China Banister Fletcher

8/10/2019 China Banister Fletcher

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China...extended descriptions, pg 3

The earliest inhabitants of China so far discovered lived at Lantian (Shaanxi province) 600,000

years ago. But the first forms of civilised life emerge during the Neolithic era. There were two

major cultures. the Yangshao based in west China and the Longshan to the east. The Longshan

culture seems to have outlived, indeed to a degree superseded, the Yangshao. The Longshan

also pioneered construc- (ional characteristics which were to be developed during the

subsequent Bronze Age, They surrounded their settlements with walls formed by layers of

pounded earth (pts)a technique which was also used in the construction of buildings. The

first identifiable dynasty is the Xia (21001600 BC), of which no cultural remains have, as yet.

been discovered but which was probably a late Longshan foundation, The succeeding Shang

period (c. 1850-1027 BC) is divided into three distinct early phases. each represented by a

major site Shang at Erlltou, middle Shang at Zhengzhou and late Shang at Anyang, all in Hanan

province, The Shang are sometimes called Yin in Chinese. Shang rulers were dedicated builders

creating walled settlements around their palaces and suburbs for the use of specific industries,

such as the manufacture Of bronze implements and pottery Construction still involved the use

of pounded earth although stone columns were used, sometimes clad in bronze plates. The

Shang rulers also constructed enormous subterranean tombs. It was durmg the Shang dynasty

that China began its remarkable pioneering technological development. First there was the

development of a sophisticated bronze industry, then the production of cast iron, porcelain and

paper The Shang rulers were finally overthrown around 1028 BC by the Zhou from Shaanxi

province. The Zhou period (1027256 BC) is complicated to chronicle. Around 770 BC the Zhou

came under intense presssure from warlike nomadic tribes and moved their capital east from

the Wei Valley to Luoyang. This move divides the dynasty Into two distinct periods

the

Western Zhou (1060770 BC) and the Eastern Zhou (770256 BC). This later phase is in turn

subdivided to reflect the politlcal Complexion of the time; the Spring and Autumn Period of

722-481 BC and the Warring States Period of Period of 403221 BC, During this later period

Zhou power broke down as Individual fiefdoms asserted their independence. Unification came

with the Qin who by 221 BC had conquered all the other states. Standardisatlon became a

paramount concern a process whtch laid the foundation for great advances m Chinese

civillsatlon: weights and meas- ures were unified, standard copper coins were issued, the Qin

writing style was imposed. the road and canal system was initiated, the Great Wall began to

protect the northern frontier, and to 'unify' except those on medictne. thought all texts wereburnt. Such agriculture and divination authoritanan rule naturally caused a revolt and in 206 BC

the Qin army was defeated and the Han dynasty established. It was to rule until AD 220. During

this period China enooyed one of its 'Golden Ages' during which Chinese culture and commerce

flourished and the centralised bureaucratic government was based on the Confucian ideal of

paternal- isuc rule by educated and moral men.


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China...physical characteristics..pg 7

Chinese civilisation originated in the Neolithic penod in the cool temperate provinces of the

north-east. The primary locus was in the Huanghe valley, and later around the Changjiang.China was geographically isolated throughout this period, and its culture developed

autochthonously. The region was a rich lone of marshes, lakes and alluvial plains with little

natural forest cover. Rainfall was sparse and the ROUND winters harsh, but the cold, arid

climate was well- suited to the farming, hunting, fishing and foraging the region supported from

about 3500 BC. The slash and burn techniques of cultivation used earlier were superseded by

permanent field systems during the Xia period (21001600 BC), which also saw the transition

from seasonal sites to large and permanent villages scattered over much of northern China. In

the expansion into the Changiang basin and to the coastal regions of southern China farming

was adapted to higher temperatures and levels Of rainfall. The Shang period (1600

1028 BC)was confined to the northern plains of Henan and its immediate surroundings, and the

heartland of Zhou China (1027256 BC) was along the Wei valley. The extent of Zhou territory

fluctuated with the pressure from northern nomads but the density of settlement Increased

and the pace of urbamsauon quickened. Under the Qin (221206 BC) the empire spread west

to Sichuan (Szechwan) and south to the Guangzhou delta.

China...history...pg 12

The earliest peasants of the prehistoric period were subsistence farmers With little crati

specialisatton. Communication between villages was poor and there was little differentiation ofroles or of the status of individuals. The absence of walls and fortifications has been taken as an

Indication of the peaceful nature of the society and the lack of specialised buildings as a

reflection of an egalitanan society. Later, Xia peasants practlsed more Intensive forms of agri-

culture, and supported larger and more permanent villages, There was some craft

specialisatlon, but economically and politically villages were still rela'GROUND tively

autonomous. As the Shang dynasty emerged gradually from these roots the major

transformation was that subsistence agriculture was augmented by forms Of crati and swal

svmialisation. and an organised polity began to emerge. The Shang dynasty held sway within a

restricted territory and the emperor's position as one of a number of Xtty chiefs was tenuous. Avertically stratified society was formed and local exchange economies were replaced by an

institutionalised redistribution system. whereas outside of Shang rule China remained

predominantly at a Neolithic level of development. The emergence of the large capital city has

been cited as a conspicuous manifestation of this change. The Shang capital was moved sewral

tunes from Erlitou (c. 185010 BC) to Zhengzhou (c. 160014M) BC) and then to Anyang (c.

