beginning with the % sign, shows howthe function is used and what arguments are passed. This information is displayedif help is requested for the function name.

3. MATLAB can accept multiple input arguments and multiple output arguments canbe returned.

4. If a function is going to return more than one value, all the values should bereturned as a vector in the function statement. For example,

function [mean, variance] = data_in(x)5. The above statement will return the mean and variance of a vector x. The mean and

variance are computed with the function.

6.

If a function has multiple input arguments, the function statement must list theinput arguments. For example, function [mean, variance] = data(x,n)

7. The above statement will return mean and variance of a vector x of length n.8. The last statement in the function file should be an “end” statement.

4.7 EXERCISES

1. Using Loop analysis to find out the current in the given circuit and write code in

MATLAB:

Figure 4-1

2.

Find node voltages in the given network and write code in MATLAB for givennetwork:

Figure 4-2



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

Problem

Number

Example – 1

Example – 2

Exercise – 1

Exercise – 2

LabPerformance

MATLAB Codes

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 5: Y-∆ Transformation

5.1 INTRODUCTIONIn many circuits, resistors are neither in series nor in parallel. For these circuits, it maybe necessary to convert from one circuit form to another to simplify the solution. Twotypical circuit configurations that often have these difficulties are the Wye (Y) andDelta (D) circuits. The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networkswith three terminals. Where three elements terminate at a common node and none aresources, the node is eliminated by transforming the impedances. For equivalence, theimpedance between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks. The

equations given here are valid for complex as well as real impedances.

Figure 5-1

5.2 Δ TO Y TRANSFORMATIONThe general idea is to compute the impedance R y at a terminal node of the Y circuitwith impedances R', R'' to adjacent nodes in the Δ circuit by

where RΔ are all impedances in the Δ circuit. This yields the specific formulae



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5.3 Y TO Δ TRANSFORMATIONThe general idea is to compute an impedance RΔ in the Δ circuit by

where RP = R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 is the sum of the products of all pairs of impedances inthe Y circuit and Ropposite is the impedance of the node in the Y circuit which is oppositethe edge with RΔ. The formula for the individual edges are thus

5.4 EXERCISE – I1. Calculate the total resistance of the given circuit and also calculate the loop

currents.2. Make connection as shown in given diagram.

3.

Measure total resistance and loop currents.4. Write all the values in the given table.

Figure 5-2 Table 5-1

Parameter R T I1 I2 I3

TheoreticalExperimental

% Error



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5.5 EXERCISE – II1. Calculate the total resistance of the given circuit and also calculate all the voltage

drops across the each resistor.2. Make connection as shown in given diagram.3. Measure total resistance and loop currents.4. Write all the values in the given table.

Figure 5-3Table 5-2

Parameter R T V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10


% Error

5.6 EXERCISE – III 1. Calculate the total resistance of the given circuit and also calculate all the voltage

drops across the each resistor.2. Make connection as shown in given diagram.3. Measure total resistance and loop currents.4. Write all the values in the given table.

Figure 5-4

Table 5-3Parameter R T V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7


% Error



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

Exercise – I

Exercise – II

Exercise – III

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 6: Simulating OpAmps in Multisim

The purpose of this lab is to introduce the different features of MultiSim. Begin by firstopening up MultiSim. For Windows users the default location can be found by clicking: Start ->All Programs -> Electronics Workbench -> DesignSuite Freeware Edition 9 -> MultiSim 9 .

You should see a screen similar to figure 6.1. This is called as a “Capture and Simulate” environment because you “Capture” your schematic by drawing it inMultiSim and then you “Simulate” it. Following figure shows the different parts of the

MultiSim workspace. Note that the location of the toolbars on your MultiSim windowmay be different.

Figure 6-1

6.1 BASIC ELEMENTSThe MultiSim user interface consists of the following basic elements (figure 6.2):

1. Menus are where you find commands for all functions.

2.

The system toolbar contains buttons for commonly performed functions.3. The instruments toolbar contains buttons for each instrument available withyour edition of MultiSim.

4. The link to Edaparts.com launches your Web browser loaded with the ElectronicWorkbench Edaparts.com website. You can then navigate the site to downloadparts.

5. The zoom toolbar allows you to zoom in and out on the active circuit.6. The MultiSim design bar is an integral part of MultiSim, and is explained in more

detail below.7. The in use list lists all the components used in the active circuit, for easy re-use.8. The component toolbar contains Parts Bin buttons that let you open Parts Bins

(which, in turn, contain buttons for each family of components).9. The circuit window is where you build your circuit designs.



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10. The status line displays useful information about the current operation and adescription of the item the cursor is currently pointing to.

11. The simulate switch is an easy way to run/stop/pause simulation of your circuit.

Figure 6-2: Basic Elements in MultiSim User Interface

Note: Your circuit window may, by default,have a black background; however, for thepurposes of this document, we show a whitebackground.

Familiarize yourselves with the location ofeach toolbar as it appears in your MultiSimwindow. If you don’t see the toolbars shownabove, click on the View menu and go to

Toolbars. Make sure the toolbars shown infigure 6.2 are checked as shown in figure 6.3.

6.1.1 Design BarThe Design Bar is a central component of MultiSim, allowing you easy access to thesophisticated functions offered by the program. The Design Bar guides you throughthe logical steps of building, simulating, analyzing and, eventually, exporting yourdesign. Although Design Bar functions are available from conventional menus, thismanual assumes you are taking advantage of the ease of use offered by the Design Bar.

