DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources)

LEGAL BASISExecutive Order No. 192 dated June 10, 1987 Providing for the Reorganization of the Department of Environment, Energy and Natural Resources, Renaming it as the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and for other Purposes.

MANDATEExecutive Order No. 192 mandates the DENR to be the primary government agency responsible for the conservation, management, development, and proper use of the countrys environment and natural resources, specifically forest and grazing lands, mineral resources, including those in reservation and watershed areas, and lands of the public domain, as well as the licensing and regulation of all natural resources as may be provided for by law in order to ensure equitable sharing of the benefits derived therefrom for the welfare of the present and future generations of Filipinos.

To accomplish this mandate, the Department shall be guided by the following objectives: 1. Assure the availability and sustainability of the country's natural resources through judicious use and systematic restoration or replacement, whenever possible2. Increase the productivity of natural resources in order to meet the demands for forest, mineral, and land resources of a growing population;3. Enhance the contribution of natural resources for achieving national economic and social development;4. Promote equitable access to natural resources by the different sectors of the population; and5. Conserve specific terrestrial and marine areas representative of the Philippine natural and cultural heritage for present and future generations.

VISION"A nation enjoying and sustaining its natural resources and clean and healthy environment."

MISSIONTo mobilize our citizenry in protecting, conserving and managing the environment and natural resources for the present and future generations.

CORE FUNCTIONSDENR is tasked to formulate and implement policies, guidelines, rules and regulations relating to environmental management and pollution prevention and control.Formulate implement and supervise the government's policies, plans and programs pertaining to the management, conservation, development, use and replenishment of the country's natural resources and ecological diversity; and Promulgate and implement rules and regulations governing the exploration, development, extraction, disposition, and use of the forests, lands, minerals, wildlife, and other natural resources.OFFICERS

Office of the SecretaryPAJE, RAMON J.P. (CESO I)Secretary

Chief of StaffTEH, ATTY. ANALIZA R. (CESO II)Undersecretary/Chief of Staff

Head Executive Assistant OfficeADORNADO, HENRY A., PhDHead Executive AssistantMASUDA, HIRO V., DBAHead Document Management and Control Staff

Office of the UndersecretariesADOBO, ATTY. ERNESTO D. JR. (CESO III)Undersecretary for Administration and Information SystemsTEH, ATTY. ANALIZA R. (CESO II)Undersecretary/Chief of StaffIGNACIO, DEMETRIO JR. L. (CESO I)Undersecretary for Field OperationsGEROCHI, MANUEL D. (CESO I)Undersecretary for Policy and Planning & Foreign Assisted Programs

Office of the Assistant SecretariesNICER, ATTY. DANIEL M. (CESO II)Assistant Secretary for Internal Audit and Anti-CorruptionABUNGAN, ATTY. ANSELMO C.OIC - Assistant Secretary for Legal ServicesDAVIS, CORAZON C. (CESO II)OIC - Assistant Secretary for Administration and FinanceAMARO, MARCIAL C.OIC - Assistant Secretary for Field OperationsABESAMIS, ROMMEL R.Assistant Secretary for Foreign Assisted and Special ProjectsGERVACIO, BRESILDA M.Officer-In-Charge, Assistant Secretary for Human Resource Development and Information SystemsGO, ATTY. MICHELLE ANGELICA D.Assistant Secretary for Planning

Public Affairs OfficeCRUZ, MARIA SABRINA R.OIC DirectorAssistant DirectorGADDI, MARIA MATILDA A.OIC - Chief, Research and Development Communication DivisionAQUINO, CARMEN M.OIC - Chief, Public Information DivisionDE GUZMAN, ROSITAOIC - Chief, Library

Special Concerns OfficeRAGOS, WILLIAM T.OIC DirectorORTIZ, AMELITA DJ.OIC - Assistant DirectorTURINGAN, ATTY. ROSANNE B.Chief, Special Action and Investigation DivisionJAVILLONAR, EMERITA LINDA D.OIC - Chief, Special Events and Coordination DivisionJOSE, ERNESTINA F.Office in Charge, Inter-Agency and Sectoral Networking Division

Legal ServiceSARAOS, ATTY. WILFREDO B.OIC - Director, Legal Service for LuzonDirector, Legal Service for VisayasDirector, Legal Service for MindanaoLUCASAN, ATTY. MIRLA A.Chief, Claims and Conflicts DivisionRAMOS, ATTY. GERALDINE DE LA CERNAChief, Processing and Documentation DivisionARZADON, ATTY. RICKY M.Chief, Investigation and Litigation DivisionGARCIA, ATTY. CAMILO D.OIC - Chief, Law Enforcement and Licenses DivisionSARAOS, ATTY. WILFREDO B.Chief, Research and Legal Opinion DivisionENERAN, ATTY. NORLITO A.OIC - Chief, Personnel Investigation Division

Administrative ServiceCASTRO, ROLANDO R.DirectorMARCELO, MIRIAM M.OIC - Chief, Personnel DivisionBAUTISTA, JANE G., DPAOIC - Chief, Records Management and Documentation DivisionMARTINEZ, GALO JR. C.OIC - Chief, General Services DivisionChief, Medical and Dental UnitHuman Resource Development ServiceENRIQUEZ, RIC G., PhD CESO IVDirectorGULMATICO, ROSARIO C.OIC-Chief, Institution Development DivisionABRERA, TITO D.OIC-Chief, Career Development DivisionSABATER, MANUEL S.OIC-Chief, Human Resource Research and Development DivisionMASUDA, HIRO V., DBAChief, Training Management Division