14001027 BC). In the Erlttou phase, the techniques of bronze metallurgy were mastered;


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during the Zhengzhou period, urbanisation began to take place. Shang cittes were centres of

production, exchange and political control. Life in the villages continued on a subsistence basis

but the villagers were gradually coordinated into the system of commerce. Late Shang culture

extended over an immense territory under the leadership of emperors who governed with the

aid of a complex hierarchy of nobles with considerable authority in their home- lands. but alsowith obligations to central government for defence, conscription, public works and tax-

collection, The Zhou political system consisted of a hierarchy of nobles, intellectuals, warriors,

artisans, peasants and slaves under an emperor and a royal court, although the basis of power

was unstable as the loose alloances of nobles formed and reformed. The pace of urbanisation

quickened and the cities became the loci of an emcrgcnt merchant class. Trade was consider-

able and was facilitated by the adoption of a standardised coinage. Iron-working became

important to the economy. Under the Qin a new system of administration was introduced and

brought the provinces under centralised control. A programme of road-building, canal

construction, and defence building on the northern frontiers was Implemented by central

government, Conscription to the army and Ior service on large publlC projects was Introduced.

China ...culture, pg 17

During the pre-Xia period the foundations of Chinese traditions of ceramics. decoration.

calligraphy and pictorial art appear to have been laid down. Pottery was a kiln-tired red ware

brush-painted in black or purple with styliscd human and animal forms and geometric designs.

Polished stone and bone tools were produced. including a variety of axes. hoes and knives,

Textile crafts included the making of mats and baskets, and weaving. possibly including silk.

Burial was In cemeteries accompanied by food and pottery The subsequent Xia period was

distinguished by the production of wheel-turned. thin-walled pottery with a plain. black

burnished surface. Crafts diversified to include Jade carving, and the manufacture of weapons.

Literacy was limited to scapulimancy, the an of Inscribing and interpreting oracle bones. Shang

pottery mainly took the form of grey-walled vessels, but some pots were manufactured from

white kaohn, a precursor 0t- porcelain. Bronze ntual vessels were cast in multiple clay moulds,

and were elabo- rarely ornamented in deep relief modelled on the inner face of the moulds.

Both crafts used techniques of high-temperature firing under controlled condi- lions. Sculpture

featured kneeling or squatting human forms, annuals and monsters in jade. limestone and

marble. Large numbers of weapons were produced including lightly-built wooden chariots with

fine. spoked wheels. Bronze was used as a decorative finish for chariots, harness. weapons and

amour The art of scapulimancy continued to be practised. Oracle bones were Inscribed with

phonetic, ideographic and pictographic characters, Tortoise carapaces were also used in

divination. Ancestor worship was praetised, and religious practices combined animistic


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elements With ceremonies designed to buttress the institution of kingship. The Shang period

was marked by an elaborate funelary architecture, at least for high- ranking members of

society, Under the Zhou the basic forms Of pottery, bronze- working, art, sculpture and

weapons found in the Shang period were continued. The range of pottery styles was smaller,

and explicit human and animal motifs were replaced by geometrical figures. Bronze bells wereused in ceremonial music, Lacquer work and iron tools came Into widespread use. Literacy

expanded. and the teachings of philosophers like Confucius and Menctus in provincial

academies laid the foundations for the education of an official bureaucracy which encouraged

social stability through doctrines emphasismg tolerance, deference and accord. Little artistic or

literary development took place under the Qin which was an intensely practical regime, dunng

which evidence suggests intellectuals were persecuted.

China.. .resources, pg 20

Throughout the prehistoric periods, local materials were used in construction. Mud walls,reinforced with timber rods, were replaced by compacted earth walls during the Shang dynasty.

From the Shang dynasty onwards, rammed-earth platforms supported timber- framed buildings

of post and beam construction, with roofs of thatch or reeds. The use of stone was restricted to

column footings, pavements and defences. Bricks and tiles do not appear to have been in use

before the Zhou period. From the Shang dynasty onwards, conscription provided the labour

resources needed for large building projects: it has been estimated that the walls of Zhengzhou

took a labour force of 10 000 approximately eighteen years to build. The excavation of shaft-

tombs also demanded massive labour resources: the digging of a grave shaft is thought to have

taken up to 7000 days.

China

Chinese buildings of the prehistoric period were charactensed by a tripartite division into

rammed- earth podium. timber-columniated superstructure and pitched and gabled roof. After

the Shang penod all important buildings were set upon rammed-earth podia, built up in layers

80100 mm (34 m) thick to a height of about (2 ft), which supported a superstructure of

simple, single-storey post and beam construction. intilled with l ightweioht screens. Sepa-

rarely-rootid galleries surrounded pavilion-like buildings with pitched and gabled roofs. Tiles

replaced thatch during the Zhou period, but the roofs of Chinese buildings had not yet

acquired their characteristic curved form. Ridge and eaves, however. were decorated with

ceramic tiles depicting birds and mythical beasts. It has been suggested that terreplein building,

in which a stepped core of earth was surrounded by galleries, was used to give an appearance

of height.