This manual explains the use of those Design Bar buttons that are necessary to createand simulate the circuit described in the manual.

Figure 6-3



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6.2.1 Controlling Circuit DisplayYou can control the way your circuit and its components appear on the screen, and thelevel of detail which appears.1. To set the default circuit display options for circuits, choose Options/Preferences .

The Preferences screen appears, offering you six tabs of options, with the Circuittab being the active tab. Use this tab to control the colors and display details foryour circuit.

Figure 6-4

For other window display options, choose the desired tab. For example, to definewhether grid, page bounds and titles blocks are shown, use the Workspace tab. Toset the component symbols to either ANSI or DIN, use the Component Bin tab.Experiment with these options as you wish.

2. To save your options for the current circuit only , click OK .3. To save your options as the default, affecting both the current and subsequent

circuits, click Set as Default, then click OK .4. To restore your previously saved settings (if you don’t like the changes you made

and would like to start over again), click Restore Default and then continuemaking changes.

5. To cancel your changes and close the screen, click Cancel .6.2.2 Other Customization OptionsYou can also customize the interface by showing or hiding, dragging to a new locationand, optionally, resizing any of the following:• System toolbar • zoom toolbar • Design Bar • “in use” list • Instruments toolbar • Simulation swi tchThese changes apply to all circuits you are working with. Moved or resized items willreturn to that location and size when MultiSim is next opened. Finally, you can use theView menu to display or hide various elements.



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6.3 EXAMPLE – OPAMP1. Start the MultiSim Electronic Workbench program.2. You will create a new schematic and simulation so choose File->SaveAs, navigate to

or create a directory where you can save this schematic and simulation then fill inthe filename as shown below. (I called this one tut1.) Click SAVE when you havenavigated to the proper directory and entered a name for the project.

Figure 6-5

3. For reference, a picture of the circuit we will build and simulate appears below:

Figure 6-6

4. You should now have a blank schematic. Start placing components by selectingPlace->Component from the menu bar. You will see another dialog box as shown.Start with the OpAmp: pick Analog Components in the Group drop down menu:

Figure 6-7



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5. You should see a new dialog box. Select OPAMP then LM741CN as shown belowthen click OK. (Some versions of the 741 do not simulate well. This one does.)

Figure 6-8

6. Place the OpAmp on the schematic and flip it vertically to get the minus terminal ontop.To flip the OpAmp, make sure it is selected (surrounded by a dashed blue

line).Then right click once on the OpAmp and choose Flip Vertical from the pulldown menu as shown:

Figure 6-9

Note: Notice the other handy editing features like Cut, Copy, Paste and Delete.

7. Next add a couple of power supply connections. You will add a DC source by againselecting Place->Component. Only this time pick SOURCES from the drop downmenu.Then select POWER_SOURCES and DC_POWER as shown below then clickOK.



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Figure 6-108. Put the battery (DC power source) on the schematic somewhat below the OpAmp.

Align the top battery terminal with the power input (pin 7) on the OpAmp andraise the battery until it just makes a connection as shown. Then add a secondbattery for the ne gative supply above the OpAmp. Double click on the “12V” andchange it to 15V for each battery. Pick up a GROUND symbol (also in Source) andput one at the bottom of the positive battery. Then flip one and put it at the top of

the negative battery. Your circuit should now look like:

Figure 6-119. Place the rest of the components on the schematic as shown below. Resistors and

capacitors are under the Basic components drop down menu. The source V1 isunder Sources->Signal Voltage. Your populated schematic should look like:

Figure 6-12



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10. Wiring circuits in MultiSim is easy. Simply place the cursor over the terminal youwish to wire, left click once and start moving the mouse. Everywhere you want to“pin” the wire, left click once. When you reach the place where you want toterminate the wire, left-click once if it is on a terminal or twice if it is not connectedto anything. See the figures below:

Figure 6-13

Figure 6-14

11. Make sure all connections are made as shown above. Then you have one last thingbefore simulation. You will give a name to the output node so you can easily find itfor simulations. Left click once on the red wire going up from the output ofU1.Then right click and select properties from the pull down menu as shown:

Figure 6-15

12. Fill out the net name and click the Show box as shown then click OK.

Figure 6-16



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13. Your new net name will appear on your schematic as shown. Note MultiSim willnot always place the net name where you want it – but you can move it.

Figure 6-17

14. Now you are ready to run some simulations. MultiSim is quite powerful – you canadd virtual instruments to your circuit and run simulations that way. However weare going to be a little more sophisticated and let MultiSim produce Bode plots forus.In order to do that, we have to setup what we want on the analysis. Note our 1V,1kHz input voltage source. MultiSim can sweep it to produce Bode plotsautomatically.

15. You will now run a simulation. First select Simulate->Analyses->AC Analysis fromthe top menu bar. Make the Frequency Parameters page look as shown. (Be sureto change the vertical scale to decibels for a Bode plot.)

Figure 6-18



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16. Next choose the Output page and select the $outbp net (the one we named).

Figure 6-19

17. Both the other pages are all right. Now click Simulate. (Note if you had clicked OKthen MultiSim would have saved your values but not run a simulation.)

18. You should get a resulting Bode plot that looks like the one below.

Figure 6-20

19. There are a few things you can do to make this plot more useful. First, note theReverse Colors button. Pressing it will reverse the background from black towhite.



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Figure 6-21

20. Also notice the Show / Hide Grid button. It only works on the currently selectedplot.You must select each plot then click it to get a grid on both the magnitude andthe angle portion of a Bode plot. There are also cursors for taking measurementsand a legend which can be hidden or shown.

