Child, Family, School, Child, Family, School, and Communityand Community

SSocialization and Support 6ocialization and Support 6thth ed. ed.

Child, Family, School, Child, Family, School, and Communityand Community

SSocialization and Support 6ocialization and Support 6thth ed. ed.

Chapter TwoChapter TwoOutcomes of SocializationOutcomes of Socialization

Chapter TwoChapter TwoOutcomes of SocializationOutcomes of Socialization

Aims of SocializationAims of SocializationAims of SocializationAims of Socialization SocializationSocialization enables children to: enables children to:

– learn what they need to know in order to be learn what they need to know in order to be integrated into the society in which they live.integrated into the society in which they live.

– develop their potentialities and form develop their potentialities and form satisfying relationships.satisfying relationships.

– develop a self-concept.develop a self-concept.– learn self-regulation.learn self-regulation.– empower achievement.empower achievement.– acquire appropriate social roles.acquire appropriate social roles.– implement developmental skills.implement developmental skills.

SocializationSocialization enables children to: enables children to:– learn what they need to know in order to be learn what they need to know in order to be

integrated into the society in which they live.integrated into the society in which they live.– develop their potentialities and form develop their potentialities and form

satisfying relationships.satisfying relationships.– develop a self-concept.develop a self-concept.– learn self-regulation.learn self-regulation.– empower achievement.empower achievement.– acquire appropriate social roles.acquire appropriate social roles.– implement developmental skills.implement developmental skills.

Develop a Self-ConceptDevelop a Self-ConceptDevelop a Self-ConceptDevelop a Self-Concept

Self-concept Self-concept isis an individual’s perception an individual’s perception of his/her identity as distinct from that of of his/her identity as distinct from that of others.others.– It emerges from experiences of It emerges from experiences of

separateness from others.separateness from others.

The value one places on that identity is The value one places on that identity is known as known as self-esteem.self-esteem.

Self-concept Self-concept isis an individual’s perception an individual’s perception of his/her identity as distinct from that of of his/her identity as distinct from that of others.others.– It emerges from experiences of It emerges from experiences of

separateness from others.separateness from others.

The value one places on that identity is The value one places on that identity is known as known as self-esteem.self-esteem.

An Ecological Model of An Ecological Model of Human DevelopmentHuman Development

An Ecological Model of An Ecological Model of Human DevelopmentHuman Development

Socialization involves bidirectional interactions between the child and significant others in

–microsystems

–mesosystems

–exosystems

–macrosystems

–chronosystem

Socialization involves bidirectional interactions between the child and significant others in

–microsystems

–mesosystems

–exosystems

–macrosystems

–chronosystem

Concept of SelfConcept of SelfConcept of SelfConcept of Self As you mature, your As you mature, your concept ofconcept of selfself–your –your

identity, your understanding of who you identity, your understanding of who you are–is influenced by significant others.are–is influenced by significant others.

As you mature, your As you mature, your concept ofconcept of selfself–your –your identity, your understanding of who you identity, your understanding of who you are–is influenced by significant others.are–is influenced by significant others.

Needs met consistentlyNeeds met consistently – given opportunities given opportunities

to discover thingsto discover things

– sense of autonomy sense of autonomy – self-regulatedself-regulated– self-controlledself-controlled

Needs met consistentlyNeeds met consistently – given opportunities given opportunities

to discover thingsto discover things

– sense of autonomy sense of autonomy – self-regulatedself-regulated– self-controlledself-controlled

Needs not met consistentlyNeeds not met consistently– not given opportunities not given opportunities

to discover things, to discover things, explore environmentexplore environment

– sense of doubt sense of doubt

Needs not met consistentlyNeeds not met consistently– not given opportunities not given opportunities

to discover things, to discover things, explore environmentexplore environment

– sense of doubt sense of doubt

Erikson’s Theory of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentPsychosocial Development

Erikson’s Theory of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentPsychosocial Development

Infancy Trust Mistrust

Family

Early Childhood Autonomy Shame/Doubt

Family

Play Age Initiative Guilt

Family School (Child Care)

School Age Industry Inferiority

Family Peers School Community

Adolescence Identity Identity Diffusion

Family Peers School Community

Young Adulthood Intimacy Isolation

Family Peers Community

Adulthood Generativity Self-Absorption

Family Peers Community

Senescence Integrity Despair

Family Peers

Enable Self-RegulationEnable Self-RegulationEnable Self-RegulationEnable Self-Regulation

Self-regulationSelf-regulation involves the process of involves the process of bringing one’s emotions, thoughts, and bringing one’s emotions, thoughts, and behavior under control. behavior under control.

This can be interpreted as routing our This can be interpreted as routing our feelings through our brains before acting feelings through our brains before acting on them according to the situation.on them according to the situation.

Self-regulationSelf-regulation involves the process of involves the process of bringing one’s emotions, thoughts, and bringing one’s emotions, thoughts, and behavior under control. behavior under control.

This can be interpreted as routing our This can be interpreted as routing our feelings through our brains before acting feelings through our brains before acting on them according to the situation.on them according to the situation.

Empower AchievementEmpower AchievementEmpower AchievementEmpower Achievement Socialization gives meaning or Socialization gives meaning or

purpose to adulthood and to the long purpose to adulthood and to the long process children have to go through to process children have to go through to get there.get there.

Significant adults and peers influence Significant adults and peers influence children’s motivation to succeed.children’s motivation to succeed.

Adults who understand child Adults who understand child development provide appropriate development provide appropriate challenges producing highly competent challenges producing highly competent and motivated children.and motivated children.

Socialization gives meaning or Socialization gives meaning or purpose to adulthood and to the long purpose to adulthood and to the long process children have to go through to process children have to go through to get there.get there.

Significant adults and peers influence Significant adults and peers influence children’s motivation to succeed.children’s motivation to succeed.

Adults who understand child Adults who understand child development provide appropriate development provide appropriate challenges producing highly competent challenges producing highly competent and motivated children.and motivated children.