Internal Audit ServiceDirector, DENR Internal Audit ServiceBALASCOPO, CYNTHIA R.Chief, Operations Audit DivisionROSARIO, CRISTINA S.Chief, Financial Audit Division

Financial Management ServiceFONTANILLA, ANGELITO V.DirectorNILLOSAN, DIA M.OIC-Chief, Accounting DivisionCASTILLO, INOCENCIO A.Acting Chief,Budget DivisionChief, Management DivisionAssistant Chief, Accounting DivisionNILLOSAN, EVELYN G.Assistant Chief, Budget DivisionPAGASA (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration)

PAGASA one of the attached agencies of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) under its Scientific and Technical Services Institutes is mandated to provide protection against natural calamities and utilize scientific knowledge as an effective instrument to insure the safety, well being and economic security of all the people, and for the promotion of national progress. (Section 2, Statement of Policy, Presidential Decree No. 78;December 1972 as amended by Presidential Decree No. 1149; August 1977)

MissionProtecting lives and properties through timely, accurate and reliable weather-related information and services.

VisionCenter of excellence for weather related information and services.

ValuesIntergrity, Commitment and Public Service Orientation .

CORE FUNCTIONSMaintains a nationwide network pertaining to observation and forecasting of weather and flood and other conditions affecting national safety, welfare and economy;Undertake activities relative to observation, collection, assessment and processing of atmospheric and allied data for the benefit of agriculture, commerce and industry;Engage in studies of geophysical and astronomical phenomena essential to the safety and welfare of the people;Undertake researches on the structure, development and motion of typhoons and formulate measures for their moderation; andMaintain effective linkages with scientific organizations here and abroad and promote exchange of scientific information and cooperation among personnel engaged in atmospheric, geophysical, astronomical and space studies.

OFFICIALSVICENTE B. MALANO, Ph.DActing-Administrator Office of the AdministratorFLAVIANA D. HILARIO, Ph.DActing Deputy AdministratorResearch and DevelopmentCATALINO L. DAVISActing Deputy AdministratorAdministration and Engineering ServicesLANDRICO U. DALIDA, JR. , Ph.DActing Deputy AdministratorOperations and ServicesESPERANZA O. CAYANANOfficer-in-ChargeWeather DivisionSUSAN R. ESPINUEVA, Ph.DChiefHydrometeorological DivisionEDNA L. JUANILLOOfficer-in-ChargeClimatology and Agrometeorology DivisionCYNTHIA P. CELEBRE , Ph.DChiefResearch & Development and Training DivisionSYLVIA N. DAVISChiefAdministrative DivisionLILIBETH B. GONZALESChiefFinancial, Planning and Management DivisionEngr. EDWIN F. MANRESAOfficer-in-ChargeEngineering and Technical Services DivisionFREDOLINA D. BALDONADOOfficer-in-ChargePAGASA Regional Services Division - Northern LuzonLILIAN N. GUILLERMOChiefPAGASA Regional Services Division - Southern LuzonBONIFACIO G. PAJUELAS , Ph.DOfficer-in-ChargePAGASA Regional Services Division - National Capital RegionOSCAR C. TABADAOfficer-in-ChargePAGASA Regional Services Division VisayasRICARDO A. MERCADOChiefPAGASA Regional Services Division Mindanao

NDRRMC (National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council)

formerly known as the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC), is a working group of various government, non-government, civil sector and private sector organizations of the Government of the Republic of the Philippines established by Republic Act 10121 of 2009. It is administered by the Office of Civil Defense under the Department of National Defense. The Council is responsible for ensuring the protection and welfare of the people during disasters or emergencies.The Council utilizes the UN Cluster Approach in disaster management. It is the country's focal for the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER) and many other related international commitments.

Local DRRM OfficesThru the implementation of Republic Act 10121, various local governments throughout the country have established Local DRRM Offices at the regional, provincial, municipal, city and barangay levels. As functional arms of the local governments, these Offices are responsible for the implementation of the disaster management cycle at the local levels.

Local Offices usually have a Chief DRRM Officer supported by Administrative and Training, Research and Planning, Operations and Warning Officers. Some of these Offices have advanced to organizing their own search and rescue and emergency medical services squads and command-control-and-communications centers.

Council Membership

In February 2010, the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) was renamed, reorganized, and subsequently expanded. The following heads of agencies compose the NDRRMC:

Chairperson - Secretary of Department of National Defense(DND) - Voltaire GazminVice Chairperson for Disaster Preparedness - Secretary of Interior and Local Government(DILG) - Mar RoxasVice Chairperson for Disaster Response - Secretary of Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) Corazon Dinky SolimanVice Chairperson for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation - Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology(DOST)- Mario MontejoVice Chairperson for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery - Director-General of the National Economic Development Authority- Arsenio BalisacanExecutive Director- Administrator, OCD- Eduardo del Rosario