Figure 6-22

21. Another useful feature of MultiSim is the ability to sweep a value. We will makeone more analysis. This time we will sweep the value of R3 and see what affectthat has on the Bode plot. First we need to terminate the current plot, so left clickonce on the X in the top right corner of the Grapher View window.

22. Next select Simulate->Analyses->ParameterSweep from the MultiSim top menubar.This is a little tricky to setup – we want MultiSim to sweep the value of theresister R3 and generate a Bode plot (AC Analysis) for each value of R3. Fill out theparameter sweep Analysis Parameters as shown – that is, pick Resistor from the



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Drop Down box, pick rr3 from the drop down box of resistors, pick Linear for thesweep type and fill in 750 for the Start value, 7.5k for the Stop value and 250 forthe increment.Then click the MORE >> button – we need to setup an AC Analysisfor each value of the sweep.

Figure 6-23

23. Make this screen look as shown. Be sure to select the Output Tab and chooseOutBP to plot. And use the Edit Analysis button to make sure the AC Analysis issetup as shown.Then click the Simulate button

Figure 6-24



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24. This simulation will take a little while – MultiSim is essentially running 28sweeps.When it completes it should look as shown below:

Figure 6-25

25. Again we can clean up a lot with the Reverse Colors and Hide / Show buttons.Thenext page shows the final picture. Note as we change the value of R3, the cornerfrequency movesfrom about 1.2kHz down to about 1.03kHz.

Figure 6-26



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6.4 EXERCISES

1. Simulate the Inverting Amplifier circuit and calculate the output voltage andcompare the result with simulation result?

Figure 6-27

2. Simulate the Non-inverting Amplifier and calculate the output voltage and comparethe result with simulation result?

Figure 6-28



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – Example Problem

2 – Inverting Amplifier

3 – Non-Inverting Amplifier

LabPerformance

Schematics

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 7: Operational Amplifiers

This experiment will provide exposure to operational amplifiers. We will be simulatingand building some basic op-Amp configuration.

7.1 INTRODUCTION AND TEST CIRCUITSOperational Amplifiers have become basic building blocks in electronic circuit designbecause of their reliability, compact nature, and relative ease of use. When usedproperly the overall transfer characteristic can be precisely controlled by stablepassive components such as resistors, capacitor and diodes. Using feedbacktechniques, suppression of any non-ideal performance characteristic can be readilyachieved, resulting in circuit with highly predictable performance.

7.2 THEORETICAL WORKBe sure to read over the appropriate appendices in your lab manual so you rememberhow to use the breadboard, the equipment and how to read component values of thecomponents themselves, as well as how to use the op-amp. The amplifier we will beusing in this experiment is µ741. We will be simulating four basic configuration usingop-amps.Note: The amplifier we will be using has two terminal labeled as os1 and os2, leavethose unconnected. You can get the 741 part from the library called EVAL.

7.2.1 Inverting amplifierAn inverting amplifier is shown in figure 7.1. The principal features of this circuitare that the output voltage is the negative of the input voltage and is amplified by again that depends only on the feedback resistance between the source and theinput terminal.Be sure to note that the positive terminal of the operational amplifier is grounded.The gain of this amplifier is given by,

7.2.2 Non-inverting amplifierA non-inverting amplifier is shown in figure 7.2. The input is connected to thepositive terminal. The output has the same polarity as the input, but is againmultiplied by a gain that is determined by the feedback resistance and theresistance between the negative terminal and ground.The input resistance for this configuration is usually very large.The gain of this amplifier is given by:



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7.2.3 Differential amplifierA differential amplifier is shown in figure 7.3. This amplifier is a combination of thetwo latter configurations.The output voltage is an amplified version of the difference between the two inputsnotes that changing the resistor values in this configuration we can have anamplifier which amplifies with different gains to each of its inputs and thensubtract one input from the other.The gain for this particular set of values is given by,

7.2.4 Summing amplifierThe summing amplifier is shown in figure 7.4 and is characterized by a set of Nparallel input voltages, each in series with a resistor of a specific value.The currents produced by each source are summed at node A.

The output voltage is the negative of the sum of the input voltages, each multipliedby the ratio of the feedback resistance to the resistor value in series with, therespective voltage source,By varying the resistance that is in series with each source, almost any set ofweighting factors can be achieved in the summation; In essence, the output voltageis a linear combination of the input voltages.The gain for each input is given by gain of inverting amplifier, where we take

replace instead. is the resistance in series with n th source.

7.3

EXPERIMENTSAssemble each of the four amplifier configurations you simulated in the preparationpart and verify that each configuration operates as described in that section and inyour simulations.

Figure 7-1 Inverting Amplifier.

Table 7-1VRi VRf Vi Vo Av


% Error



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Figure 7-2 Non-Inverting Amplifier

Table 7-2VRi VRf Vi V0 Av


% Error

Figure 7-3 Differential Amplifier

Table 7-3VRi VRf Vi V0 Av


% Error



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Figure 7-4 Summing Amplifier

Table 7-4

S.No. Vi 1 Vi2 Vi3Vo

TheoreticalVo

Experimental%

Error Av

1 0 0 02 0 0 13 0 1 04 0 1 15 1 0 06 1 0 17 1 1 08 1 1 1

7.4 ANALYSIS1. Solve for the output voltage analytically for all the configurations and compare

these results to those obtained by simulations (Theoretical Work Section) and inthe lab.

2. Also report what is the output voltage of the circuit in each circuit figure.3. Give the results numerically and as a formula.