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China.. Architectural characteristics, 99

China has been contrasted with other comparable civilisations of the ancient world because of

a lack of monumental architecture, particularly during the period-up to the begmnilig of the Xiaand Into the early Shang periods, and also because of the rela- lively late appearance of cines,

BetOre the beginnmg of the Xia period (21001600 BC) peasants lived in small villages of pit-

houses, constructed from wattle and daub. Individual houses were round or rectangular,

about 5m (16 ft) in diameter, with pitched and thatched roofs car-rued on four stout vertical

centreposts. The eaves reached almost to the ground. Lightweight walls which defined

recessed or project- ing, porch-like entrances and floors were either of stamped earth or were

plastered. The arrangement of villages and the orientation of dwellings appear to have been

systematic, and some villages had centrally placed communal houses. Xia villages were larger

and many were enclosed by walls of pounded earth. Dwellings, and their disposition around acentral longhouse, remained broadly similar to those of the earlier prehistonc period.

The Shang dynasty (c. 1850-1027 BC) was marked by the building of cities. Each had an

aristocratic centre delineated by a walled enclosure of rammed earth, within which were set

palaces and ceremomal buildings. An outer unwalled region contained industrial zones and

farnung villages. Rectangular post-and-beam houses set on rammed earth podia and with

pitched roofs gradually replaced pit-houses. Symmetrically planned palace buildings date from

this period, Typically, tombs were about 10m (33 fl) deep. with a burial chamber 4m (13 ft) high

and about 20m (66 ft) square, with ramps extending a further 15m to 20m (51 ft to 66 n). The

chamber was lined with close-set squared timbers and contained a timber coffin. Smaller Shang

tombs consisted of a simple shaft without ramps, which after burial was refilled with earth.

There were no superstructures. During the Zhou period (1028256 BC), many large. walled

cines were built. Most were square or rectangular in plan. and their main buildings stood on

platforms of rammed earth. Towards the close of the Zhou penod, the density Of the

settlements within the walled areas became greater, and suburbs of thatched clay dwellings

grew up around them. A nucleus Of ceremonial buildings was frequently walled OIT within the

heart of the city. Dunng the Qin period (221206 BC) large public works prooeets were

executed, including the Great Wall along China's northern frontier which replaced earller

defences of rammed earth. In its present form it is constructed from stone blocks, and IS 2250

km (1397 miles) long, and 6m to 10m to 33ft) high. The wall is crenellated with watch- and

garrison-towers at frequent intervals. Most of the surviving wall, however, dates from the Ming

dynasty (13681644), Qin cities retained a rectangular or square plan oriented on the cardinal

points, and were walled in PIS earth. Public buildings set on earth platforms were aligned

along the northsouth axis.


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China...architecture...early..pg 103

China Chinese architecture during the prehistoric period was matnly residential. Monumental

architecture was confined to palace buildings and royal tombs. Residential ArchitectureBanpocun (Pan-p'o-ts'un) (c, 4000 BC) was a tv ptcal pre-Xia (Yang-shao) village in the Shanxi

Ince. Planned as an Irregular oval, oriented northsouth, it covered an area of approximately 7

ha (17 acres) and housed a population of two to three hundred. The houses were clustered at

the centre of the Village in an area of some 3 ha (7 acres), demarcated by a ditch about 6m (20

ft) deep and 6m ('Oft) wide. Banpocun comprised scores of circular semi-subterranean wattle

and daub houses, about 5 m (16 ft) in diameter and sunk about 600 mm (24 in) into the ground

(p. 104E). Each had a central hearth defined by four centreposts which supported a conical

wattle and daub roof; this sloped almost to the ground at the eaves and was supported by a

ring of slender posts outside the walls. In the centre of the village was a larger and moresubstantial rectangular structure. about 160m: (1720 ft2) in area, similarly constructed but

built on foundations of rammed earth. This is thought to have been a meeting house, or

possibly the dwelling of the headman. Analogous buildings have been found at the

contemporary site of Jiangzhai, also in Shanxi, where all the houses Opened towards the centre

of the village, and at Dahezhuang (c. 2000 BC) in Gansu province, where there was a later, local

Neolithic period. At the early Shang city of Erlitou (c. 1800 BC) there were few monumental

buildings or elaborate tombs. The residents lived in wattle and daub pit- CULTURES 103 houses,

but they were larger and more elaborately constructed that those of earlier date. The Shang

city of Zhengzhou (c. 1600 BC), in northern Henan, was rectangular and earth-walled extendingover 3.2 ha (8 acres), with penmeter walls 7.2 km (4.5 miles) long, 9m (31)ft) high, and 3m to

6m (I()ft to 20 ft) thick at the base. The central area within the wall was laid out in a

chequerboard pattern and oriented north and south', it is thought to have been the royal

residence and ceremonial centre of the court, the buildings of which were rectangular and built

mainly of wood on platforms of rammed earth The houses had pitched and gabled roofs

supported on stout timber posts, some of which were earned on stone bases. The smallest

dwellings were 9m x 5m (3()ft x 16ft) and the largest 52m x 25m (17()ft x 82 ft). Walls and floors

were finished with lime plaster. Parallel houses at Ming Kung Su were large and had lime-

washed walls and floors, while others at Tzu-Ching had walls of compacted earth up to a metre

thick. There is no t.gn of court ard housin during the Shang period. Surrounding the wa ed

encliisiZhengzhou were thousands of pit-houses with pounded earth floors, up to 3m x

1.5m x 5 ft) in area and sunk about (20 in) into the ground. Excavations at Xiaotun, north-west

of Anyang m Henan province, have uncovered a large ceremonial and administrative centre of

the Shang per-tod (e. 1400 BC), surrounded by smaller dependent hamlets and craft centres.