Acquire Appropriate Social Acquire Appropriate Social RolesRoles

Acquire Appropriate Social Acquire Appropriate Social RolesRoles

To be part of a group, individuals must To be part of a group, individuals must have a function that complements the have a function that complements the group.group.

To be part of a group, individuals must To be part of a group, individuals must have a function that complements the have a function that complements the group.group.

RoleRole

SupervisorSupervisor

ParentParent

FriendFriend

TeacherTeacher

RoleRole

SupervisorSupervisor

ParentParent

FriendFriend

TeacherTeacher

FunctionFunction

Lead employeesLead employees

Nurture childrenNurture children

Emotional supportEmotional support

FacilitatorFacilitator

FunctionFunction

Lead employeesLead employees

Nurture childrenNurture children

Emotional supportEmotional support

FacilitatorFacilitator

Gender is a Social Role Gender is a Social Role Gender is a Social Role Gender is a Social Role Boys and girls learn gender appropriate Boys and girls learn gender appropriate

behaviors from significant members of behaviors from significant members of their society.their society.

What is appropriate is affected by:What is appropriate is affected by:– cultureculture– ethnicityethnicity– religionreligion– timetime

Boys and girls learn gender appropriate Boys and girls learn gender appropriate behaviors from significant members of behaviors from significant members of their society.their society.

What is appropriate is affected by:What is appropriate is affected by:– cultureculture– ethnicityethnicity– religionreligion– timetime

}}}} Macrosystem influencesMacrosystem influencesMacrosystem influencesMacrosystem influences

Chronosystem influenceChronosystem influenceChronosystem influenceChronosystem influence

Implement Developmental Implement Developmental SkillsSkills

Implement Developmental Implement Developmental SkillsSkills

Havighurst’s Theory examined how Havighurst’s Theory examined how society’s expectations change.society’s expectations change.

– Developmental tasksDevelopmental tasks::• are are midway between an individual need midway between an individual need

and societal demand.and societal demand.• arise from social pressure on individuals arise from social pressure on individuals

according to their development.according to their development.

Havighurst’s Theory examined how Havighurst’s Theory examined how society’s expectations change.society’s expectations change.

– Developmental tasksDevelopmental tasks::• are are midway between an individual need midway between an individual need

and societal demand.and societal demand.• arise from social pressure on individuals arise from social pressure on individuals

according to their development.according to their development.

Agents of SocializationAgents of SocializationAgents of SocializationAgents of Socialization The generalized community comprises The generalized community comprises

many groups that play a part in many groups that play a part in socializing individuals.socializing individuals.

These groups exert their influence in These groups exert their influence in different ways and at different times.different ways and at different times.

Each agent has its own functions in Each agent has its own functions in socialization.socialization.

Sometimes the agents complement each Sometimes the agents complement each other; other times they contradict each other; other times they contradict each other.other.

The generalized community comprises The generalized community comprises many groups that play a part in many groups that play a part in socializing individuals.socializing individuals.

These groups exert their influence in These groups exert their influence in different ways and at different times.different ways and at different times.

Each agent has its own functions in Each agent has its own functions in socialization.socialization.

Sometimes the agents complement each Sometimes the agents complement each other; other times they contradict each other; other times they contradict each other.other.

TemperamentTemperamentTemperamentTemperament Children’s Children’s temperamenttemperament—the innate —the innate

characteristics that determine individuals’ characteristics that determine individuals’ sensitivities to various experiences and sensitivities to various experiences and responsiveness to patterns of social responsiveness to patterns of social interaction—can elicit different reactions interaction—can elicit different reactions in caregivers.in caregivers.– A relaxed, happy baby tends to elicit smiles.A relaxed, happy baby tends to elicit smiles.– A tense, crying baby tends to elicit concern A tense, crying baby tends to elicit concern

or anxiety.or anxiety.

Children’s Children’s temperamenttemperament—the innate —the innate characteristics that determine individuals’ characteristics that determine individuals’ sensitivities to various experiences and sensitivities to various experiences and responsiveness to patterns of social responsiveness to patterns of social interaction—can elicit different reactions interaction—can elicit different reactions in caregivers.in caregivers.– A relaxed, happy baby tends to elicit smiles.A relaxed, happy baby tends to elicit smiles.– A tense, crying baby tends to elicit concern A tense, crying baby tends to elicit concern

or anxiety.or anxiety.

The FamilyThe FamilyThe FamilyThe Family The child’s introduction to society. The child’s introduction to society. The major responsibility for socializing.The major responsibility for socializing. Places children in a community and in a society Places children in a community and in a society

which influences their opportunities.which influences their opportunities. Passes on its socioeconomic status.Passes on its socioeconomic status. Functions as a system of interaction that Functions as a system of interaction that

affects children’s psychosocial developmentaffects children’s psychosocial development Serves as the child’s first reference group for Serves as the child’s first reference group for

values, norms, and practices one refers to in values, norms, and practices one refers to in evaluating one’s behavior (Elkin & Handel).evaluating one’s behavior (Elkin & Handel).

The child’s introduction to society. The child’s introduction to society. The major responsibility for socializing.The major responsibility for socializing. Places children in a community and in a society Places children in a community and in a society

which influences their opportunities.which influences their opportunities. Passes on its socioeconomic status.Passes on its socioeconomic status. Functions as a system of interaction that Functions as a system of interaction that

affects children’s psychosocial developmentaffects children’s psychosocial development Serves as the child’s first reference group for Serves as the child’s first reference group for

values, norms, and practices one refers to in values, norms, and practices one refers to in evaluating one’s behavior (Elkin & Handel).evaluating one’s behavior (Elkin & Handel).