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – Inverting Amplifier

2 – Non-Inverting Amplifier

3 – Differential Amplifier

4 – Summing Amplifier

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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8.2 THEORETICAL WORK1. Node-voltage method: Consider the circuit in figure 8.1 and 8.2 (use components

values as provided in the lab, also record in respective tables). Use the node voltagemethod to complete the entries corresponding to the theoretical values: Do not usesource transformation. Include your calculation in separate sheet.

2. Mesh-current method: Consider the circuit in figure 8.3 and 8.4 (use componentsvalues as provided in the lab, also record in respective tables). Use the mesh-current method to complete the entries corresponding to the theoretical values.Include the calculation in separate sheet.

8.3 EXPERIMENTSNode-voltage method : Assemble the circuit in Figure with the component valuesshown in Table. Take measurements to complete the entries corresponding to theexperimental values.

Figure 8-1

Table 8-1Resistor Parameter Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vr1 Vr2 Vr3 Vr4 Vr5

Node-voltage method : Calculate and measure node voltages in the following figure:

Figure 8-2

Table 8-2Parameter Theoretical Experimental % Error

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5

V6V7

V8



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Mesh-current method : Assemble the circuit in Figure with the component valuesshown in Table. Take measurements to complete the entries corresponding to theexperimental values.

Figure 8-3: Mesh Current Method

Table 8-3Resistor Parameter Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vr1 Vr2 Vr3 Vr4 Vr5

Mesh-current method : Calculate and measure all loop currents in the figure below:

Figure 8-4

Table 8-4Parameter Theoretical Experimental % Error

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6



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8.4 ANALYSISThis section is intended for the analysis and comparison of the experimental andtheoretical results. Answer all the questions.1. Calculate the error percentage between the measured and theoretical data and

complete all the corresponding entries in Tables 8-1 through 8-4. The errorpercentage is given by

Where and are theoretical and measured data respectively.2. Comment on the overall agreement between the theoretical and experimental

results. Consider that resistor values have the tolerance of up to 10% .



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

Node-Voltage Method – I

Node-Voltage Method – II

Mesh-Current Method – I

Mesh-Current Method – II

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 9: Circuit Analysis Techniques – II

The objective of this experiment is to analyze DC resistive circuits employing thesource transformation, Thevenin and Norton theorems. Experimental results willallow the verification of the theoretical analysis.

9.1 TECHNIQUES FOR CIRCUIT SIMPLIFICATIONIn this section, source transformations and Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuitsare discussed as additional methods to simplify the circuit analysis.

9.1.1 Source transformations

A source transformation , shown in Fig. 9-1, allows the replacement of a voltagesource in series with a resistor by a current source in parallel with the sameresistor, or vice versa. In order for these two circuits to be equivalent, the voltagedrop and the current drawn by any load at nodes a and b must be the same. Therelationship between and is simply:

Figure 9-1: Source Transformation

The above equation holds for the special cases when there is a resistor inparallel with the voltage source or a resistor in series with the current source.

Figure 9-2: Equivalent circuit containing a resister either in series with a voltage source or inparallel with a current source

In both cases the resistance has no effect on the equivalent circuit.It can be shown that by applying source transformations on the circuit, anequivalent circuit with respect to the voltage consisting of a current source and aresistor can be found.



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9.1.2 Thevenin and Norton equivalentsFor purpose of analysis, it is often desirable to replace, at a specific pair of terminals(nodes) of a circuit, the set of interconnected elements (resistors and power sources)"behind" the pair of terminals, by a single resistor and a single power source. Theveninand Norton equivalents are techniques of circuit simplification that describe thebehavior of a circuit at a specific pair of terminals.

9.1.3 Thevenin equivalentA Thevenin equivalent circuit is composed of an independent voltage source inseries with a resistor , replacing an interconnection of sources and resistors.The value of is open circuit voltage at the pair of terminal in the original circuit.

is given by the ratio of and the short circuit current observed at the pairof terminals when a short circuit is placed across them. Thus, = / .Determination of and can be simplified by applying source transformations.

9.1.4 Norton equivalentA Norton equivalent circuit is composed by an independent current source inparallel with a resistor . The Norton equivalent can be derived from the Thevenin equivalent simply bymaking a source transformation.Therefore, the Norton current equals the short circuit current at the terminal ofinterest, , and the Norton resistance is identical to the Thevenin resistance.

.Notice that source transformation can be applied to calculate and .

9.2 THEORETICAL WORK1. Source transformation: Consider the circuit in figure 9.3 and 9.4 (use the

component values provided in lab). Use a series of source transformation to find anequivalent circuit (with respect ) consisting of a current source and a resistor.Complete the entries in table 9-1 corresponding to the theoretic values. Use R 1 andR3 for the calculation of Include the calculation and circuit simplification in aseparate sheet.

2. Thevenin equivalent: Consider the circuit in figure 9.5 and 9.6 (use thecomponent values provided in lab). Find the Thevenin equivalent and complete theentries corresponding to the theoretical values include the calculation in separatesheet.

3. Norton equivalent: Consider the circuit in figure 9.7and 9.8 (use the component

values provided in lab). Find the Norton equivalent and complete the entriescorresponding to theoretical values. Include the calculation in a separate sheet.

9.3 ANALYSISThis section is intended for the analysis and comparison of the experimental andtheoretical results. Answer all the questions.3. Calculate the error percentage between the measured and theoretical data and

complete all the corresponding entries in Tables 9-1 through 9-6. The errorpercentage is given by

Where and are theoretical and measured data respectively.4. Comment on the overall agreement between the theoretical and experimentalresults. Consider that resistor values have the tolerance of up to 10% .