Members/ Cabinet OfficialsSecretary of the Department of Health Dr. Enrique OnaSecretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources- Ramon PajeSecretary of the Department of Agriculture Proceso AlcalaSecretary of the Department of Education Bro. Armin LuistroSecretary of the Department of Energy Carlos Jericho PetillaSecretary of the Department of Finance Cesar PurisimaSecretary of the Department of Trade and Industry Gregory DomingoSecretary of the Department of Transportation and Communication Joseph Emilio AbayaSecretary of the Department of Budget and Management Florencio Butch AbadSecretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways Rogelio SingsonSecretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs Albert del RosarioSecretary of the Department of Justice Leila De LimaSecretary of the Department of Labor and Employment Rosalinda BaldosSecretary of the Department of Tourism Ramon JimenezThe Executive Secretary Paquito Ochoa

The NDRRMC is also composed of the following officials (incumbent as of Nov 15, 2013):

Teresita Deles, Secretary, Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP)Patricia Licuanan, Chairman, Commission on Higher Education (CHED)Gen. Emmanuel Bautista, Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)Director General Alan Purisima, Chief, Philippine National Police (PNP)The Presidential Communications Group (represented by Presidential Spokesperson Edwin Lacierda, PCDSPO Sec. Ramon Carandang and PCOO Sec. Herminio Coloma, Jr)Gwendolyn Pang, Secretary-General, Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC)Jose Eliseo Rocamora, Commissioner, National Anti-Poverty Commission - Victims of Disasters and Calamities Sector (NAPCVDC)Remedios Ignacio-Rikken, Chairperson, National Commission on the Role of Filipino WomenVice President Jejomar Binay, Chairperson, Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC)Mary Ann Lucille Sering, Executive Director, Climate Change Office of the Climate Change CommissionRobert Vergara, President, Government Service Insurance System (GSIS)Emilio de Quiros Jr, President, Social Security System (SSS)Alexander Padilla, President, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth)Oriental Mindoro Gov. Alfonso Umali Jr, President, Union of Local Authorities of the Philippines (ULAP) and League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP)Quezon City Mayor Herbert Bautista, President, League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP)Javier, Leyte Mayor Leonardo Javier Jr, President, League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP)Ricojudge Janvier Echiverri, President, Liga ng Mga Barangay (LMB)Four (4) representatives from civil society organizations (CSO)One (1) representative from the private sectorLAGUNA LAKE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (LLDA)

The LLDA was organized by virtue of Republic Act No. 4850 as a quasi-government agency with regulatory and proprietary functions. Through Presidential Decree 813 in 1975, and Executive Order 927 in 1983, its powers and functions were further strengthened to include environmental protection and jurisdiction over the lake basins surface water. In 1993, through Executive Order 149, the administrative supervision over LLDA was transferred from the Office of the President to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).

OUR MANDATE

The Laguna Lake Development Authority was created by Republic Act No. 4850 (as amended by Presidential Decree 813), entitled: AN ACT CREATING THE LAGUNA LAKE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, PRESCRIBING ITS POWERS, FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES, PROVIDING FUNDS THEREOF, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.Chapter I, Section 1:It is hereby declared to be the national policy to promote, and accelerate the development and balanced growth of the Laguna Lake area and the surrounding provinces, cities and towns hereinafter referred to as the region, within the context of the national and regional plans and policies for social and economic development and to carry out the development of the Laguna Lake region with due regard and adequate provisions for environmental management and control, preservation of the quality of human life and ecological systems, and the prevention of undue ecological disturbances, deterioration and pollution.

OUR VISION

By 2020, the Laguna de Bay Basin has been transformed as the focal center for sustainable development through sound ecological governance.

OUR MISSION

To catalyze a climate change-sensitive Integrated Water Resource Management in the Laguna de Bay Region, with clear focus on preserving ecological integrity and promoting sustainable economic growth.

CORE VALUES

Love of the EnvironmentWe are foremost advocates of environmental protection and sustainable development in this day and age of climate change.

Leadership / ProfessionalismWe adhere to the highest standards of civil service and professional meritocracy.

Disciplined / Science-DrivenWe believe in empirically-driven and science-based environmental governance and management.

Adaptability / InnovativenessWe believe in change management and the value of innovation and creativity.

TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE RESILIENCE

To effectively restore the lake and its delicate ecosystem, we need the full involvement of all stakeholders, the soundness of science and research to guide proper interventions and the strengthening of the overall environmental management and governance to ensure that livelihood, economy and wealth will flourish sustainably in what is the focal area of regional and national development.

-- Secretary J.R. Nereus O. Acosta, PhD.Presidential Adviser for Environmental ProtectionGeneral Manager, LLDA

The Laguna Lake Development Authority envisions a Laguna Lake Region with a balanced ecology, maintained through a science-based approach in monitoring, management and maintenance of the ecosystem. It aims to make the Laguna Lake Region a model of environmental governance in Asia and the focal area of sustainable development for the region and the whole country.

CENTERS OF LLDA's TRANSFORMATION

A. Information State-of-the-art Model Laboratory Information Technology - Using technology to implement more eco-friendly paperless transactions; Information Systems Strategic Plans (ISSP) - Text LLDA, guide response system Telemetering - Automated telemetering system, located in Looc, Cardona, generates real-time lake water level and rainfall data, accessible through the Advanced Science and Technology Institute of the Department of and Technology (ASTI-DOST) website.

