Child Growth and Development Chapter 5: Birth and the...
Transcript of Child Growth and Development Chapter 5: Birth and the...
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Chapter 14: Psychosocial Development
in Middle Childhood
Prepared by
Debbie Laffranchini
From Papalia, Olds, and Feldman
Child Growth and
Development
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The Developing
Self
•Self-Concept Development
•Self-Esteem
•Emotional Growth
•Prosocial Behavior
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Self-Concept Development
• Judgments about self more
realistic and balanced
• Self-description can focus
on more than one
dimension of self
– No more black/white self-
definition
– Compare to real self and
ideal self
• Contributes to self-esteem,
global self-worth
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Self-Esteem • Major determinant of self-esteem is child’s
capacity for productive work
• Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial
development: Industry versus inferiority
– Child learns skills valued in their society
• Make bows and arrows, plant, weed, harvest,
hunt, fish, read, use computers, household
skills, ride public transportation
– Virtue: competence
• Child sees themselves as competent with
ability to complete a task with the necessary
skills
– If child feels inadequate (inferior) when
compared to peers, may retreat to protective
embrace of family
– If child becomes too industrious, may
neglect social relationships and become
workaholic
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Emotional Growth • As child grows, more aware of their own feelings and
feelings of others – Better regulate their emotions and respond to others’ emotional
distress
– Understand difference between guilt and shame • Guilt imposed by others
• Shame is intrinsic (internal) process
– Better understand conflicting emotions • I love my brother but he gets on my nerves
– Understand culturally appropriate expression of emotions and cultural expectations
• Emotional self-regulation involves voluntary effort to control emotions, attention and behavior – Children low in effortful control become angry or frustrated
– Children high in effortful control stile impulse to show negative emotions at inappropriate times
• May be temperamentally based
• Low effortful control may predict later behavior problems
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Prosocial Behavior
• School-age children more empathic and more
inclined to prosocial behavior
• Prosocial children:
– Act appropriately in social situations
– Relatively free of negative emotion
– Cope with problems constructively
• Parents acknowledge children’s feelings of distress
and help them deal with the source of distress
– Fosters empathy, prosocial development and social skills
• When parents respond with disapproval or
punishment, anger and fear become more intense
and impairs social adjustment or causes child to be
secretive and anxious about negative feelings
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The Child in the
Family
•Family Atmosphere
•Family Structure
•Sibling Relationships
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Family Atmosphere
• School-age children spend more
free time away from home
– Spend more time at school and on
studies and less time at family meals
than 20 years ago
• 65% of children have dinner with at least
one parent
– 25% of children don’t talk or play with
a parent at least once a day
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Family Atmosphere Parenting Issues: Coregulation and Discipline
• Control of behavior gradually shifts from
parents to child
• Parents manage less and discuss more
• Affects discipline
– More likely to use inductive techniques
• Moral values “big strong boy shouldn’t…”
• Appeal to self-esteem “helpful boy…”
• Consequences “no wonder you…”
– Mothers who used guilt to discipline but were
highly affectionate produced child with more
behavior problems
• Inconsistent messages?