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Thevenin equivalent : Assemble the circuit in Figure with the component valuesshown in Table. Take measurements to complete the entries corresponding to theexperimental values. Connect the DMM in current measurement mode acrossterminals a and b in order to measure I sc.

Figure 9-5 Thevenin Equivalent

Table 9-3

Param V s Is R1 R2 R3 Param Theor Exper %Error

Values V th

Rth

Figure 9-6

Table 9-4

Param V s Is R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 Param Theor Exper %Error

Values V th

Rth



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Norton equivalent : Assemble the circuit in Figure with the component values shownin Table. Connect the DMM in current measurement mode across terminals a and b inorder to measure In. Measure V th in order to determine Rn.

Figure 9-7: Norton Equivalent

Table 9-5

Param I s R1 R2 R3 R4 Param Unit Theor Exper %Error

Values I N RN

Figure 9-8

Table 9-6

Param I s R1 R2 R3 R4 Param Unit Theor Exper %Error

Values I N RN



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

Source Transformation – I

Source Transformation – I I

Thevenin Equivalent – I

Thevenin Equivalent – II

Norton Equivalent – I

Norton Equivalent – II

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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voltage desired. Batteries may be primary (able to supply current when constructed,discarded when drained) or secondary (rechargeable; can be charged, used, andrecharged many times)The primary cell first used was the carbon-zinc dry cell. It had a voltage of 1.5 volts; later battery types have been manufactured, when possible, to give the same voltageper cell. Carbon-zinc and related cells are still used, but the alkaline battery deliversmore energy per unit weight and is widely used. The most commonly used batteryvoltages are 1.5 (1 cell) and 9V (6 cells). Various technologies of rechargeable batteryare used. Types most commonly used are NiMH, and lithium ion and variants.

10.2.2 Unregulated power supplyAn AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert thevoltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. Ifit is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsatingdirect voltage, followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, andsometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation. A small remainingunwanted alternating voltage component at mains or twice mains power frequency(depending upon whether half- or full-wave rectification is used) —ripple —isunavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage.

For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplestunregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer drivinga single diode in series with a resistor. Before the introduction of solid-state electronics equipment used valves (vacuumtubes) which required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers,rectifiers, and filters to generate one or more direct voltages of some hundreds of

volts, and a low alternating voltage for filaments. Only the most advanced equipmentused expensive and bulky regulated power supplies.

10.2.3 Linear regulated power supplyThe voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the loadand on variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linearregulator may be used to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized againstfluctuations in input voltage and load. The regulator also greatly reduces the rippleand noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators often provide current limiting,protecting the power supply and attached circuit from overcurrent.Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop testequipment, allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For example, abench power supply used by circuit designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and upto 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by an external signal, for example, forapplications requiring a pulsed output.

10.2.4 AC/DC supplyIn the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some regions, AC in others.Transformers cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap unregulated power supplycould run directly from either AC or DC mains without using a transformer. The powersupply consisted of a rectifier and a filter capacitor. When operating from DC therectifier was essentially a conductor, having no effect; it was included to allowoperation from AC or DC without modification.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_battery

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-zinc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NiMH

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_ion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_(electrical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_electronics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulator


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_capacitor




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_electronics


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_(electrical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_ion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NiMH

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-zinc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_battery

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_cell



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10.2.5 Switched-mode power supplyA switched-mode power supply (SMPS) works on a different principle. AC input,usually at mains voltage, is rectified without the use of a mains transformer, to obtaina DC voltage. This voltage is then switched on and off at a high speed by electronicswitching circuitry, which may use a high-frequency, hence small, light, and cheap,transformer or inductor. The duty cycle of the output square wave increases as poweroutput requirements increase. Switched-mode power supplies are always regulated. Ifthe SMPS uses a properly insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will beelectrically isolated from the mains, essential for safety.

The input power slicing occurs at a very high speed (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz). Highfrequency and high voltages in this first stage permit much smaller transformers andsmoothing capacitors than in a power supply operating at mains frequency, as linearsupplies do. After the transformer secondary, the AC is again rectified to DC. To keepoutput voltage constant, the power supply needs a sophisticated feedback controller tomonitor current drawn by the load.

SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit tohelp protect the device and the user from harm. In the event that an abnormal highcurrent power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a directshort and will shut itself down before damage is done. For decades PC power supplieshave provided a power good signal to the motherboard whose absence preventsoperation when abnormal supply voltages are present.

SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are only able tooutput above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load

condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causingthe isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting veryhigh voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits maybriefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can beattached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.

Power factor has become a recent issue of concern for computer manufacturers.Switched mode power supplies have traditionally been a source of power lineharmonics and have a very poor power factor. Many computer power supplies built inthe last few years now include power factor correction built right into the switched-mode supply, and may advertise the fact that they offer 1.0 power factor .