Dimensions of Ethnic Dimensions of Ethnic Behavior PatternsBehavior Patterns

Dimensions of Ethnic Dimensions of Ethnic Behavior PatternsBehavior Patterns

Extreme examples are presented for Extreme examples are presented for purposes of illustration; individual purposes of illustration; individual members of groups can vary accordingly.members of groups can vary accordingly.– Orientation: From collectivistic to individualisticOrientation: From collectivistic to individualistic

• Collectivism (orientation towards the group)Collectivism (orientation towards the group)• Individualism (orientation towards the individual)Individualism (orientation towards the individual)

– Coping style: From active to passive.Coping style: From active to passive.• Active coping style (doing, getting things done)Active coping style (doing, getting things done)• Passive coping style (being, becoming)Passive coping style (being, becoming)

Extreme examples are presented for Extreme examples are presented for purposes of illustration; individual purposes of illustration; individual members of groups can vary accordingly.members of groups can vary accordingly.– Orientation: From collectivistic to individualisticOrientation: From collectivistic to individualistic

• Collectivism (orientation towards the group)Collectivism (orientation towards the group)• Individualism (orientation towards the individual)Individualism (orientation towards the individual)

– Coping style: From active to passive.Coping style: From active to passive.• Active coping style (doing, getting things done)Active coping style (doing, getting things done)• Passive coping style (being, becoming)Passive coping style (being, becoming)

Dimensions cont.Dimensions cont.Dimensions cont.Dimensions cont.

– Attitude toward authority: From submissive Attitude toward authority: From submissive to egalitarian.to egalitarian.• Submissive (respect and obey without question)Submissive (respect and obey without question)• Egalitarian (more nearly equal figures)Egalitarian (more nearly equal figures)

– Communication style: From open/expressive Communication style: From open/expressive to restrained/private.to restrained/private.• Open/expressive (African heritage)Open/expressive (African heritage)• Polite/ritualistic (Asian heritage)Polite/ritualistic (Asian heritage)• Restrained/private (Euro-American heritage)Restrained/private (Euro-American heritage)

– Attitude toward authority: From submissive Attitude toward authority: From submissive to egalitarian.to egalitarian.• Submissive (respect and obey without question)Submissive (respect and obey without question)• Egalitarian (more nearly equal figures)Egalitarian (more nearly equal figures)

– Communication style: From open/expressive Communication style: From open/expressive to restrained/private.to restrained/private.• Open/expressive (African heritage)Open/expressive (African heritage)• Polite/ritualistic (Asian heritage)Polite/ritualistic (Asian heritage)• Restrained/private (Euro-American heritage)Restrained/private (Euro-American heritage)

Schools and Child CareSchools and Child CareSchools and Child CareSchools and Child Care The school acts as an agent-organized to The school acts as an agent-organized to

perpetuate society’s knowledge, skills, perpetuate society’s knowledge, skills, customs, and beliefs. customs, and beliefs.

The school’s part in the transmission of The school’s part in the transmission of culture is continually under debate culture is continually under debate because the growth of knowledge and because the growth of knowledge and technology make it impossible to convey technology make it impossible to convey allall information. information.

The school acts as an agent to foster The school acts as an agent to foster respect and adherence to the existing respect and adherence to the existing social order of society.social order of society.

The school acts as an agent-organized to The school acts as an agent-organized to perpetuate society’s knowledge, skills, perpetuate society’s knowledge, skills, customs, and beliefs. customs, and beliefs.

The school’s part in the transmission of The school’s part in the transmission of culture is continually under debate culture is continually under debate because the growth of knowledge and because the growth of knowledge and technology make it impossible to convey technology make it impossible to convey allall information. information.

The school acts as an agent to foster The school acts as an agent to foster respect and adherence to the existing respect and adherence to the existing social order of society.social order of society.

John GoodladJohn GoodladJohn GoodladJohn Goodlad

Four broad categories of goals:Four broad categories of goals: 1)1) academic (reading, writing, arithmetic) academic (reading, writing, arithmetic)

2)2) vocational (preparation for world of work) vocational (preparation for world of work)

3)3) social and civic (preparation to participate social and civic (preparation to participate in a democracy)in a democracy)

4)4) personal (develop individual talent and personal (develop individual talent and self-expression)self-expression)

Four broad categories of goals:Four broad categories of goals: 1)1) academic (reading, writing, arithmetic) academic (reading, writing, arithmetic)

2)2) vocational (preparation for world of work) vocational (preparation for world of work)

3)3) social and civic (preparation to participate social and civic (preparation to participate in a democracy)in a democracy)

4)4) personal (develop individual talent and personal (develop individual talent and self-expression)self-expression)

Teachers evaluate according to norms Teachers evaluate according to norms and standards.and standards.

Organization of classroom setting affects Organization of classroom setting affects socialization.socialization.

Teachers serve as models for children to Teachers serve as models for children to imitate.imitate.

Child care has become an important Child care has become an important socialization agent due to societal socialization agent due to societal changes.changes.

Teachers evaluate according to norms Teachers evaluate according to norms and standards.and standards.

Organization of classroom setting affects Organization of classroom setting affects socialization.socialization.

Teachers serve as models for children to Teachers serve as models for children to imitate.imitate.

Child care has become an important Child care has become an important socialization agent due to societal socialization agent due to societal changes.changes.

Schools…cont.Schools…cont.Schools…cont.Schools…cont.

PeersPeersPeersPeers The The peer grouppeer group is comprised of individuals who is comprised of individuals who

are of approximately the same age and social are of approximately the same age and social status and who have common interests.status and who have common interests.

Children start to understand the views of others Children start to understand the views of others and are able to cooperate, share, and take and are able to cooperate, share, and take turns (perspective taking skills improve).turns (perspective taking skills improve).

Move away fromMove away from egocentrismegocentrism—the —the characteristic of being able to look at the world characteristic of being able to look at the world only from one’s own point of view begins to only from one’s own point of view begins to diminish. diminish.

As children mature and develop new interests, As children mature and develop new interests, their peer groups change.their peer groups change.

The The peer grouppeer group is comprised of individuals who is comprised of individuals who are of approximately the same age and social are of approximately the same age and social status and who have common interests.status and who have common interests.