Parts of the town were laid out on a chequerboard pattern, with nearly parallel rows of


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rectangular dwellings built on rammed-earth podia, although. as noted earlier, at this time the

majority of lived in pit-houses of traditional residents still construction, The centre of Xiaotun

contained a group of over fifty timber-framed buildings with pitched and gabled roofs set on

rammed-earth podia and and gabled roofs set on rammed-earth podia and arranged in three

clusters (p. 104C). The Zhou capital at Louyang, m Henan province (eighth to seventh centuryBC), also had a rectangular plan. Parts of the walls have survived. Most Zhou cities dating tiom

the period of the Warrmg States (475221 BC) have more than one earth-walled enclosure.

Jiang, in Shanxt province, for example, had a rectangular walled enclosure, 2.7 km x 1.6 km (1.7

mile x I mile), oriented northsouth and surrounded by a moat, and a smaller enclosure, about

800m square, located centrally inside the perimeter wall at the northern end. Wo-kuo in Shanxi

province had two concentric enclosures: the inner one was square, with Sides of about 1.1 km

(0.7 mile), while the outer measured 3.1 km x 2.6 km (l .9 mile x 1.6 mile). The City of Anyi in

Shanxi province had two la-shaped enclosures containmg between them a small square m

which the palace stood. At Handan in Hebei province. there were two adyomtng walled

enclosures: the larger of the two was square and contained the City proper; the smaller was

rectangular and abutted it to the east. The capital of the Qin empre at Xianyang (221206 BC)

consisted Of a rectangular enclosure with a rammed-earth wall surrounding a palace and

substantial houses built on rammed-earth platforms. Little remains to indicate the character of

the architecture of Zhou and Qtr. cities, but the tradition of courtyard building In China

probably dates from this period.

Palaces

The Shang city of Erlitou contains the foundations Of a palace which is the earliest knownmonumental building in Chinese history. An earth platform measuring 108m x 100m (354ft x

32800. and oriented on a northsouth axis, was surrounded by a pis wall. against which were

erected roofed galleries of wattle and daub reinforced with timber. The compound was entered

from the south. Within the walled area was a pavilion on a rammed-earth podium. The pavilion

was constructed in reinforced wattle and daub and had pitched roofs supported by a separate

internal structure of stout timber posts resting on boulders. A similar Shang palace from

Banlongzheng, 38m x I I m (125 f: x 36 ft), stood on a rammed-earth platform and compnsed

four chambers under a pitched and gabled main roof surrounded by separately roofed

galleries, A late Shang palace at Xiaotun, Anyang, was a rectangular building of trabeated

construction with a ridged and thatched roof spanning from wall to wall. The Dragon Terrace in

the Zhou city of Handan (fourth to third century BC) was set on a stepped podium Of rammed

earth, 430m x 280m (1410ft x 920ft) and aligned on the axis leading to the main gate in the

south wall. The superstructure is thought to have been two storey'S high. The Qin (Ch'in) palace

at Xianyang (Hsienyang) (p. 104.4) has been reconstructed as a three-storey galleried building.

with pitched, gabled and tiled IAN CULTURES roofs. a post and beam structure and possibly a


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terreplein core. The walls and floors were internally finished with plaster and decorated With

frescos. Tombs The cemetery of Xibeigang (Hsi.pei-kang), Anyang, contained examples of Shang

funerary architecture (p 1041)). The royal dead were buried in shaft graves up 10 14m x 19m

(46ft x 62ft) in area and 10m (33 ft) deep. and were approached by a cruciform arrangement of

ramps, with the principal access from the south. The burial chambers were constructed with adouble lining of jointed timber In an exceptionally well-preserved tomb, the chamber was

covered by a painted and inlaid wooden canopy Early Zhou graves at Louyang were similar to

the Shang burial shafts. Graves at T 'angshan in Hebei provanee were boxes lined with thin

stone slabs set on edge and large enough to take a wooden coffin. Similar cist graves were

found at the frontier site of Hsit'uan.shan.tzu, near Kirin. A later Zhou grave at Guweicun (Ku

Wei Ts'un) in Henan province (p. 104B) was 200m (660 fr) long. With wide ramps leading down

to a central put from the north and south, with the latter, ceremonial entrance being

considerably wider and longer The Zhou tomb at Xiadu was marked only by a burial mound. The

tomb of the Qin emperor Shihuangdi at Lishan. east of Xian m Shanxi province. was covered by

an imposing square rammed-earth mound 1 4 km (09 mile) in circumference and 46m (150ft)

high. It was surrounded by two (concentric) rectangular walled enclosures oriented north

south. Bushes and trees were planted on the mound to give it a rural appearance, and the

approach roads to the tomb were lined with 4m (13 ft) high stone animals, The tomb was

plundered after the collapse of the Qin dynasty. Vaults nearby yielded life-size terracotta

figures of warriors and horses.