By slicing up the sinusoidal AC wave into very small discrete pieces, a portion ofunused alternating current stays in the power line as very small spikes of power thatcannot be utilized by AC motors and results in waste heating of power linetransformers. Hundreds of switched mode power supplies in a building can result inpoor power quality for other customers surrounding that building, and high electricbills for the company if they are billed according to their power factor in addition tothe actual power used. Filtering capacitor banks may be needed on the building powermains to suppress and absorb these negative power factor effects.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_cycle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulation


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowbar_(circuit)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummy_load

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_system_harmonics





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummy_load

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowbar_(circuit)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_cycle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply



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10.2.6 Programmable power supplyProgrammable power supplies allow for remote control of the output voltage throughan analog input signal or a computer interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Variableproperties include voltage, current, and frequency (for AC output units). Thesesupplies are composed of a processor, voltage/current programming circuits, currentshunt, and voltage/current read-back circuits. Additional features can include over-current, over-voltage, and short-circuit protection, and temperature compensation.Programmable power supplies also come in a variety of forms including modular,board-mounted, wall-mounted, floor-mounted or bench top.

Programmable power supplies can furnish DC, AC, or AC with a DC offset. The ACoutput can be either single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase is generally used forlow-voltage, while three-phase is more common for high-voltage power supplies.Programmable power supplies are now used in many applications. Some examplesinclude automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, and differentialthermal analysis.

10.2.7 Uninterruptible power supplyAn uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sourcessimultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneouslycharging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, thebattery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. Such ascheme can supply power as long as the battery charge suffices, e.g., in a computerinstallation, giving the operator sufficient time to effect an orderly system shutdownwithout loss of data. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or

turbine to continuously supply power to a system in parallel with power coming fromthe AC mains. The engine-driven generators would normally be idling, but could cometo full power in a matter of a few seconds in order to keep vital equipment runningwithout interruption. Such a scheme might be found in hospitals or telephone centraloffices.

10.2.8 High-voltage power supplyHigh voltage refers to an output on the order of hundreds or thousands of volts. High-voltage supplies use a linear setup to produce an output voltage in this range.Additional features available on high-voltage supplies can include the ability to reversethe output polarity along with the use of circuit breakers and special connectorsintended to minimize arcing and accidental contact with human hands. Some suppliesprovide analog inputs (i.e. 0-10V) that can be used to control the output voltage,effectively turning them into high-voltage amplifiers albeit with very limitedbandwidth.

10.2.9 Voltage multipliersVoltage multipliers, as the name implies, are circuits designed to multiply the inputvoltage. The input voltage may be doubled (voltage doubler), tripled (voltage tripler ),quadrupled (voltage quadrupler), etc. Voltage multipliers are also power converters.An AC input is converted to a higher DC output. These circuits allow high voltages to be

obtained using a much lower voltage AC source.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS232

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPIB

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_growth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHV_connector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_tripler

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_tripler

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHV_connector

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_growth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPIB

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS232



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separation between the plates. Capacitance also depends on the dielectric constant ofthe substance separating the plates.

Figure 10-3: Capacitor The standard unit of capacitance is the farad, abbreviated F. This is a large unit; morecommon units are the microfarad, abbreviated µF (1 µF =10 -6F) and the picofarad,abbreviated pF (1 pF = 10 -12 F).

Capacitors can be fabricated onto integrated circuit (IC) chips. They are commonlyused in conjunction with transistor s in dynamic random access memory (DRAM). Thecapacitors help maintain the contents of memory. Because of their tiny physical size,these components have low capacitance. They must be recharged thousands of timesper second or the DRAM will lose its data. Large capacitors are used in the powersupplies of electronic equipment of all types, including computers and theirperipherals. In these systems, the capacitors smooth out the rectified utility AC, providing pure, battery-like DC.

10.3.4 Regulator (7805)7 805 is a 5V fixed three terminal positive voltage regulator IC. The IC has featuressuch as safe operating area protection, thermal shut down, internal current limitingwhich makes the IC very rugged. Output currents up to 1A can be drawn from the ICprovided that there is a proper heat sink .

10.3.5 Procedure1. Make a connection as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Connect all the components as given.3. Measure the input and output voltages.4. Also measure the pulsated and pure dc on oscilloscope.

Figure 10-4

Precautions:1. Do not touch the bared wires.2. Be careful in making the AC connection.3. Do not touch the charged capacitors.

http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid183_gci532218,00.html



http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci213914,00.html

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http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci213914,00.html






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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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Lab - 11: Variable Regulated Power Supply

11.1 INTRODUCTIONThere are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage ACmains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and otherdevices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of whichperforms a particular function. For example, consider a 5V regulated supply:

Figure 11-1: Block Diagram of a Regulated power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagramand a graph of their output:

11.1.1 Transformer + RectifierThe varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Figure 11-2

11.1.2 Transformer + Rectifier + SmoothingThe smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Figure 11-3

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#transformer

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#rectifier

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#smoothing

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#regulator

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#regulator

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#smoothing

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#rectifier

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#transformer



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11.1.3 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Figure 11-4

11.1.4 Components requiredC1 14000uF or 10000uf 40 VDC Electrolytic CapacitorC2 100uF 50Vdc Electrolytic Capacitor, C3 100nF Disc Capacitor,C4 10nF Disc CapacitorR1 1kΩ, R2 240 Ω 1/4 WLM 317H 1.2 to 30 Volt 5 Amp RegulatorBR 10 Amp 50 PIV Bridge RectifierTransformer 24 V 5 Amp TransformerMISC1 Wire

11.1.5 Procedure1. Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.2. Adjust the voltage with varying potentiometer and Regulator.3. Regulate the different voltages.4. Meausre all voltages with DMM.

Figure 11-5

11.2 EXERCISESUsing an oscilloscope draw all the voltages as given below;

1. Draw the output voltage across the C1.

Figure 11-6: Voltage across C1



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3. Draw the output voltage across the regulator.