Children start to understand the views of others Children start to understand the views of others and are able to cooperate, share, and take and are able to cooperate, share, and take turns (perspective taking skills improve).turns (perspective taking skills improve).

Move away fromMove away from egocentrismegocentrism—the —the characteristic of being able to look at the world characteristic of being able to look at the world only from one’s own point of view begins to only from one’s own point of view begins to diminish. diminish.

As children mature and develop new interests, As children mature and develop new interests, their peer groups change.their peer groups change.

Mass MediaMass MediaMass MediaMass Media NewspapersNewspapers MagazinesMagazines BooksBooks RadioRadio TelevisionTelevision VideosVideos MoviesMovies ComputersComputers Other means of communicationOther means of communication

NewspapersNewspapers MagazinesMagazines BooksBooks RadioRadio TelevisionTelevision VideosVideos MoviesMovies ComputersComputers Other means of communicationOther means of communication

Mass Media cont.Mass Media cont.Mass Media cont.Mass Media cont. The The mass mediamass media do not ordinarily directly do not ordinarily directly

involve personal interactions; the involve personal interactions; the interactions are of a more technical interactions are of a more technical nature.nature.

Considered socializing agents because Considered socializing agents because they reveal many aspects of the society they reveal many aspects of the society and elicit cognitive processes in children and elicit cognitive processes in children that affect their understanding of the that affect their understanding of the world.world.

Convey information about society.Convey information about society.

The The mass mediamass media do not ordinarily directly do not ordinarily directly involve personal interactions; the involve personal interactions; the interactions are of a more technical interactions are of a more technical nature.nature.

Considered socializing agents because Considered socializing agents because they reveal many aspects of the society they reveal many aspects of the society and elicit cognitive processes in children and elicit cognitive processes in children that affect their understanding of the that affect their understanding of the world.world.

Convey information about society.Convey information about society.

The CommunityThe CommunityThe CommunityThe Community The term The term communitycommunity is derived from the Latin is derived from the Latin

word for “fellowship”.word for “fellowship”. Community refers to the affective relationships Community refers to the affective relationships

expected among closely knit groups of people expected among closely knit groups of people with common interests.with common interests.

Refers to people living in a particular Refers to people living in a particular geographical area.geographical area.

The function is to provide a sense of belonging, The function is to provide a sense of belonging, a source of friendship, and socialization of a source of friendship, and socialization of children. children.

The term The term communitycommunity is derived from the Latin is derived from the Latin word for “fellowship”.word for “fellowship”.

Community refers to the affective relationships Community refers to the affective relationships expected among closely knit groups of people expected among closely knit groups of people with common interests.with common interests.

Refers to people living in a particular Refers to people living in a particular geographical area.geographical area.

The function is to provide a sense of belonging, The function is to provide a sense of belonging, a source of friendship, and socialization of a source of friendship, and socialization of children. children.

One function of community groups is to One function of community groups is to give children different perspectives on lifegive children different perspectives on life—to broaden their range of experience —to broaden their range of experience and give them new statuses or roles.and give them new statuses or roles.

A community can have an informal social A community can have an informal social support system—relatives, friends, and support system—relatives, friends, and neighbors who can be counted on to help neighbors who can be counted on to help in a crisis.in a crisis.

One function of community groups is to One function of community groups is to give children different perspectives on lifegive children different perspectives on life—to broaden their range of experience —to broaden their range of experience and give them new statuses or roles.and give them new statuses or roles.

A community can have an informal social A community can have an informal social support system—relatives, friends, and support system—relatives, friends, and neighbors who can be counted on to help neighbors who can be counted on to help in a crisis.in a crisis.

The Community cont.The Community cont.The Community cont.The Community cont.

AdvocacyAdvocacyAdvocacyAdvocacy Formal support systems in a community Formal support systems in a community

usually emerge through the process of usually emerge through the process of advocacy.advocacy.

AdvocacyAdvocacy means speaking or writing in means speaking or writing in support of something.support of something.– Setting goals on behalf of children.Setting goals on behalf of children.– Seeing that politicians or government Seeing that politicians or government

agencies implement them.agencies implement them.

Formal support systems in a community Formal support systems in a community usually emerge through the process of usually emerge through the process of advocacy.advocacy.

AdvocacyAdvocacy means speaking or writing in means speaking or writing in support of something.support of something.– Setting goals on behalf of children.Setting goals on behalf of children.– Seeing that politicians or government Seeing that politicians or government

agencies implement them.agencies implement them.

Methods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of Socialization

Affective (effect emerges from feeling)Affective (effect emerges from feeling)– AttachmentAttachment

Operant (effect emerges from acting)Operant (effect emerges from acting)– ReinforcementReinforcement– ExtinctionExtinction– PunishmentPunishment– FeedbackFeedback– Learning by doingLearning by doing

Affective (effect emerges from feeling)Affective (effect emerges from feeling)– AttachmentAttachment

Operant (effect emerges from acting)Operant (effect emerges from acting)– ReinforcementReinforcement– ExtinctionExtinction– PunishmentPunishment– FeedbackFeedback– Learning by doingLearning by doing

Methods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of Socialization

Observational (effect emerges from Observational (effect emerges from imitating)imitating)

– ModelingModeling Cognitive (effect emerges from Cognitive (effect emerges from

information processing)information processing)– InstructionInstruction– Setting standardsSetting standards– ReasoningReasoning

Observational (effect emerges from Observational (effect emerges from imitating)imitating)

– ModelingModeling Cognitive (effect emerges from Cognitive (effect emerges from

information processing)information processing)– InstructionInstruction– Setting standardsSetting standards– ReasoningReasoning

Methods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of SocializationMethods of Socialization Sociocultural (effect emerges from Sociocultural (effect emerges from

conforming)conforming)– Group pressureGroup pressure– TraditionTradition– Rituals and routinesRituals and routines– SymbolsSymbols

Apprenticeship (effect emerges from Apprenticeship (effect emerges from guided participation)guided participation)– StructuringStructuring– CollaboratingCollaborating– TransferringTransferring

Sociocultural (effect emerges from Sociocultural (effect emerges from conforming)conforming)– Group pressureGroup pressure– TraditionTradition– Rituals and routinesRituals and routines– SymbolsSymbols

Apprenticeship (effect emerges from Apprenticeship (effect emerges from guided participation)guided participation)– StructuringStructuring– CollaboratingCollaborating– TransferringTransferring

Operant Methods: Effect Operant Methods: Effect Emerges from ActingEmerges from Acting

Operant Methods: Effect Operant Methods: Effect Emerges from ActingEmerges from Acting

““Operant”Operant” refers to producing an effect. refers to producing an effect.– When some behavior is followed by a When some behavior is followed by a

favorable outcome (reinforcement), the favorable outcome (reinforcement), the probability of that behavior occurring again is probability of that behavior occurring again is increased.increased.