China...Extended description...pg 636

China House-building in China dates from the second millennium BC and the Xia dynasty. Anarchltectural style based on wooden structures gradually took shape and was used to produce a

number of building forms related to social needs. The style was capable of adaptation to

various geological and climatic conditions as well as building functions. Historically the

techmques had been widely applied in the construction of palaces, temples and other religious

structures as well as residences and gardens. The early evolution of a umque Chinese style

Influenced the architecture of South and South-east Astan countnes and, when better contacts

were established with Europe, architecture generally. As early as the first and second centurtes

AD, an Integrated system of architecture was established and continued to develop under the

influence of foreign cultures from the third to the fifth century. In the later years of the Sixth

century Chinese architecture entered a period of maturity dunng which high artistic levels were

attained. Chapter 24 deals with these periods and through to the fourteenth century, when still

greater diversity of building types was WIND created with the application of the traditional

wooden structure to houses and gardens. This period ended with the stagnation of Chinese

architectural develop. ment in the nineteenth century and the introduction of Western

architecture and building techniques.


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China...physical characteristics...637

China is 9.6 million km: (3.7 million square miles) in area. Thirty-three per cent of the country is

covered by mountains, matnly in the west, including the Tibet- Qinghai Plateau which averages4000m (13,000ft) BACKGI above sea-level. Loess plateaux m the north-west give way to hills

which cover the greater part of central southern China to coastal plains in the east. There are

more than 50) islands along the eastern and southern coasts, the largest of which are Taiwan

and Haman. Numerous rivers run through Chinamore than 1500 of them with catchment

areas of over 1000 km: (386 square miles). The ChangJiang (Yangtze) River and Huanghc

(Yellow) River basins are the largest and formed the cradle of China's ancient civilisatton. 'The

1794km (1 1 14 miles) Grand Canal, built in the seventh. centuryaonriectsr-thefive-

systemsv_including the tiers, and played a major role in the economic. developmentof

ancient - Ch

directly

affecting the location orancient capitals.-

The greater part of Chinahas a monsoon climate. From September or October to March or April northerly winter

monsoon winds from Siberia and the Mongolian Plateau Cross China, becoming weaker as they

move southward. As a result the weather in winter is cold and dry. Temperatures in China are

CSOIST (90320F) lower than in other countries which span the same latitudes. The south-

east monsoon brings humid air from over the ocean between April and September, and

weather in the central, eastern, south-eastern and south-western parts of China is hot and the

precipitation high. The northernmost Heilong.Jiang province, on the Other hand. is near-

subarcuc and has little summer. and in Tibet Qinghai mountain is perpetually covered with

snow, while the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau enooys continuous spnnglike weather and HamanIsland semitropical summer all year long. The hinterland in the north-west has a typical

continental climate, the influences of which can be seen in Chinese archi. tecture. For instance,

In the north. buildings are oriented southward to the sun', in the south they are designed for

shade and to encourage natural air movement as IS common in tropical monsoon climates.

China...history pg 640

Tribes led by Emperor Huangdi (the half-legendary ancestor of the Chinese people) and

Emperor Yandi are said to have inhabited the Huanghe River valley before the beginning of the

historical penod of Chinese history, Begun in the twenty-first century BC, slave society lasted m

China through the dynasties of the Nia, Shang, Zhou and the Spong and Autumn periods.

Written records date from the later years ot the Shang dynasty (16001028 BC) and played an

important role m the development of architecture, Feudal society began in 457 BC and lasted to

the end ot the Qing dynasty In 1911. (See Chronological Tables in the Introduction.) The tirst


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stage of the Chinese feudal period was between 475 BC and 220 AD In 221 BC Emperor Qin Shi

Huang unified the country and founded a centralised feudal empire for the first time in China's

history By the Han dynasty (206 BCAD 220), China had become an unprecedentedly powerful

nation which sent envoys to central Asta and opened up trade routes along the old Silk road

between China and Europe.

The second stage was between AD 221 and 581, when different local powers existed alongside

each other in China. Central China was ravaged hy war and in consequence its economy

developed slowly. The rounding of the Sui dynasty m 581 brought to an end the conflicts

between the southern and northern regions.

Dunng the third stage (581907) Chinese feudal society reached its armgce, especially after

the founding Of the Tang dynasty in 618, pollttcal rule became stable. and the economy and

culture flourished as never t*fore. As a powerful and influential nation China established

diplomatic relations, eon- ducted trade and made cultural exchanges with persu the easternRoman Empire, Japan and Korea. In the later years Of the Tang dynasty. however, China was

again subject to internecine Wars between mal regimes.