• If family conflict is constructive, helps
children see need for rules and standards
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Family Atmosphere
Effects of Parents’ Work • 70% of US mothers with children work
• More satisfied mother is with employment status, more
effective parent she is
• Impact on family depends on:
– Family’s SES
– Kind of care child receives before and after school
– Child’s age
– Sex
– Temperament
– Personality
– Whether mother works full- or part-time
– Why mother is working
– Whether she has a supportive partner
• 9% of school age children care for themselves
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Family Atmosphere Poverty and Parenting
• 17% of US children live in poverty
– 33% black children
– 29% Hispanic children
– Children living with single mothers 5 times more likely to be poor than
children living with married couples
• 42% compared to 9%
• Poor children more likely to have emotional or behavioral problems
• Parents in poverty more likely to be anxious, depressed, irritable,
less affectionate and less responsive to children, discipline
inconsistently, harshly and arbitrarily
• Patterns for parents and children not inevitable
• Effects of persistent poverty are complex: transitory poverty during
first four years of child’s life less damaging than later, chronic
poverty
– Most damaging to children are unstimulating home environment, unstable adult
relationships, psychiatric problems, violent or criminal behavior, lack of maternal
sensitivity
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Family Structure
• 1970 87% of children lived with two married parents
• 2004 67% of children lived with two married parents – 10% of two-parent families are stepfamilies
– 4% are cohabiting families
– Gay or lesbian families are increasingly more common
– Grandparent-headed families increasingly more common
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Family Structure
• Children (biological and adoptive) tend to do better in families with two continuously married parents than cohabiting, divorced, single-parent, stepfamilies or when the child is born outside of marriage – Outcome better for children growing up with two happily married parents
• Children have higher standard of living
• Parents more effective in parenting
• More cooperative co-parenting
• Closer relationships with both parents (especially fathers)
• Fewer stressful events
– 20% children live in households with no father
– 13% of children have never seen their fathers
• Poor children, black children, Hispanic children most likely to have no father in home
• Father’s frequent, positive involvement from infancy on
related to physical, cognitive and social development
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Family Structure When Families Divorce
• US has one of highest divorce rates in world
– Divorces have tripled since 1960
– 1 million children involved in divorces each year
• Divorce is stressful for children
– Marital conflict, parental separation, departure of one parent
(usually father), don’t understand, standard of living likely to
drop, relationship with noncustodial parent suffers, remarriage,
feelings of loss
– Children exhibit more emotional and behavioral problems
• Anxiety, depression, antisocial behavior
– Adjustment depends on child’s age, gender, temperament,
psychosocial adjustment prior to divorce
• Younger child more anxious, may blame themselves, adapt quicker
• School-age child has loyalty conflicts, fear of abandonment, rejection
• Harder for boys to adjust, boys more susceptible to social and conduct
problems
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Family Structure
When Families Divorce • Custody, Visitation, Co-parenting
– Better outcome for child if custodial parent is warm, supportive,
authoritative, monitors child’s activities, has age-appropriate
expectations, parental conflict subsides, and nonresident parent
maintains close contact and involvement
– Most children live with mothers and child adjust better when
father pays child support
• May be barometer of tie between father and child and cooperation
between parents
• Frequency of contact not as important as quality of relationship and
level of parental conflict
• Cooperative parenting improves relationships, hard to do
• Children in joint custody are better adjusted, have higher self-
esteem and better family relationships than sole custody and as well
adjusted as children in nondivorced families
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Family Structure
When Families Divorce • Long-Term Effects
– Most children adjust reasonably well
– Modestly lower levels of cognitive, social, emotional well-being
– In adolescence, increased antisocial behavior, difficulty with
authority figures (common for all adolescents)
– 25% of children have serious social, emotional, or psychological
problems in adulthood compared with 10% of nondivorced children
– Lower SES, lower educational levels
– Lower psychological well-being
– Great chance of having child outside of marriage
– Marriages for 2 more generations poorer quality and more likely to
end in divorce
– Anxiety may surface in adulthood as they form intimate relationships
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Family Structure Living in a One-Parent Family
• One-parent families result from divorce, separation, unwed
parent, death
• Single-parent families tripled since 1970
• 25% of US children live with one parent
– 11% of these households are cohabiting households
– 50% black children live with single parent
– 26% Hispanic children live with single parent