– When the behavior has no favorable When the behavior has no favorable outcome (for example, it does not get outcome (for example, it does not get attention or is ignored) or has an attention or is ignored) or has an unfavorable outcome (it results in unfavorable outcome (it results in punishment), the probability of that behavior punishment), the probability of that behavior occurring again is decreased.occurring again is decreased.

““Operant”Operant” refers to producing an effect. refers to producing an effect.– When some behavior is followed by a When some behavior is followed by a

favorable outcome (reinforcement), the favorable outcome (reinforcement), the probability of that behavior occurring again is probability of that behavior occurring again is increased.increased.

– When the behavior has no favorable When the behavior has no favorable outcome (for example, it does not get outcome (for example, it does not get attention or is ignored) or has an attention or is ignored) or has an unfavorable outcome (it results in unfavorable outcome (it results in punishment), the probability of that behavior punishment), the probability of that behavior occurring again is decreased.occurring again is decreased.

ReinforcementReinforcementReinforcementReinforcement

An object or event that is presented An object or event that is presented following a behavior.following a behavior.

Serves to increase the likelihood that Serves to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.the behavior will occur again.

Shaping Shaping is the systematic, is the systematic, immediate reinforcement of immediate reinforcement of successive approximations of the successive approximations of the desired behavior until that behavior desired behavior until that behavior occurs and is maintained.occurs and is maintained.

An object or event that is presented An object or event that is presented following a behavior.following a behavior.

Serves to increase the likelihood that Serves to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.the behavior will occur again.

Shaping Shaping is the systematic, is the systematic, immediate reinforcement of immediate reinforcement of successive approximations of the successive approximations of the desired behavior until that behavior desired behavior until that behavior occurs and is maintained.occurs and is maintained.

ReinforcementReinforcementReinforcementReinforcement

PositivePositive A reward given for A reward given for

desired behaviordesired behavior– FoodFood– Physical contactPhysical contact– PraisePraise

PositivePositive A reward given for A reward given for

desired behaviordesired behavior– FoodFood– Physical contactPhysical contact– PraisePraise

NegativeNegative The termination of The termination of

an unpleasant an unpleasant condition following a condition following a desired responsedesired response– Removal from time out Removal from time out

(after appropriate (after appropriate behavior)behavior)

– Restoring privileges Restoring privileges (after an apology)(after an apology)

NegativeNegative The termination of The termination of

an unpleasant an unpleasant condition following a condition following a desired responsedesired response– Removal from time out Removal from time out

(after appropriate (after appropriate behavior)behavior)

– Restoring privileges Restoring privileges (after an apology)(after an apology)

ExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionExtinction If reinforcement increases the likelihood of a If reinforcement increases the likelihood of a

response occurring again, then the removal of response occurring again, then the removal of the reinforcement should eventually eliminate, the reinforcement should eventually eliminate, or extinguish, the response.or extinguish, the response.

The gradual disappearance of a behavior due The gradual disappearance of a behavior due to the removal of the reinforcement.to the removal of the reinforcement.

Must be used in conjunction with reinforcement Must be used in conjunction with reinforcement to be effective as a socializing method.to be effective as a socializing method.

““Time-out” is a type of extinction in which all Time-out” is a type of extinction in which all reinforcement is removed.reinforcement is removed.

If reinforcement increases the likelihood of a If reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response occurring again, then the removal of response occurring again, then the removal of the reinforcement should eventually eliminate, the reinforcement should eventually eliminate, or extinguish, the response.or extinguish, the response.

The gradual disappearance of a behavior due The gradual disappearance of a behavior due to the removal of the reinforcement.to the removal of the reinforcement.

Must be used in conjunction with reinforcement Must be used in conjunction with reinforcement to be effective as a socializing method.to be effective as a socializing method.

““Time-out” is a type of extinction in which all Time-out” is a type of extinction in which all reinforcement is removed.reinforcement is removed.

PunishmentPunishmentPunishmentPunishment

Children have to be taught to process Children have to be taught to process what they are what they are notnot supposed to do, as well supposed to do, as well as what they as what they areare..

Consists of physically or psychologically Consists of physically or psychologically painful stimuli.painful stimuli.

The temporary withdrawal of pleasant The temporary withdrawal of pleasant stimuli when undesirable behavior stimuli when undesirable behavior occurs.occurs.

Children have to be taught to process Children have to be taught to process what they are what they are notnot supposed to do, as well supposed to do, as well as what they as what they areare..

Consists of physically or psychologically Consists of physically or psychologically painful stimuli.painful stimuli.

The temporary withdrawal of pleasant The temporary withdrawal of pleasant stimuli when undesirable behavior stimuli when undesirable behavior occurs.occurs.

FeedbackFeedbackFeedbackFeedback Evaluative information, both positive and Evaluative information, both positive and

negative, about individual behaviornegative, about individual behavior– an approving nodan approving nod– a questioning looka questioning look– a commenta comment– further instructionsfurther instructions– a remindera reminder

Provides knowledge of results and ways Provides knowledge of results and ways to improve themto improve them

Evaluative information, both positive and Evaluative information, both positive and negative, about individual behaviornegative, about individual behavior– an approving nodan approving nod– a questioning looka questioning look– a commenta comment– further instructionsfurther instructions– a remindera reminder

Provides knowledge of results and ways Provides knowledge of results and ways to improve themto improve them

Learning by DoingLearning by DoingLearning by DoingLearning by Doing

Sometimes socialization occurs through Sometimes socialization occurs through experiencing and interacting.experiencing and interacting.