The fourth stage. approximately to the mediaeval tn Europe. lusted from 907 to 1368 The Song

dynasty. founded 960, unified central Chma and areas south Of the Changiiang River and was

contemporary With the regimes of Liao, Jan, Western Xia and Yuan in northern China. China

Was finally unified by the Mongols. who founded the Yuan dynasty (12791368). In Song-

ruled areas production techniques were advanced, the economy developed rapidly and the

urban economy, m pan.cular, ensoyed a penod of great prosperity, New maritime trade routes

were opened up and a number of ports were built. Trade m hand-crafted goods flourished.

Science and technology reached high levels of achievement. The compass, gunpowder and

printing techniques, sometimes referred to as China's three greatest Inventions, were

Introduced to Europe through central Asia, and made important contributions to development

in the fields Of navigation, warfare and the dissemination Of knowledge among others.

The oppressive Yuan dynasty was overthrown in 1368. The founding of the Ming dynasty

(13681644) marked the beginning of the fifth and final stage of Chinese feudal society. The

decadent feudal system declined during this tune and embryonic capitalism took shape in

China. After 1840 China was reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society with theincursions of Imperialist powers. In 1911, the Qing dynasty was overthrown.

The small-scale peasant economy occupied an extremely important place throughout feudal

society and was conducive to the development of umber construction. Small houses were self-

sufficient in matenals, and much less manpower was needed than in stone. As a result, this kind

of building "became traditional and remained In use for a Very long time. On the other hand,


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centrahsed feudal power enabled the state to mobilise manpower and building materials on a

natlonwtde scale and to engage in large-scale construction proyects, One example is the Great

Wall, but there were also many palaces and other major buildings m capital cities which had to

be rebuilt after sacking by the new rulers. Examples of this were Xianyang, capital of the Qin

dynasty. I)axmg, capitaTfiSt1i dynasty, rulers. Examples of this were Xtanyang, capital ofthe Qin dynasty. I)axing, capitalihe Sui dynasty, and Dadu, capital of the Yuan dynasty. The

so-called 'block system. adopted in feudal capitals embodied the feudal- rulers' thinking on

centralised control. That used in Daxing, capital of the Sui dynasty (its name was changed to

Chang 'an in the Tang dynasty), was typical', walls were built around each Site on blocks along

the edges of the streets. After curfew the populace had to retreat behind the Walls - or risk

being arrested by soldiers on patrol. Pro- fesstonal offictals appointed by the government were

assigned to take charge of design and engr- neering work. Workshops for construction crafts

were set up, and to guarantee the quality of construcaon and facilltate the management of the

workshops the officials laid down norms of quantity and quotas for the consumption of building

materials. Yingzaofashi(The Method of Architecture), compiled by Engineering Supervisor Li

Jie for the Song dynasty, and Gong Cheng Zuo Fa(Convention of Engineering Construction),

compiled by Qing engineering and construction officials, were typical works of their kind which

arose from this system of control. The official development of building trades promoted

standardisation of the forms of Chinese architecture.

Culture, pg 652

China China's culture has a long history Of continuous development and a strikingly individual

character. The sage and philosopher Confucius (551479 BC) emphastsed 'ren' (benevolence)

and 'lit (moral concepts). Contuciamsm, which occupied a leading position in China, included a

set of ethical concepts and moral standards in human relationships to encourage mutual respect

between elders and young people, and between upper and lower classes. The architectural layout

of the courtyards of Chinese residences, for example, embody this kind of feudal etiquette. The

practice of honouring ancestors and family clans took shape and, as a result. temples to house

sacrifictal rites and tributes to ancestors played BACK an extremely important part in the layout

of cities. for example the capital of the Zhou dynasty (1027770 BC) and tn Belying, capital of

the Ming dynasty (136816441. Early Daotst thinking is embodied In two twoks, one dealing

With the 'way , the other with its 'virtue'. by Lao Ze and Zhuang I.e. both of whom may be

legendary figures whose names may be confused with the names of the books. Daoism

developed in the four or five centunes immediately before the Christian era, was suppressed in

the Han dynasty under a government which supported Confucianism, but arose agam in the

Wei (220265) and Jin (265420) dynasties, The Dao.sts were quietists who believed m an

underlying unity affecting the whole of the phenome- nal world: to be m tune With the


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fundamental laws of nature was one of the first steps m Daoist discipline. This produced an

Important turmng point m China's culture. Landscape poems and paintings extolled nature and

led to the development of Chinese garden architecture. The ideal of gardening was the pursuit of

natural effects through man-made Intervention to nurmc hills and forests, rivers, creeks and

lakes as found In nature. Even the rockery in Taihu Lake, for example, was destgned In imitation

of natural forms. A umque gardenmg system began to evolve and culminated m a theoretical

work, On the Construcnon of Gardens, published in the early seventeenth century, Buddhism

was Introduced from India and was first received favourably about AD 68 by the Eastern Han

Dynasty. but after periods Of otTic1al hostility was not firmly establtshed until an edict of the

Jin Dynasty permitted monasticism (355). It spread to Korea a few years later. The Introduction

of Buddhism brought new budding types to Chinese architecture. but their forms were developed

on the basis of the traditional wooden structure. asstrnilating the new culture but retaining

Chinese cultural Independence in the evolulion of architecture. The simultaneous practice of and

cross-fertihsation between Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism also affected the development

of architecture. Halls for Buddhist worship were to be found in more and more residences andthe difference between Daoist and Buddhist buildings grew less and less. except for ornamental

themes which tended to retam thew own distinctive features. Daoist attention to nature also

affected Buddhist temples. Both chose scenic location.s for theu sacred buildings. The Wutai