Figure 11-8: Voltage across the regulator





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11.3 ASSESSMENT SHEETS

Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

LabPerformance

Plots from all exercises

Circuit/Working/Analysis

Viva





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12.2.2 Natural response of an RC circuitThe natural response of an RC circuit is analogous to that of an RL circuit.An RC circuit is shown in figure 12.2.The expressions for the current and voltage across the resistor are:

Where the initial voltage is across the (fully charged) capacitor before the powersource is switched off and the capacitor starts releasing energy to the circuit.The time constant for RC circuit is given by:

Figure 12-2 RC Circuit Summarizing, the natural response of an RC circuit is calculated by (1) finding theinitial voltage across the capacitor, (2) finding the time constant of the circuit,and (3) generate .

12.3 EXPERIMENTS

12.3.1 Equipment settings:

Function generator: Type of waveform: Square wave. Amplitude=5 V. Offset=2.5 V.Frequency: determined by circuit parameters. Notice that the actual amplitude ofthe signal is 10 V.Oscilloscope: External trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of the functiongenerator. Channel 2: disconnected (disconnect the probe from channel 2).

The procedure necessary to determine the circuit responses experimentally isdescribed next. Measure all components and report their actual values in thecorresponding entries of Tables 12-1 and 12-4.

12.3.2 Natural response of RC circuitSet the frequency of the function generator to about 0.05/T Hz.The oscilloscope probe across the capacitor. Press Autoscale.Press Main/Delayed and select Lft under Time Ref from the soft menu in theoscilloscope screen.Press Slope/Coupling and select the second slope in the soft menu (going fromhigh to low).Adjust the Time/Div knob to the closest value to T.The amount of time per division is shown on top of the oscilloscope display.For example, 20.0 ms / means the time span displayed in the screen is (20 ms) x10 equal to 200 ms.At this point the natural response of the RC circuit should be displayed.

Record your results and show them to your instructor.

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R2

1kΩ

1 2

C1470uF

3

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Table 12-1Parameters Theoretical Measured % Error

T

Vt

It

12.3.3 Natural response of RL circuitRepeat above procedure (with necessary modifications) to obtain naturalresponse for RL circuit.Record your results and show them to your instructor.


T

Vt

It

12.4 STEP RESPONSEThe response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or currentsource is referred to as the step response of the circuit. This case .presents theopposite conditions of the natural response. Now, in RL or RC circuits, the inductor orcapacitor (assumed to be completely discharged) begins acquiring energy after asudden application of an external power source. The voltages and currents that arisein the circuit under these conditions are discussed next.

12.4.1 Step response of an RL circuitIn an RL circuit the initial conditions to determine the step response are assumedto beThe expressions for the current in the circuit and the voltage across the inductorafter the voltage source is applied are:

Notice that the current increase from zero to a find value of at a ratedetermined by the time constant

Figure 12-3: RL Step Response

Table 12-3

Parameters Theoretical Measured % ErrorT

Vt

It

L11mH

R11kΩ

J1

Key = A 1I11 A

2

3



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12.4.2 Step response of an RC circuitIn an RC circuit (see Fig; 12-4) the initial voltage across the capacitor is assumed tobe .The expressions for the current and voltage in the capacitor after the currentsource is applied are given below:

Notice that Eq. indicates that the voltage increases from zero to a final value of I ORat a rate determined by the time constant .

Figure 12-4 RC for step response


T

Vt

It

12.5 ANALYSISThis section is intended for the analysis and comparison of the experimental andtheoretical results. Answer the entire question1. Estimate the time constant for all the Circuits by using two coordinates (or step)

responses (from the data files) during the dischargeor charge) and the followingexpression for the natural and step response:

2. Complete the entries in Tables 12-1 and 12-4. Compare the estimated timeconstants to the theoretical time constants for each circuit.

3. Compare the theoretical and experimental plots of all the responses. Explain anydifferences between them.

R11kΩ

J1

Key = AI11 A

2C1470uF

1

3



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Name: __________________________

Reg. No. : _______________________

Date of Lab: ____________________

ProblemNumber

1 – Natural Response of RL Circuit

2 – Natural Response of RC Circuit

3 – Step Response of RL Circuit

4 – Step Response of RC Circuit

LabPerformance

Working/Analysis

Viva





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13.2 NATURAL RESPONSEDetermining the natural response of a second-order circuit consists in finding thetype of damping and applying appropriate set of equations.Notice that in order to determine the coefficient values, a set of two linearequations needs to be solved.Here, and represent the initial values of the variable representingthe response (voltage or current) and its derivative evaluated at t=0, respectively.

Damping Natural Response Equations Coefficient Equations

OverDamped

Under

Damped

CriticallyDamped

13.2.1 Natural response of a parallel RLC circuitThe determination of the natural response of a parallel RLC circuit consists offinding the voltage V generated across the parallel branches by the release ofenergy stored in the inductor or capacitor or both.

The initial conditions of voltage across the capacitor and current through theinductor are represented by and respectively.Vs provides a square signal with a DC offset voltage such that the bottom part of thewaveform is aligned with the zero Volts level, is the internal resistance of thevoltage source, and is the resistance in RLC circuit.A test circuit is shown in figure 13.1.The natural response of the circuit can be generated in a periodic fashion providingthat the period T of the square wave is long enough to allow the charge anddischarge of the respective elements.

13.2.2 Natural response of a series RLC circuit

The determination of the natural response of the series RLC circuit consists offinding the current I generated through the series element by the release of energystore in the inductor or capacitor or both.A test circuit is shown in Fig. 13.2.The period of the square signal must last long enough to allow the charge anddischarge of the respective elements.