– 19% white children live with single parent
• More likely to live with mother
– Do well overall
– Lag socially and educationally
– Exposed to more stressors
– Tend to be economically disadvantaged
• 37% with mothers; 16% with fathers
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Family Structure Living in a Cohabiting Family
• Parents tend to be more disadvantaged
– Less income
– Less education
– Poorer relationships
– More mental health problems
• Children have worse emotional, behavioral, and
academic outcomes
• 25% cohabiting parents no longer together 1
year later
• 31% cohabiting parents break up after 5 years
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Family Structure Living in a Stepfamily
• Most divorced parents eventually remarry
• Many unwed mothers marry men not the father of their
children
• 15% of children live in blended families
• Stress for child
– Loyalty
– Forming ties
– Noncustodial mothers keep in touch more than noncustodial
fathers and offer more social support
– Boys benefit more from stepfather
• Mothers use gentler discipline when with partner,
married or not, better relationships with children
– Supervision greater in stable single-mother families
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Family Structure Living with Gay or Lesbian Parents
• 9 million US children have at least one gay or
lesbian parent
– Some gays and lesbians raise children born from
previous heterosexual relationship
– Some conceive by artificial means, use surrogates,
or adopt
• No consistent differences between
homosexual and heterosexual parents in
emotional health or parenting skills
– When present, favor gay/lesbian parents
• Children no more confused about
gender but may be teased and may
hide parents’ sexual orientation
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Family Structure Adoptive Families
• 1.4 million US children live with at least one
adoptive parent
– 60% of adoptions are by stepparents or relatives
(usually grandparents)
– Adoptions usually through public or private
agencies
• Confidential
• No contact between birth parents and adoptive parents
– Independent adoptions are agreements between
birth and adoptive parents
• Often open adoptions with information shared and
contact maintained – Open adoptions not correlated with child adjustment or parent
satisfaction with adoption
• Challenges: integrating child into family,
adolescence (especially boys), interracial
rules, older children (particularly foreign)
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Family Structure Living with Grandparents
• 5% of US children live with grandparents
– 40% no parent present
– Blacks more likely
– Grandparents often on fixed income or dire financial
straits
– Many are widowed or divorced
– Without legalizing through foster or custody, no legal
status
• “Parents by default”
– Often result of teenage pregnancy, substance abuse,
illness, divorce, or early death
• Do it out of love for the children
– But still may feel cheated out of traditional role
– May lack stamina for parenting
• Working grandparents entitled to federal Family
and Medical Leave Act
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• Number of siblings, spacing, birth order, gender determine roles and relationships
• Siblings are motivated to resolve conflict – Same sex quarrel the most, boys more than
girls
• Siblings influence gender development – Firstborns more influenced by parents,
secondborns more influenced by sibling’s attitudes, personality, and activities
• When parent-child relationship has conflict, sibling conflict is more likely
Sibling Relationships
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Nourishment • Positive and Negative
Effects of Peer Relations
• Gender Differences in
Peer-Group Relationships
• Popularity
• Friendship
• Aggression and Bullying
The Child in the
Peer Group
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Positive & Negative Effects of
Peer Relations • Children benefit from doing things with
peers
– Develop skills for sociability and intimacy
– Gain sense of belonging
– Motivated to achieve
– Get sense of identity
– Learn leadership and communication skills,
roles, and rules
– Compare to others their age and gauge
their abilities more realistically
– Gain clearer sense of self-efficacy
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Positive & Negative Effects of
Peer Relations • Peer groups reinforce
prejudice
– “Outsiders”
– Especially racial or ethnic
groups
– Biases toward children like
themselves
– Prejudice and discrimination
do real damage
• Peer group can foster
antisocial tendencies
– Shoplift, drugs
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Gender Differences in
Peer-Group Relationships • Boys:
– Groups of boys play in large groups with well-defined
leadership hierarchies
– More competitive and rough-and-tumble play
– Less emotional support from friends
• Girls:
– More intimate conversations with prosocial
interactions and shared confidences
– Seek social connections and more sensitive to others’
distress
– More likely to worry about relationships, express
emotions, and seek emotional support
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Popularity
• Becomes more important in middle childhood
• Children who don’t get along with peers more likely to develop
psychological problems, drop out of school, become delinquent
• Popularity measured two ways:
1. Sociometric popularity measured by asking children which peers
they like most and least
• Five peer status groups identified: popular, rejected, neglected,
controversial, average