B. Interventions Regulation/Enforcement of Laguna de Bay Institutional Strengthening and Community Participation (LISCOP) Project Identifying Areas for Reforestation planting different species of trees and plants in identified areas; on-going consultations with communities and various stakeholders on the preprogrammed reforestation project Lake Fisheries Conservation Program conducts lake-seeding activities in various locations around the Lake

C. Institutional Partnerships / Institution - Building Public-Private Partnerships: World Bank, Asian Development Bank, United Nations Development Programme, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Transportation and Communications, Local Government Units, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Public Works and Highways, Department of Interior and Local Government, Department of Tourism, Department of Trade and Industry and other partners and stakeholders - River Protection Convergence Program with DPWH - Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with the Quezon City government and other Local Government Units on collaboration on regulatory programs - Calauan Learning Resource Center Water and Ecology summits, conferences and seminars Construction of the first green building of the government and climate-smart headquarters in the National Ecology Center.

D. Involvement Community Impact Surveys - Conducts lake primary productivity (LPP) measurements regularly in 3 selected stations. For assessing the quantity of natural food supply in the lake and predicting potential fish yields Water Quality Management - Forest, Watershed, River Basin monitoring related to the River Rehabilitation Program with thirty six (36) stations located in the rivers of Marikina, Bagumbayan, Mangangati, Tunasan, San Pedro, Bian, Sta. Rosa, Cabuyao, San Cristobal, San Juan, Los Baos, Bay, Pila, Sta. Cruz, Pagsanjan, Pangil, Siniloan, Sta. Maria, Jala-jala, Pililla, Tanay, Baras, Taytay Barkadahan and Morong, and also in Sapang Baho and the Buli Creek. - LLDA Decision Support System (DSS): Bathymetric Surveys, Streamflow Measurement, Total Pollution Loading Study, Remote Sensing and GIS - Strengthening of the 120 Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils (FARMCs) and River Councils

MANAGEMENT DIRECTION

Taking sustainable development as the centrepiece of its development efforts, LLDA sets its direction from a regulatory agency to a market client-driven development agency.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

To catalyze Integrated Water Resource Management in the Laguna de Bay Region, showcasing the symbiosis of man and nature for sustainability, with focus on preserving ecological integrity and promoting economic growth with equitable access to resources.

OFFICIALS

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

HON. RAMON JESUS P. PAJESecretary, Department of Environment and NaturalResources as Chairperson

HON. J.R. NEREUS O. ACOSTA, Ph.D.Secretary/Presidential Adviser for Environmental Protection as Vice-Chairperson

MEMBERS

HON. REBECCA A. YNARESHON. RAMIL L. HERNANDEZGovernor, Rizal Province Governor, Laguna Province

HON. TEOFILO S. PILANDOHON. FRANCIS N. TOLENTINODeputy Executive Secretary,Chairperson, Metro Manila Development Authority Office of the President

HON. MARGARITA R. SONGCOHON. ZENAIDA C. MAGLAYADeputy Director-General, National Undersecretary, Department of Trade and IndustryEconomic Development Authority

HON. CECILIO "BOYET" YNARESHON. GIRLIE "MAITA" J. EJERCITOMayor, Binangonan, RizalMayor, Pagsanjan, Laguna

CESAR R. QUINTOSas Concurrent Acting Board Secretary

MANAGEMENT TEAM

HON. J.R. NEREUS O. ACOSTA, Ph.D.Secretary/Presidential Adviser for Environmental ProtectionGeneral Manager

MARISTEL C. ESPIRITUROQUE B. DELAS ALASOfficer-In-Charge-Assistant Officer-In-Charge-Assistant General General Manager for OperationsManager for Administration

ATTY. EDUARDO L. TORRESCESAR R. QUINTOSDivision Chief IIIDivision Chief III and Concurrent Acting Board SecretaryLegal and Adjudication DivisionPolicy Planning and Information Management Division

ADELINA C. SANTOS-BORJAOfficer-In-ChargeInternational Linkages & ResearchDevelopment Division

ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATORY DEPARTMENT

ATTY. CHARISMA V. LOPEZOfficer-In-Charge | Department Head

ENGR. GUILLERMO E. ORGILENGR. JESSIE B. CHUAClearance & Permits DivisionSurveillance and Monitoring DivisionOfficer-In-ChargeOfficer-In-Charge

ENGR. EMITERIO C. HERNANDEZEnforcement DivisionOfficer-In-Charge

Resource Management and Development Department

LEONOR A. POSERIOProject Development Management and Evaluation DivisionOfficer-In-Charge

REENA L. BUENACommunity Development DivisionOfficer-In-Charge

ENGR. JOCELYN G. STA. ANAEnvironmental Quality and Research DivisionOfficer-In-Charge

ATTY. MALOU R. REMULARAtty. IIIOfficer-In-Charge, INTERNAL AUDIT DIVISION

MANAGEMENT SERVICES DEPARTMENT

ROQUE B. DELAS ALASOfficer-In-Charge

AIDA T. SAMIANOAdministrative DivisionOfficer-In-Charge

ROSANNA RUSTICA P. AVENIDOFinance DivisionOfficer-In-ChargeEARTHQUAKE AND INTENSITYAn earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011 (as of March 2014), and it was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event whether natural or caused by humans that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Effects of Earthquakes

Shaking and ground ruptureShaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.