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13.3 STEP RESPONSEDetermining the step response of a second-order circuit consists in finding the type ofdamping and applying and solving the appropriate set of equations: Here, is thefinal value of , and and are initial values (at t = 0).

Damping Natural Response Equations Coefficient Equations

OverDamped

UnderDamped

CriticallyDamped

13.3.1 Step response of a parallel RLC circuit

The determination of the step response of a parallel RLC circuit consists of findingthe current IL that appears through the inductor as a consequence of the suddenapplication of a DC current source.This current is of particular interest because it does not approach zero as tincreases.The initial conditions of voltage across the capacitor and current through theinductor may or may not be zero.A test circuit is given in Fig. 13.3The step response of the circuit can be observed periodically providing that theperiod T of the square wave is long enough to allow the charge and discharge of therespective elements.

13.3.2 Step response of a series RLC circuitThe determination of the step response of the series RLC circuit consists of findingthe voltage V c across the capacitor generated by the sudden application of a DC

voltage source.This voltage is of particular interest because it does not approach zero as tincreases. A test circuit is given in Fig. 13.4.

13.4 EXPERIMENTS

1. Natural response of a parallel RLC circuit. Consider the circuit shown in figure 13.1 and the component values (as providedin lab). Assume that the signal provided by the function generator switches from10 to 0 Volts at t = 0.Determine and the type of damping of this circuit and find the expressionfor the voltage v(t). Generate a graph of v(t) versus time in the interval from 0 to2 ms on oscilloscope.



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Figure 13-1: Parallel RLC Test Circuit

2. Natural response of a series RLC circuit. Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig, 13-2.Assume that the signal provided by the function generator switches from 10 to0 Volts t = 0.

Determine and the type of damping of this circuit and find the expressionfor the current i(t).Generate a graph of i(t) versus line in the interval from 0 to 1 ms on theoscilloscope.

Figure 13-2 Series RLC circuit to illustrate the natural response

R1

1kΩV11kHz5 V

R2

1kΩ

1 2

C1470uF

L11mH

4

3



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References1. M. H. Rashid, Introduction to PSpice Using OrCAD for Circuits and Electronics , 3rd ed.,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2003.2. M.H. Rashid, SPICE For Power Electronics and Electric Power , Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall, 1993.3. Paul W. Tuinenga, SPICE: A guide to circuit simulation and analysis using PSPICE , 3rd ed.,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995.4. PSpice Manual , Irvine, CA: MicroSim Corporation, 1992.5. Roy W. Goody, PSpice for Windows Vol II: Operational Amplifiers and Digital Circuits,

Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996.6. Roy W. Goody, OrCAD PSpice for Windows Volume 1: DC and AC Circuits , Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000. 7. Roy W. Goody, OrCAD PSpice for Windows Volume I1: Devices, Circuits, and Operational

Amplifiers , Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000.8. Marc E. Herniter, Schematic Capture with Cadence PSpice , Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-

Hall, 2001.9. John Keown, PSpice and Circuit Analysis , 3rd ed., New York: Merrill (Macmillan Publishing

Company), 1997.10. Paul G. Krol, Inside Orcad Capture , Clifton Park, NY: OnWord Press, 1998.11. Robert Lamey, The Illustrated Guide to PSpice for Windows , New York: Delmar Publishers,

1995.12. Variable power supply : http://www.aaroncake.net/circuits/supply.asp

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm 13. Giuseppe Massobrio and Paolo Antognetti, Semiconductor Device Modeling with SPICE , 2nd

ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. 14. Attia John Okyere, PSPICE and MATLAB for Electronics: An Integrated Approach , Boca

Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002.15. T.E. Price, Analog Electronics: An Integrated PSpice Approach , Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall, 1996.16. R. Ramshaw and D. Schuurman, PSpice Simulation of Power Electronics Circuits , New York:

Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997.

17. Chris Schroeder, Inside Orcad Capture for Windows , Burlington, MA: Newnes, 1998.18. Gordon W. Roberts and Adel S. Sedra, SPICE , New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

19. John A. Stuller, Basic Introduction to PSpice , New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.20. James A. Svoboda, PSpice for Linear Circuits , New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002.21. Paul Tuinenga, SPICE: A Guide to Circuit Simulation and Analysis Using PSpice , 3rd ed.,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995 . 22. Electrical Engineering By B.L Teraja: Circuit Tasks 23. Diode Detail: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_3/1.html 24. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformers_%28film%29 25. Electronics Devices By Nashalsky:Op-Amps26. Electronic Workbench for circuit designing27. DC power supply: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply

http://www.aaroncake.net/circuits/supply.asp



http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm


http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_3/1.html



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformers_%28film%29


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply










Bibliography

1. http://www.geocities.com/electronicsweb/amplificadores/ampigl.html 2. http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html 3. http://openbookproject.net//electricCircuits/Ref/index.html 4. http://www.educypedia.be/electronics/dataschematic.htm 5. MathWorks, Inc, MATLAB, High-Performance Numeric Computation Software , 1995.6. Biran, A. and Breiner, M. MATLAB for Engineers , Addison-Wesley, 1995.7. Etter, D.M., Engineering Problem Solving with MATLAB , 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1997.

http://www.geocities.com/electronicsweb/amplificadores/ampigl.html


http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html


http://openbookproject.net/electricCircuits/Ref/index.html


http://www.educypedia.be/electronics/dataschematic.htm






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