(p, 648B), Emel, Jlllhua and Putuo mountains are examples of Buddhist stung. while Daoist

temples girded the Tatshan, Huashan, Hengshan, Wudang and Qing- Cheng mountalns

Members of the Yin-Yang school (originated about 305 BC) held that dynasties reigned by virtue

of one of the five elements, fire, water, earth. metal and wood. Their 'Book of Changes' expounds

the symbolism of Yin and yang (originally the dark and the bright). which came to imply that all

things in the universe could be divided into two aspects which were opposed to each other but

interdependent

for example, heaven and earth, sun and moon, cold and warm, man andwoman, and Odd and even numbers. Hence heaven, sun. warm, man, and odd numbers were

classified under the category of yang, and their opposites as Yin. In groups of palace buildings.

for example, open courts in which audiences were held were m the yang category halls

occurred in Odd numbers; the halls themselves, however, were in the yin category as internal

spaces. In the 'five elements' theory, on the other hand, many natural phenomena and things were

placed under the five categories. Given below are some items relevant to archltecture:

Five ElementsWood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water

Position

East, South. Middle, West, North

WeatherWindy. Hot, Humid, Dry, Cold

ColourGreen. Red, Yellow, White, Black

Evolution of Living Things Birth, Growing Up, Changing, weakening, hiding

symbolic SignificanceProsperity, Riches and Honour, Power. Desolation, Death


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It is clear that there was some difficulty in fitting the symbolism to architectural design, During

the Tang (618907) and the Ming-Qing (13681911) periods, the palace-hall for the crown

prince was located in the east to represent new birth, while the building to house the empress

dowager was in the west to symbolise the feeble nature of old age, Buildings used by the

emperor were roofed With yellow-glazed tiles to symbolise authority. Those used by the crown

prince had green-glazed tiles to indicate new birth and prosperity.

RESOURCES

Ancient China was well forested and most places timber was more easily available than stone.

The Greater and Lesser Hinggan mountains and the Changbai mountains in the north-east, the

Tian.shan and Altay mountains in the north-west and the hilly areas in the south-west and south-

east were all important forest areas. China firs were the main building materials. Some rare-

species like nanmu, red sandalwood and rosewood were used exclusively for palace buildings.

Very early (late second millennium BC) buildings along the middle reaches of the Huanghe

River were erected on rammed loess platforms supporting timber columns on boulder bases:cave and semi-cave dwellings also developed into beamed wooden struc- lures. In marshland

areas along the lower reaches of the Changiiang River, nest-dwellings made of reeds evolved

into thatched forms supported on raised platform floors, Woven bamboo was used for roofs and

walls, and houses were made entirely from it in some areas south of the river, Tiles were first

produced in the early Zhou dynasty (770265 BC), During the Warring States period (475

221 BC) figured bricks and large hollow clay blocks began to make their appearance, and by the

Han dynasty (206 BCAD 220) some tomb chambers were being bunt of bncks. It was not

until the Yuan penod (12711368), however, that bricks were used to any extent for buildings

above the ground. Only in the seventeenth century, follownng the Ming dynasty (13681644),

were bricks produced in large quantities.

Glazed tiles and bricks were regarded as high- grade building materials. Glazed tiles were first

used for palace buildings in the Northern Wei period (386534), In the Song dynasty (960

1279), the techniques for makine coloured glazes were upgraded and thereafter some pagodas

were surfaced all over with glazed bricks. The Ming-Qing period (13681911) produced greater

varieties of glazed products, some with multi-coloured designs which were laid together to form

mosaic-like patterns.

In most cases stone was used for the foundations of wooden structures. Only a tt.v types of

structure, such as bridges, tombs and pagodas, were built entirely of stone blocks. Stone houseswere built occasionally m mountainous areas of the country.

After the Song dynasty (9601279) the doors and windows of wooden structures were made

with increasingly fine workmanship. Apart from paper, screens of silk or cotton, thin mica sheets

and shells were used as translucent materials. Metals were widely used for ornamental items


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such as gate nails and knockers and for the spires of pagodas. Cast-iron components were also

used to reinforce stone or wooden buildings.

BUILDING TECHNIQUES AND PROCESSES

The historical solution of the architectural style associated with ancient China is closelyassociated with timber-framed structure. Typically it was made up of three parts: foundation,

columns and roof. The foundation, usually very shallow, was a layer of rammed earh. Columns

stood on carved stone blocks on brick or stone bases. Floors were made of rammed earth and

paved with bricks. Timber columns (usually of circular section) were notched to take the main

lintels which ran parallel with the elevations of the building, Then a system of brackets was

constructed over the top of each column (p. 6.580. These bracket. sets. as they are sometimes

called. consisted of superimposed sets of tour bow-shaped or cranked arms at right angles to each

other and known as 'gong', each higher set of increased length supported on the lower one by

means of a notched block or 'dou'. The uppermost brackets supported eaves purlins directly

through a series of fascias where necessary and provided the bracketed support for transverseroof beams, which also reduced in length to provide the essential points of support for purlins

placed in the concave configurations needed for such roofs. Bracket-sets were also earned at

mid-span or elsewhere on both lintels and transverse beams in order to carry shorter beams

above or to support purlins directly, in this case via a chamfered and stepped block notched to

carry the lowest brackets. The purlins supported rafters which were boarded and covered with

tiles fixed in mud. Ridge-tiles were added where the two sloping surfaces met, and edge tiles

were fastened to appropnate timber members by nailing. The nails used for this purpose were

covered with the decorative carved animal motifs of various sizes which characterise the roofs of

many Chinese buildings. Buildings of different forms and scales were roofed in different ways

with hipped roofs (see Chapter 24), hipped and gabled roofs, overhanging gable roofs (p.