2. Perceived popularity measured by asking children which children are
best liked by peers
• High status, may be dominant, arrogant, aggressive, physically attractive,
athletic, and to a lesser extent may have academic ability
• Unpopular children tend to be aggressive, hyperactive, inattentive,
withdrawn, silly, immature, anxious, uncertain, insensitive to others’
feelings and not adapt well
• Popular children tend to come from authoritative families
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Friendship
• Children look for friends who are like them
– Same age
– Same sex
– Same ethnicity
– Same interests
• Strongest friendships involve equal commitment and mutual
give-and-take
• Unpopular children can make friends, but have fewer friends
and tend to have younger friends
• Friends help children to learn to communicate and cooperate
• Quarrels help children learn to resolve conflicts
• Peer rejection has long-term effects
• Selman’s Stages of Friendship
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Aggression and Bullying
• Aggression declines and changes in form
– As child grows less egocentric and more empathic,
more cooperative, better able to communicate
• Instrumental aggression is less common
• Hostile aggression proportionately increases
• School-age boys who are physically aggressive
may become juvenile
delinquents in adolescence
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Aggression and Bullying Gender Differences
• Boys are more physically aggressive
• Relational or social aggression is more
typical of girls
– Some research indicates both boys and girls use
relational aggression
• Consequences more serious for girls
– More preoccupied with relationships
• Boys are more aggressive when a group is
forming
– Compete for dominance
• Girls seek status through manipulative
means involving indirect or relational
aggression – Perceived to be most popular in class
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Aggression and Bullying
Types of Aggression and Social Information Processing
• Instrumental, proactive aggressors
– View force and coercion as effective ways to get what they want
– Act deliberately, not out of anger
– Expect to be rewarded and when they are, belief is reinforced
– Stops when not rewarded
• Hostile, reactive aggressors
– Hostile attribution bias, see other children as trying to hurt them
– Strike out in retaliation or self-defense
– Rejected children and children exposed to harsh parenting
– Can be stopped through teaching recognition of feeling angry and
teaching conflict resolution
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Aggression and Bullying
Does Media Violence Stimulate Aggression? • Children spend about 4 hours screen time daily
• 60% of US TV programs portray violence
– Usually glamorized, glorified, or trivialized
– Music videos disproportionately feature violence against women
and blacks
– Motion picture, music, and video game industries aggressively
market violent, adult-rated products to children
• Children take violence for granted and less likely to intervene
• More time with screen is less time with friends who can balance the
negativity
– Long-term influence greater for school-age than earlier
ages
• AAP recommended media time: 1 – 2 hours daily
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Aggression and Bullying
Bullies and Victims • Aggression become bullying when it is deliberate,
persistent, against a particular target who typically is
weak, vulnerable, and defenseless
– Hitting, punching, kicking, taking personal belongings, name
calling, threatening, psychological (isolating and gossiping)
• Bullying occurs in 42% of middle schools and 21% high
schools at least once a week
– Associated with student suicide and suicidal thoughts and
behavior
• Most bullies are boys who tend to victimize other boys
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Aggression and Bullying Bullies and Victims • Victims decrease over time as children learn how to
discourage bullying, leaving a smaller pool of
available victims
• Bullies and victims exhibit psychological problems
– Both tend to be disliked
– Both say they are victims
• Bullies are aggressive, impulsive, hostile,
domineering, antisocial, uncooperative
• Risk factors for victimization: don’t fit in, are
anxious, depressed, cautious, quiet, submissive, cry
easily, argumentative, provocative, have few
friends, may live in harsh punitive families
• Victims may: develop hyperactivity, become more
aggressive, become more depressed
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Mental Health •Common Emotional
Disturbances
•Treatment Techniques
•Stress and Resilience
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Mental Health
• 1 in 10 children and adolescents has a
diagnosed mental illness severe enough to
cause some impairment
– Half of all mental disorders begin by age 14
• 55.7% of children diagnosed with emotional,
behavioral, and developmental problems have
disruptive conduct disorders:
– Aggression, defiance, antisocial behavior
• 43.5% have anxiety or mood disorders
– Feeling sad, depressed, unloved, nervous, fearful,
lonely
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Common Emotional
Disturbances Disruptive Conduct Disorders
• Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) – Pattern of behavior until age 8 including temper tantrums, defiance,
argumentative, hostile, deliberately annoying behavior, disobedience
and hostility toward adult authority lasting at least 6 months and beyond
normal childhood behavior
– Child constantly fights, argues, loses temper, grabs things, blames