Landslides and AvalanchesEarthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue.

FiresEarthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.

Soil LiquefactionSoil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.

TsunamiTsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

FloodsA flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.

Human impactsAn earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general property damage, and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, and higher insurance premiums.

PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)Intensity Scale Intensity ScaleDescription

IScarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates slowly.

IISlightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.

IIIWeak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

IVModerately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging objectsswing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

VStrong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.

VIVery Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.

VIIDestructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like liquid).

VIIIVery Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or banks of rivers.

IXDevastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.

XCompletely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

Rossi-Forrel Scale of Earthquake Intensities (Adapted)

Intensity ScaleDescription

IHardly perceptible shock - felt only by an experienced observer under favorable conditions.

IIExtremely feeble shock - felt by a small number of persons at rest.

IIIVery feeble shock - felt by several persons at rest. Duration and direction may be perceptible. Sometimes dizziness or nausea experienced.

IVFeeble shock - felt generally indoors, outdoors by a few. Hanging objects swing slightly. Creaking of frames of houses.

VShock of moderate intensity - felt generally by everyone. Hanging objects swing freely. Overturning of tall vases and unstable objects.

VIFairly strong shock - general awakening of those asleep. Some frightened persons leave their houses. Stopping of pendulum clocks. Oscillation of hanging lamps. Slight damage to very old or poorly built structures.

VIIStrong shock - overturning of movable objects. General alarm, all run outdoors. Damage slight in well-built houses, considerable in old or poorly built structures, old walls, etc. Some landslides from hills and steep banks. Cracks in road surfaces.

VIIIVery strong shock - people panicky. Trees shaken strongly. Changes in the flow of springs and wells. Sand and mud ejected from fissures in soft ground. Small landslides.

IXExtremely strong shock - panic general. Partial or total destruction of some buildings. Fissures in ground. Landslides and rockfalls.

TSUNAMI / TIDAL WAVE / STORM SURGE

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: , lit. "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: /sunmi/ soo-NAH-mee or /tsunmi/ tsoo-NAH-mee ) is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, generally an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train".Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with at least 290,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.The Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late 5th century BC, History of the Peloponnesian War, that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes, but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast how tsunami waves would interact with specific shorelines.

EtymologyThe term tsunami comes from the Japanese , composed of the two kanji (tsu) meaning "harbour" and (nami), meaning "wave". (For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.)Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves, which are unusually high sea waves that are triggered especially by earthquakes. In recent years, this term has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do with tides. The once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. Tsunami and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling" or "having the form or character of" the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers.There are only a few other languages that have an equivalent native word. In Acehnese language, the words are i beuna or aln buluk (depending on the dialect). In Tamil language, it is aazhi peralai. On Simeulue island, off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia, in Devayan language the word is smong, while in Sigulai language it is emong. In Singkil (in Aceh province) and surrounding, the people name tsunami with word gloro.

A tidal wave (or simply bore in context, or also aegir, eagre, or eygre) is a tidal phenomenon in which the leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) of water that travels up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the river or bay's current.Bores occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range (typically more than 6 metres (20 ft) between high and low water) and where incoming tides are funneled into a shallow, narrowing river or lake via a broad bay. The funnel-like shape not only increases the tidal range, but it can also decrease the duration of the flood tide, down to a point where the flood appears as a sudden increase in the water level. A tidal bore takes place during the flood tide and never during the ebb tide.A tidal bore may take on various forms, ranging from a single breaking wavefront with a roller somewhat like a hydraulic jump to undular bores, comprising a smooth wavefront followed by a train of secondary waves known as whelps.Large bores can be particularly unsafe for shipping but also present opportunities for river surfing.Two key features of a tidal bore are the intense turbulence and turbulent mixing generated during the bore propagation, as well as its rumbling noise. The visual observations of tidal bores highlight the turbulent nature of the surging waters. The tidal bore induces a strong turbulent mixing in the estuarine zone, and the effects may be felt along considerable distances. The velocity observations indicate a rapid deceleration of the flow associated with the passage of the bore as well as large velocity fluctuations.A tidal bore creates a powerful roar that combines the sounds caused by the turbulence in the bore front and whelps, entrained air bubbles in the bore roller, sediment erosion beneath the bore front and of the banks, scouring of shoals and bars, and impacts on obstacles. The bore rumble is heard far away because its low frequencies can travel over long distances. The low-frequency sound is a characteristic feature of the advancing roller in which the air bubbles entrapped in the large-scale eddies are acoustically active and play the dominant role in the rumble-sound generation.The word bore derives through Old English from the Old Norse word bra, meaning "wave" or "swell".

ImpactThe tidal bores may be dangerous and many bores have had a sinister reputation: the River Seine (France); the Petitcodiac River (Canada); and the Colorado River (Mexico), to name a few. In China, despite warning signs erected along the Qiantang River banks, a number of tragic accidents happen each year.[1] The tidal bores affect the shipping and navigation in the estuarine zone, for example, in Papua New Guinea (Fly and Bamu Rivers), Malaysia (Benak at Batang Lupar), and India (Hoogly bore).On the other hand, the tidal-bore affected estuaries are the rich feeding zones and breeding grounds of several forms of wildlife.The estuarine zones are the spawning and breeding grounds of several native fish species, while the aeration induced by the tidal bore contribute to the abundant growth of many species of fish and shrimps (for example in the Rokan River).