Psychologist Albert Bandura (2000) Psychologist Albert Bandura (2000) relates learning by doing to the attribute relates learning by doing to the attribute of of self-efficacyself-efficacy—the belief that one can —the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive master a situation and produce positive effects.effects.

Sometimes socialization occurs through Sometimes socialization occurs through experiencing and interacting.experiencing and interacting.

Psychologist Albert Bandura (2000) Psychologist Albert Bandura (2000) relates learning by doing to the attribute relates learning by doing to the attribute of of self-efficacyself-efficacy—the belief that one can —the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive master a situation and produce positive effects.effects.

Observational Methods: Effect Observational Methods: Effect Emerges from ImitatingEmerges from Imitating

Observational Methods: Effect Observational Methods: Effect Emerges from ImitatingEmerges from Imitating

ModelingModeling is a form of imitative learning is a form of imitative learning that occurs by observing another person that occurs by observing another person (the model) perform a behavior and (the model) perform a behavior and experience its consequences.experience its consequences.– Enables us to learn appropriate social Enables us to learn appropriate social

behavior, attitudes, and emotions vicariously behavior, attitudes, and emotions vicariously or second-hand.or second-hand.

ModelingModeling is a form of imitative learning is a form of imitative learning that occurs by observing another person that occurs by observing another person (the model) perform a behavior and (the model) perform a behavior and experience its consequences.experience its consequences.– Enables us to learn appropriate social Enables us to learn appropriate social

behavior, attitudes, and emotions vicariously behavior, attitudes, and emotions vicariously or second-hand.or second-hand.

ModelsModelsModelsModels

ParentsParents SiblingsSiblings RelativesRelatives FriendsFriends TeachersTeachers CoachesCoaches

ParentsParents SiblingsSiblings RelativesRelatives FriendsFriends TeachersTeachers CoachesCoaches

Athletic StarsAthletic Stars Movie StarsMovie Stars TV StarsTV Stars Teen IdolsTeen Idols Cartoon Cartoon

CharactersCharacters

Athletic StarsAthletic Stars Movie StarsMovie Stars TV StarsTV Stars Teen IdolsTeen Idols Cartoon Cartoon

CharactersCharacters

There is much evidence that children learn There is much evidence that children learn both prosocial and antisocial behavior by both prosocial and antisocial behavior by watching TV.watching TV.

There is much evidence that children learn There is much evidence that children learn both prosocial and antisocial behavior by both prosocial and antisocial behavior by watching TV.watching TV.

Cognitive Methods: Effect Cognitive Methods: Effect Emerges from Information Emerges from Information

ProcessingProcessing

Cognitive Methods: Effect Cognitive Methods: Effect Emerges from Information Emerges from Information

ProcessingProcessing

Socialization techniques using Socialization techniques using cognitivecognitive methods involve those that specifically methods involve those that specifically focus on how individuals process focus on how individuals process information or abstract meaning from information or abstract meaning from experiences.experiences.

Strategies:Strategies:– InstructionInstruction– Standard settingStandard setting– ReasoningReasoning

Socialization techniques using Socialization techniques using cognitivecognitive methods involve those that specifically methods involve those that specifically focus on how individuals process focus on how individuals process information or abstract meaning from information or abstract meaning from experiences.experiences.

Strategies:Strategies:– InstructionInstruction– Standard settingStandard setting– ReasoningReasoning

InstructionInstructionInstructionInstruction

For instructions to be For instructions to be effectiveeffective, they must , they must be understood.be understood.

For instructions to be For instructions to be understoodunderstood, the , the instructor must be willing to:instructor must be willing to:– rephraserephrase– demonstratedemonstrate– repeatrepeat

For instructions to be For instructions to be effectiveeffective, they must , they must be understood.be understood.

For instructions to be For instructions to be understoodunderstood, the , the instructor must be willing to:instructor must be willing to:– rephraserephrase– demonstratedemonstrate– repeatrepeat

Setting StandardsSetting StandardsSetting StandardsSetting Standards

A A standardstandard is a level of attainment or is a level of attainment or degree of excellence regarded as a goal degree of excellence regarded as a goal or measure of adequacy.or measure of adequacy.

When parents set standards, they are When parents set standards, they are telling children what they should do.telling children what they should do.

Provides children with advance notice of Provides children with advance notice of what is/isn’t expected of them—helping what is/isn’t expected of them—helping them become socialized.them become socialized.

A A standardstandard is a level of attainment or is a level of attainment or degree of excellence regarded as a goal degree of excellence regarded as a goal or measure of adequacy.or measure of adequacy.

When parents set standards, they are When parents set standards, they are telling children what they should do.telling children what they should do.

Provides children with advance notice of Provides children with advance notice of what is/isn’t expected of them—helping what is/isn’t expected of them—helping them become socialized.them become socialized.

ReasoningReasoningReasoningReasoning Involves giving explanations, causes for Involves giving explanations, causes for

an act.an act. Some children may not be able toSome children may not be able to

– understand reasons. understand reasons. – generalize a reason to another situation.generalize a reason to another situation.

Egocentric Egocentric children lack the cognitive children lack the cognitive ability to take another’s point of view thus ability to take another’s point of view thus making reasoning difficult.making reasoning difficult.

AltruismAltruism refers to actions that are refers to actions that are intended to aid or benefit another person intended to aid or benefit another person without anticipation of external reward.without anticipation of external reward.

Involves giving explanations, causes for Involves giving explanations, causes for an act.an act.

Some children may not be able toSome children may not be able to– understand reasons. understand reasons. – generalize a reason to another situation.generalize a reason to another situation.