others, angry, resentful, has few friends, constantly in trouble at school,
tests limits of adult patience
• Conduct Disorder (CD) – Some children with ODD also have CD
– Persistent, repetitive pattern beginning at early age
• Aggressive, antisocial, truant, setting fires, habitual lying, fighting, bullying,
theft, vandalism, assaults, drug and alcohol use
– 25 – 50% of highly antisocial children become antisocial adults
– Neurological deficits, genetics, hostile parenting, family conflict
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Common Emotional
Disturbances School Phobia and Other Anxiety Disorders • School phobia: unrealistic fear of going to school
– Some have realistic reasons
• Sarcastic teacher
• Overly demanding work
• Bully
– Change the environment, not the child
– May be type of separation anxiety disorder (4% of children)
• Social phobia or social anxiety: extreme fear and/or
avoidance of social situations (5% of children)
– Runs in families, genetic component, triggered by traumatic
experiences, increases with age
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Common Emotional
Disturbances • Generalized anxiety disorder
– Not focused on any specific aspect of child’s life
– Worry about everything
• Grades, storms, earthquakes, hurting themselves, amount of gas in
the tank
– Self-conscious, self-doubting, excessively concerned with
meeting expectations of others
– Seek approval and need constant reassurance
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
– Far less common, obsessed by repetitive, intrusive thoughts,
images, impulses or behaviors
– Runs in families, more common in girls
• Vulnerability to anxiety begins as early as 6 years
– Girls more vulnerable to anxiety which often goes with depression,
which may be neurologically based plus environment
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Common Emotional
Disturbances Childhood Depression • Goes beyond normal temporary sadness
• Occurs in 2% of elementary school children
• Symptoms – Inability to have fun
– Inability to concentrate
– Fatigue
– Extreme activity or apathy
– Crying
– Sleep problems
– Weight change
– Physical complaints
– Feelings of worthlessness
– Prolonged sense of friendlessness
– Frequent thoughts of death or suicide
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Common Emotional
Disturbances Childhood Depression • May be a signal of a recurring problem that can persist
into adulthood
• Specific causes unknown
– Tends to come from families who have high levels of:
• Parental depression, anxiety, substance abuse, antisocial behavior
– 2 specific genes related to depression
• One controls brain chemical serotonin and affects mood
• Another gene is associated with enlargement of a brain region that
involves negative emotions
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Treatment Techniques • Individual psychotherapy
• Family therapy
• Behavior therapy (behavior modification)
• Art therapy
– Children with limited verbal and conceptual skills or who have
suffered emotional trauma
• Play therapy
• Drug therapy
– CONTROVERSIAL
– Sufficient research on effectiveness and safety for children is
lacking
– Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) treat obsessive-
compulsive, depressive, anxiety disorders, risks of suicidal
behavior, especially in early months of treatment
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Stress and Resilience
Stresses of Modern Life
• Elkind’s “Hurried Child”**
– Children expected to do well in school, compete in sports, meet
parents’ emotional needs
– Tightly schedule pace of life is stressful
– Exposed to adult problems on television and in real life
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Stress and Resilience Stresses of Modern Life
• With added stress comes increased anxiety
• Presence of street gangs and violence in schools
– 94% of middle schools reported incidents of violent crime
• Rape, robbery, physical attacks with or without weapons
• Children more susceptible than adults to psychological
harm from a traumatic event such as war or terrorism
– Reactions vary with age
– Reactions vary with exposure
– Reactions vary with how directly affects child
• Response to traumatic event occurs in two stages:
– First: fright, disbelief, denial, grief, relief if loved ones unharmed
– Second: several days or weeks later, signs of anxiety, fear,
withdrawal, sleep disturbances, pessimism about future
– If symptoms last more than 1 month, child needs counseling
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Talking to Children About
Terrorism and War • Listen to children
– Create a time and place and don’t force
• Answer children’s questions
– Avoid stereotyping groups of people by race,
nationality, or religion
– Be honest and be prepared
– You may need to repeat information
• Provide support
– Don’t let them watch the events on TV
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Stress and Resilience
Coping with Stress: The Resilient Child • Those who weather circumstances that would devastate
others, bounce back from traumatic event
• Two primary protective factors for resiliency:
1. Family relationships
2. Cognitive functioning (high IQs)
• Other protective factors:
– Child’s temperament and personality
– Compensating experiences (school, sports, music)
– Reduced risk (only one risk factor: exposed to psychiatric
disorder, parental discord, low social status, disturbed mother,
criminal father, experience in foster care or institution)
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Great minds discuss ideas, average
minds discuss events; small minds
discuss people.
-Eleanor Roosevelt