Scientific StudiesScientific studies have been carried out at the River Dee in the United Kingdom; the Garonne and Slunerivers in France and the Daly River in Australia. The force of the tidal bore flow often poses a challenge to scientific measurements, as evidenced by a number of field work incidents in the River Dee, Rio Mearim, Daly River and Slune River.

A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomena of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems (such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the timing of tides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges.The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center. The second effect is responsible for destructive meteotsunamis associated with the most intense tropical systems.The Galveston Hurricane of 1900, a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas, drove a devastating surge ashorebetween 6,000 and 12,000 lives were lost, making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States.[1] The deadliest storm surge caused by a tropical cyclone in the twenty-first century is from Cyclone Nargis which killed more than 138,000 people in Myanmar in May 2008. The next deadliest this century is from Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. Haiyan (Yolanda) killed more than 3,600 people in the central Philippines and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion (USD).The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at 43 ft (13 metres) at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 noted the majority of this was likely wave run-up, due to the steep coastal topography. In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005's Hurricane Katrina, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft (8 metres) in the communities of Waveland (41.5 ft), Bay St. Louis (38 ft), Diamondhead (30 ft) and Pass Christian (35 ft) in Mississippi. Another record storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft (4.2 m), also found in Pass Christian (the back side of St. Louis Bay got up to 35 ft). The worst storm surge, in terms of loss of life, was the 1970 Bhola cyclone. In general, the Bay of Bengal is vulnerable to storm surges.

Measuring Surge

Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water. Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005.These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged, and can accurately measure the height of water above them.After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks. HWM denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event. When HWM are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWM on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During evaluation, HWM are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; only HWM evaluated as "excellent" are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge.Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.

CYCLONE / TYPHOON and its SIGNAL

In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure. The largest low-pressure systems are cold-core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on the synoptic scale. According to the NHC glossary, warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale. Mesocyclones, tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale. Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low, and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars and Neptune. Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification. Extratropical cyclones form as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones. These zones contract to form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies. Later in their life cycle, cyclones occlude as cold core systems. A cyclone's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the cancer or subtropical jet stream.

Weather fronts separate two masses of air of different densities and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena. Air masses separated by a front may differ in temperature or humidity. Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. They form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east. Warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. They move poleward ahead of the cyclone path. Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center.

Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm coreCyclones can transition between extratropical, subtropical, and tropical phases under the right conditions. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation.Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. In the Atlantic basin, a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind, Huracan), a cyclone in the Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific, and a typhoon in the Northwest Pacific region.

StructureThere are a number of structural characteristics common to all cyclones. A cyclone is a low-pressure area. A cyclone's center (often known in a mature tropical cyclone as the eye), is the area of lowest atmospheric pressure in the region. Near the center, the pressure gradient force (from the pressure in the center of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone) and the force from the Coriolis effect must be in an approximate balance, or the cyclone would collapse on itself as a result of the difference in pressure.

Because of the Coriolis effect, the wind flow around a large cyclone is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclonic circulation is sometimes referred to as contra solem. In the Northern Hemisphere, the fastest winds relative to the surface of the Earth therefore occur on the eastern side of a northward-moving cyclone and on the northern side of a westward-moving one; the opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. (The wind flow around an anticyclone, on the other hand, is clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.)

FormationCyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere (a low-pressure area). Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes, all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone. It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic scale.

Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones.

Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core.

Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis, and has an anticyclonic (high-pressure system) equivalent which deals with the formation of high-pressure areasAnticyclogenesis.

The surface low has a variety of ways of forming. Topography can force a surface low when dense low-level high-pressure system ridges in east of a north-south mountain barrier. Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core. The disturbance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest. Around the low, flow will become cyclonic, by definition. This rotational flow will push polar air equatorward west of the low via its trailing cold front, and warmer air with push poleward low via the warm front. Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and catch up with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone, usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector. At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal.

Tropical cyclogenesis is the technical term describing the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere. The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid-latitude cyclogenesis occurs. Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm-core cyclone, due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center, a preexisting low-level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear.[26] An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane/typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity on the SaffirSimpson Hurricane Scale).

A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180 and 100E. This region is referred to as the northwest Pacific basin.For organisational purposes, the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions: the eastern (North America to 140W), central (140W to 180), and western (180 to 100E). The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan, with other tropical cyclone warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Honolulu (the Joint Typhoon Warning Center), the Philippines and Hong Kong. While the RSMC names each system, the main name list itself is coordinated amongst 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year. The Philippines use their own naming list for systems which approach the country.

Within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year. Like any tropical cyclone, there are six main requirements for typhoon formation and development: sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center, a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear. The majority of storms form between June and November whilst tropical cyclone formation is at a minimum between December and May. On average, the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally. Like other basins, they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west or northwest, with some systems recurving near and east of Japan. The Philippines receive a brunt of the landfalls, with China and Japan being impacted slightly less. Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China. Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region, with a thousand year sample via documents within their archives. Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basin.