Egocentric Egocentric children lack the cognitive children lack the cognitive ability to take another’s point of view thus ability to take another’s point of view thus making reasoning difficult.making reasoning difficult.

AltruismAltruism refers to actions that are refers to actions that are intended to aid or benefit another person intended to aid or benefit another person without anticipation of external reward.without anticipation of external reward.

SociocentrismSociocentrismSociocentrismSociocentrism

The ability to understand and relate to The ability to understand and relate to views and perspectives of othersviews and perspectives of others– TransductiveTransductive = connecting one particular = connecting one particular

idea to another based on appearance rather idea to another based on appearance rather than logicthan logic

– InductiveInductive = connecting a specific idea to a = connecting a specific idea to a more general idea based on similaritiesmore general idea based on similarities

– Deductive Deductive = connecting a general to a = connecting a general to a particular one based on similarities and particular one based on similarities and differencesdifferences

The ability to understand and relate to The ability to understand and relate to views and perspectives of othersviews and perspectives of others– TransductiveTransductive = connecting one particular = connecting one particular

idea to another based on appearance rather idea to another based on appearance rather than logicthan logic

– InductiveInductive = connecting a specific idea to a = connecting a specific idea to a more general idea based on similaritiesmore general idea based on similarities

– Deductive Deductive = connecting a general to a = connecting a general to a particular one based on similarities and particular one based on similarities and differencesdifferences

Parenting StylesParenting StylesParenting StylesParenting Styles Baumrind:Baumrind:

– AuthoritativeAuthoritative = parents are willing to offer = parents are willing to offer reasons for their directivesreasons for their directives

– PermissivePermissive = parents offer no directives and = parents offer no directives and rely on manipulation to obtain compliancerely on manipulation to obtain compliance

– AuthoritarianAuthoritarian = parents expect children to = parents expect children to accept their word as right and final without accept their word as right and final without any verbal give-and-takeany verbal give-and-take

Baumrind:Baumrind:– AuthoritativeAuthoritative = parents are willing to offer = parents are willing to offer

reasons for their directivesreasons for their directives– PermissivePermissive = parents offer no directives and = parents offer no directives and

rely on manipulation to obtain compliancerely on manipulation to obtain compliance– AuthoritarianAuthoritarian = parents expect children to = parents expect children to

accept their word as right and final without accept their word as right and final without any verbal give-and-takeany verbal give-and-take

Children who are habitually given reasons for Children who are habitually given reasons for directives benefit.directives benefit.

Children who are habitually given reasons for Children who are habitually given reasons for directives benefit.directives benefit.

Sociocultural Methods: Effect Sociocultural Methods: Effect Emerges from ConformingEmerges from Conforming

Sociocultural Methods: Effect Sociocultural Methods: Effect Emerges from ConformingEmerges from Conforming

CultureCulture involves learned behavior including involves learned behavior including– knowledgeknowledge– beliefsbeliefs– moralsmorals– lawlaw– customscustoms– traditionstraditions

that is characteristic of the social environment that is characteristic of the social environment in which individuals grow up.in which individuals grow up.

CultureCulture involves learned behavior including involves learned behavior including– knowledgeknowledge– beliefsbeliefs– moralsmorals– lawlaw– customscustoms– traditionstraditions

that is characteristic of the social environment that is characteristic of the social environment in which individuals grow up.in which individuals grow up.

CultureCultureCultureCulture

Some of the socializing techniques by Some of the socializing techniques by which sociocultural expectations which sociocultural expectations influence behavior areinfluence behavior are– Group pressureGroup pressure– TraditionsTraditions– RitualsRituals– RoutinesRoutines– SymbolsSymbols

Some of the socializing techniques by Some of the socializing techniques by which sociocultural expectations which sociocultural expectations influence behavior areinfluence behavior are– Group pressureGroup pressure– TraditionsTraditions– RitualsRituals– RoutinesRoutines– SymbolsSymbols

Group PressureGroup PressureGroup PressureGroup Pressure

A sociocultural method of socializationA sociocultural method of socialization Involves conforming to group normsInvolves conforming to group norms Communities comprise social groupsCommunities comprise social groups

– FamiliesFamilies– NeighborhoodsNeighborhoods– ChurchesChurches– PeersPeers– ClubsClubs– SchoolsSchools

A sociocultural method of socializationA sociocultural method of socialization Involves conforming to group normsInvolves conforming to group norms Communities comprise social groupsCommunities comprise social groups

– FamiliesFamilies– NeighborhoodsNeighborhoods– ChurchesChurches– PeersPeers– ClubsClubs– SchoolsSchools

TraditionTraditionTraditionTradition The handing down ofThe handing down of

– customscustoms– storiesstories– beliefs and so onbeliefs and so on

from generation to generation.from generation to generation. Ethnic groupsEthnic groups Religious groupsReligious groups FamiliesFamilies

The handing down ofThe handing down of– customscustoms– storiesstories– beliefs and so onbeliefs and so on

from generation to generation.from generation to generation. Ethnic groupsEthnic groups Religious groupsReligious groups FamiliesFamilies

Rituals and RoutinesRituals and RoutinesRituals and RoutinesRituals and Routines

A A ritualritual is a set form or system that is a set form or system that– connects us with our past.connects us with our past.– defines our present.defines our present.– gives us a future direction.gives us a future direction.

Rites of passageRites of passage signify changes in people’s signify changes in people’s status.status.

RoutinesRoutines are repetitious acts or established are repetitious acts or established proceduresprocedures– bedtimebedtime– mealtimemealtime– anything done on a regular basisanything done on a regular basis

A A ritualritual is a set form or system that is a set form or system that– connects us with our past.connects us with our past.– defines our present.defines our present.– gives us a future direction.gives us a future direction.

Rites of passageRites of passage signify changes in people’s signify changes in people’s status.status.