663A), parapet-gable roofs (p. 663B), and double-hipped roofs (p. 6631)), The various cate-

gones were combined tn many ways, some of which can be seen from the illustrations.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER pg 693

Dougong, the system of brackets inserted between the top of a column and a crossbeam (each

bracket being formed of a double bow-shaped arm called 'gong' which supports a block of wood

called '(Iou', on each side) had just appeared during the Western Zhou dynasty (1027770 BC),

and was widely used in buildings constructed in the 'beam-in-nets' technique. But concave

roofs, which characterise China's wooden buildings, were seldom seen at this early date. Thebuilding style of the period was rough, simple and unadorned. China began to evolve its own

distinct architectural character in the Eastern Han dynasty (25220). By that time commonly

used structural techniques included, 'beam-in-tiers' and 'column-and-tie-beam' methods, either of

which could be combined With ground floors supported on substantial plinths or raised on stilts.

Simpler, 'log-cabin' methods were, of course, still used m forest regions. It was from the period

of the Three Kingdoms to that of the Northern and Southern dynasties (220589), however, that


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China's architecture first developed noticeably. As a result of the growth of Buddhism, pagodas

and grottoes appeared in many parts of China and the styles of India, Persia and Greece were

introduced.

parts ot ma Greece were introduced, ndla, Persia and The Tang and Song dynasties (6181279)

saw China's building methods maturing rapidly, Examples of the architectural skill of the periodare the Linde Hall, the main building ot- the Danunggong Palace. which has 188 pillars and was

built in the Tang dynasty. and the 67 m (22011) high wooden Sakya- muni pagoda in the

Fogong.S1 Temple mull in the Liao dynasty in Yingxian province. From the Song dynasty, the

architectural use ot- colour and decoration became more and more exquisite, In the later periods

of the Ming and Qing dynasties (13681911), high levels of skill were developed in the

arrangement and layout of groups of buildings. The five main characteristtcs of Chinese archi-

tecture which emerged in these periods were :

Integrating art with into structural systems : This was achieved by beautifying the structural

components themselves instead of applying additional ornament. For example, a Pillar might beshuttle-shaped and a beam tormed as an are so that, when used with a concave roof, they

achieved harmony of design with construction.

Good anti-seismic function : The structural components of a wooden building were connected by

mortises and tenons and were thus able to move under earthquake conditions without causing the

buildings to collapse. Simiiar techniques were applied to the connection of columns to plinths.

Chinese wooden buildings have no deep foundations for columns. so that columns can shift

when an earthquake occurs, and many ancient structures still stand even after exposure to many

earthquakes.

A high degree of standardization : A building is composed of a group of beams carried on

columns with curved corbel-brackets forming a kind of roof truss, or is supported on a series of

vertical frames serving the same purpose The space between two such beams is called Jian (a

bay). These two. constructional techniques were used In most build-I ings with rectilinear plan

shapes. The dimensions Of structural components are based on standard modules. For example,

buildings of the Song dynasty took 'cai' as the baste module. This was the vertlcal section of the

gong part of 'dougong', or 'fang', a piece of wood which had a height:width ratio of three:two.

Yiangzaofashi(The Method Of Architecture) describes In detail the meaning and measurements

of caiof which there are eight permissible sizes, The module used in the Qing dynasty is

'doukou'

the width of gong

and the supplementary module is the diameter of a pillar.Doukou has eleven sizes, enough to control the measurements Of each Single building in a group

in such a way as to set off the main building,

Bright colours : The practice of painting wooden buildings to prevent k'.eathcnng and Insect

infestation and to achieve decorative elfecls began in the Early Spring and Autumn period

(722481 BC). Gradually the Chinese learned to employ colours appropnate to the nature of the


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building, or the element on which it was used. For example, in palaces or temples, walls, pillars,

doors and window frames were painted red, while the roof was yellow. Cool colours, often blue

and green, were applied under the eaves.

The systematic grouping of buildings :The traditional Chinese method of arrangement was to

plan a single building around a courtyard and then to use courtyards as basic units to form groupsof buildings. On a large scale, these consisted of many courtyards arranged along parallel or

other subsidiary axes, There may be free-standing halls within courtyards or linked to

surrounding buildings with galleries or side rooms. Complex planning of this kind is found in

palaces, shrines, temples, mausolea and monastenes. Less formal though still axial arrangements

were used for buildings, such as the pavilions m parks and for gardens.

China Banister Fletcher

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