Typhoons in the PhilippinesIn the Philippines, tropical cyclones (typhoons) are called bagyo.Tropical cyclones entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility are given a local name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), which also raises public storm signal warnings as deemed necessary.Around 19 tropical cyclones or storms enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility in a typical year and of these usually 6 to 9 make landfall.The deadliest overall tropical cyclone to impact the Philippines is believed to have been the September 1881 typhoon which is estimated to have killed up to 20,000 people as it passed over the country in September 1881. In modern meteorological records, the deadliest storm was Typhoon Haiyan, which became the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone ever recorded as it crossed the Central Philippines on November 7-8, 2013. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1418, 1911 cyclone which dropped over 2,210 millimetres (87 in) of rainfall within a 3-day, 15-hour period in Baguio City.[6] Tropical cyclones usually account for at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines while being responsible for less than 10 percent of the annual rainfall in the southern islands.

The Philippines is the most-exposed large country in the world to tropical cyclones, and it has even affected settlement patterns in the northern islands; for example, the eastern coast of Luzon is very sparsely populated.

Etymology and Naming ConventionsThe term bagyo, a Filipino word meaning typhoon arose after a 1911 storm in the city of Baguio had a record rainfall of 46 inches within a 24-hour period.

Names of StormsSince the middle of the 20th Century, American forecasters have named tropical storms after people, originally using only female names. Philippine forecasters from the now-PAGASA started assigning Filipino names to storms in 1963 following the American practice, using names of people in alphabetical order, from A to Z.Beginning in January 2000, the World Meteorological Organization"s Typhoon Committee began assigning names to storms nominated by the 14 Asian countries who are members with each country getting 2 to 3 a year.These names, unlike the American and Filipino traditions, are not names for people exclusively but include flowers, animals, food, etc. and they are not in alphabetical order by name but rather in alphabetical order by the country that nominated the name.After January 2000, Filipino forecasters continued their tradition of naming storms that enter the Philippines Area of Responsibility and so there are often two names for each storm, the PAGASA name and the so-called "international name".

Variability in ActivityOn an annual time scale, activity reaches a minimum in May, before increasing steadily through June, and spiking from July through September, with August being the most active month for tropical cyclones in the Philippines. Activity falls off significantly in October. The most active season, since 1945, for tropical cyclone strikes on the island archipelago was 1993 when nineteen tropical cyclones moved through the country (though there were 36 storms that were named by PAGASA). There was only one tropical cyclone which moved through the Philippines in 1958. The most frequently impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern Luzon and eastern Visayas. A ten-year average of satellite determined precipitation showed that at least 30percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones, while the southern islands receive less than 10percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones.

Public Storm Warning SignalsThe Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) releases tropical cyclone warnings in the form of Public Storm Warning Signals. An area having a storm signal may be under: PSWS #1 - Tropical cyclone winds of 30km/h (19mph) to 60km/h (37mph) are expected within the next 36hours. (Note: If a tropical cyclone forms very close to the area, then a shorter lead time is seen on the warning bulletin.) PSWS #2 - Tropical cyclone winds of 60km/h (37mph) to 100km/h (62mph) are expected within the next 24hours. PSWS #3 - Tropical cyclone winds of 100km/h (62mph) to 185km/h (115mph) are expected within the next 18hours. PSWS #4 - Tropical cyclone winds of greater than 185km/h (115mph) are expected within 12hours.Classes for Preschool are canceled when Signal No. 1 is in effect. Elementary and High School classes and below are cancelled under Signal No. 2 and classes for Colleges and Universities and below are cancelled under Signal No. 3 and Signal No. 4.

MONSOON

Monsoon (UK: /mnsun/; US: /mnsun/) is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally-changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase.

The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons. The inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated.

The term was first used in English in British India (now India, Bangladesh and Pakistan) and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area. The south-west monsoon winds are called 'Nairutya Maarut' in India.

HistoryStrengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, many geologists believe the monsoon first became strong around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and new long-duration sediment records from the South China Sea led to a timing of the monsoon beginning 1520 million years ago and linked to early Tibetan uplift. Testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to global climate change, especially the cycle of the Pleistocene ice ages. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago. Then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean. It is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma (PL-1), 1.83 Ma (PL-2), 0.68 Ma (PL-3), 0.45 Ma (PL-4) and 0.04 Ma (PL-5) were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current (LC). The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature (SST) field in the Indian Ocean, as the Indonesian through flow generally warms the Indian Ocean. Thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. During the weak LC, there is the possibility of reduced intensity of the Indian winter monsoon and strong summer monsoon, because of change in the Indian Ocean dipole due to reduction in net heat input to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian through flow. Thus a better understanding of the possible links between El Nio, Western Pacific Warm Pool, Indonesian Throughflow, wind pattern off western Australia, and ice volume expansion and contraction can be obtained by studying the behaviour of the LC during Quaternary at close stratigraphic intervals

Etymology

The English monsoon came from Portuguese mono, ultimately from Arabic mawsim ( "season"), "perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun".

Strength of Impact

The impact of monsoon on the local weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a little more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into vivid green grasslands where all sorts of plants and crops can prosper.

The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands. See photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, as it is essential to use all the rain that is available for growing crops.

ProcessMonsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. Over oceans, the air temperature remains relatively stable for two reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity (3.9 to 4.2 J g1 K1), and because both conduction and convection will equilibrate a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 metres). In contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities (0.19 to 0.35 J g1 K1),and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at a more even temperature, while land temperature are more variable.