RoutinesRoutines are repetitious acts or established are repetitious acts or established proceduresprocedures– bedtimebedtime– mealtimemealtime– anything done on a regular basisanything done on a regular basis

SymbolsSymbolsSymbolsSymbols

Acts or objects that have come to be Acts or objects that have come to be generally accepted as standing for or generally accepted as standing for or representing something else.representing something else.

AbstractAbstract– Dove = symbol of peaceDove = symbol of peace– Cross = symbol of Christ’s deathCross = symbol of Christ’s death– Circle = never ending (wedding ring)Circle = never ending (wedding ring)

Acts or objects that have come to be Acts or objects that have come to be generally accepted as standing for or generally accepted as standing for or representing something else.representing something else.

AbstractAbstract– Dove = symbol of peaceDove = symbol of peace– Cross = symbol of Christ’s deathCross = symbol of Christ’s death– Circle = never ending (wedding ring)Circle = never ending (wedding ring)

Apprentice Methods: Effect Apprentice Methods: Effect Emerges from Guided Emerges from Guided

ParticipationParticipation

Apprentice Methods: Effect Apprentice Methods: Effect Emerges from Guided Emerges from Guided

ParticipationParticipation Children efforts are guided byChildren efforts are guided by

– ParentsParents– SiblingsSiblings– RelativesRelatives– PeersPeers– CoachesCoaches

Children efforts are guided byChildren efforts are guided by– ParentsParents– SiblingsSiblings– RelativesRelatives– PeersPeers– CoachesCoaches

Outcomes of SocializationOutcomes of SocializationOutcomes of SocializationOutcomes of Socialization

Values Values are qualities or beliefs seen as are qualities or beliefs seen as desirable or important.desirable or important.

AttitudesAttitudes are tendencies to respond positively are tendencies to respond positively or negatively to certain persons, objects, or or negatively to certain persons, objects, or situations.situations.

MotivesMotives are needs or emotions that cause are needs or emotions that cause people to act in certain ways.people to act in certain ways.

AttributesAttributes are explanations for their are explanations for their performance.performance.

Values Values are qualities or beliefs seen as are qualities or beliefs seen as desirable or important.desirable or important.

AttitudesAttitudes are tendencies to respond positively are tendencies to respond positively or negatively to certain persons, objects, or or negatively to certain persons, objects, or situations.situations.

MotivesMotives are needs or emotions that cause are needs or emotions that cause people to act in certain ways.people to act in certain ways.

AttributesAttributes are explanations for their are explanations for their performance.performance.

Self EsteemSelf EsteemSelf EsteemSelf Esteem The value individuals place on their The value individuals place on their

identity.identity. Previously viewed as a unitary, global Previously viewed as a unitary, global

construct.construct. Harter examined more specific domains Harter examined more specific domains

related torelated to– physical competence.physical competence.– academic competence.academic competence.– behavioral competence.behavioral competence.– social acceptance.social acceptance.

The value individuals place on their The value individuals place on their identity.identity.

Previously viewed as a unitary, global Previously viewed as a unitary, global construct.construct.

Harter examined more specific domains Harter examined more specific domains related torelated to– physical competence.physical competence.– academic competence.academic competence.– behavioral competence.behavioral competence.– social acceptance.social acceptance.

Self-Regulation/BehaviorSelf-Regulation/BehaviorSelf-Regulation/BehaviorSelf-Regulation/Behavior

Self regulationSelf regulation is the process of bringing is the process of bringing– emotionsemotions– thoughtsthoughts– behaviorbehavior

under one’s control.under one’s control. BehaviorBehavior consists of what one does or consists of what one does or

how one acts in response to a stimulus.how one acts in response to a stimulus.

Self regulationSelf regulation is the process of bringing is the process of bringing– emotionsemotions– thoughtsthoughts– behaviorbehavior

under one’s control.under one’s control. BehaviorBehavior consists of what one does or consists of what one does or

how one acts in response to a stimulus.how one acts in response to a stimulus.

TheoriesTheoriesTheoriesTheories

Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)Psychoanalytic theory (Freud) Behavioral learning theory (Skinner)Behavioral learning theory (Skinner) Social cognitive theory (Bandura)Social cognitive theory (Bandura) Cognitive developmental theory (Piaget)Cognitive developmental theory (Piaget) Vygotskian theory (Vygotsky)Vygotskian theory (Vygotsky)

– Sociocultural theorySociocultural theory

Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)Psychoanalytic theory (Freud) Behavioral learning theory (Skinner)Behavioral learning theory (Skinner) Social cognitive theory (Bandura)Social cognitive theory (Bandura) Cognitive developmental theory (Piaget)Cognitive developmental theory (Piaget) Vygotskian theory (Vygotsky)Vygotskian theory (Vygotsky)

– Sociocultural theorySociocultural theory

MoralsMoralsMoralsMorals

An individual’s evaluation of what isAn individual’s evaluation of what is

right or wrongright or wrong

Theories of moral development haveTheories of moral development have– an affective, or emotional, component.an affective, or emotional, component.– a cognitive component.a cognitive component.– a behavioral component. a behavioral component.

An individual’s evaluation of what isAn individual’s evaluation of what is

right or wrongright or wrong

Theories of moral development haveTheories of moral development have– an affective, or emotional, component.an affective, or emotional, component.– a cognitive component.a cognitive component.– a behavioral component. a behavioral component.

Gender RolesGender RolesGender RolesGender Roles

Qualities that individuals understand and Qualities that individuals understand and that characterize males and females in that characterize males and females in their culture.their culture.

GenderGender usually refers to psychological usually refers to psychological attributes.attributes.

SexSex usually refers to biological attributes. usually refers to biological attributes.– Males = XYMales = XY– Females = XXFemales = XX

Qualities that individuals understand and Qualities that individuals understand and that characterize males and females in that characterize males and females in their culture.their culture.

GenderGender usually refers to psychological usually refers to psychological attributes.attributes.

SexSex usually refers to biological attributes. usually refers to biological attributes.– Males = XYMales = XY– Females = XXFemales = XX