During warmer months sunlight heats the surfaces of both land and oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly. As the land's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area of low pressure develops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower temperature than the land, and the air above it retains a higher pressure. This difference in pressure causes sea breezes to blow from the ocean to the land, bringing moist air inland. This moist air rises to a higher altitude over land and then it flows back toward the ocean (thus completing the cycle). However, when the air rises, and while it is still over the land, the air cools. This decreases the air's ability to hold water, and this causes precipitation over the land. This is why summer monsoons cause so much rain over land.

In the colder months, the cycle is reversed. Then the land cools faster than the oceans and the air over the land has higher pressure than air over the ocean. This causes the air over the land to flow to the ocean. When humid air rises over the ocean, it cools, and this causes precipitation over the oceans. (The cool air then flows towards the land to complete the cycle.)Most summer monsoons have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons, by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought.Similar rainfall is caused when moist ocean air is lifted upwards by mountains,surface heating,convergence at the surface,divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the surface.However the lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, and this produces condensation.

MONTREAL PROTOCOLThe Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16th, 1987, and entered into force on January 1st, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). If the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the European Union,making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.

Terms and PurposesThe treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances.For each group, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management PlanThe stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states"Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge""Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries"shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including: from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in 1986; from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986. from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero.There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.) and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030.

There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems were exempt, but no longer as of 12/31/11.[7]) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).The substances in Group I of Annex A are: CFCl3 (CFC-11) CF2Cl2 (CFC-12) C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113) C2F4Cl2(CFC-114) C2F5Cl (CFC-115)The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled Scientific assessment of ozone depletion.Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to present alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements.Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015.The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 1.0, these HCFCs have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 2,270.Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)Produced mostly in developed countries, HFCs replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine. But it has been established that HFCs are not innocuous either.[11] They are greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.The Montreal Protocol does not address HFCs, but these substances figure in the basket of six greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol report their HFC emission data to UNFCCC; parties to the Montreal Protocol have no such obligation.

KYOTO PROTOCOL

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC is an environmental treaty with the goal of preventing dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference of the climate system. According to the UNFCC website, the Protocol "recognises that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, and places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities'."[11] There are 192 parties to the convention: 191 states (including all the UN members except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan and the United States) and the European Union. The United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011. The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997, and entered into force in 2005.

As part of the Kyoto Protocol, many developed countries have agreed to legally binding limitations/reductions in their emissions of greenhouse gases in two commitments periods. The first commitment period applies to emissions between 2008-2012, and the second commitment period applies to emissions between 2013-2020. The protocol was amended in 2012 to accommodate the second commitment period, but this amendment has (as of January 2013) not entered into legal force.

The 37 parties with binding targets in the second commitment period are Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol).

International emissions trading allows developed countries to trade their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. They can trade emissions quotas among themselves, and can also receive credit for financing emissions reductions in developing countries. Developed countries may use emissions trading until late 2014 or 2015 to meet their first-round targets.

Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treaty to reduce their emissions. Actions taken by developed and developing countries to reduce emissions include support for renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation. Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their development needs.

The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of emissions between 1750 and 2004), and that carbon dioxide emissions per person in developing countries (2.9 tonnes in 2010) are, on average, lower than emissions per person in developed countries (10.4 tonnes in 2010).

A number of developed countries have commented that the Kyoto targets only apply to a small share of annual global emissions. Countries with second-round Kyoto targets made up 13.4% of annual global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. Many developing countries have emphasized the need for developed countries to have strong, binding emissions targets. At the global scale, existing policies appear to be too weak to prevent global warming exceeding 2 or 1.5 degrees Celsius, relative to the pre-industrial level.

ObjectivesThe main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (20082012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007). The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period (see Kyoto Protocol#Successor for details) The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.

The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.

For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol[47] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.[48][49]:290 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home. Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change. Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol. Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.The Stockholm Convention

The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife. POPs circulate globally and can cause damage wherever they travel. In implementing the Convention, Governments will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.

Over 150 countries signed the Convention and it entered into force, on 17 May 2004, 90 days after the ratification by the fiftieth country.The Stockholm Convention focuses on eliminating or reducing releases of 12 POPs, the so-called "Dirty Dozen". It sets up a system for tackling additional chemicals identified as unacceptably hazardous. It recognizes that a special effort may sometimes be needed to phase out certain chemicals for certain uses and seeks to ensure that this effort is made. It also channels resources into cleaning up the existing stockpiles and dumps of POPs that litter the world's landscape. Ultimately, the Convention points the way to a future free of dangerous POPs and promises to reshape our economy's reliance on toxic chemicals.

The Stockholm Convention is perhaps best understood as having five essential aims: Eliminate dangerous POPs, starting with the 12 worst Support the transition to safer alternatives Target additional POPs for action Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs Work together for a POPs-free future

The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is the designated interim financial mechanism for the Stockholm Convention.

The Stockholm Convention is the most significant global legally binding instrument for targeting POPs. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinated the organisation of the Stockholm Convention, which was originally signed by 92 nations and the European Community on the 23 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. The Stockholm Convention established an initial list of 12 key POPs chemicals (the socalled dirty dozen) for which signatories are required to reduce the risks to human health and the environment arising from their release. Enlisted parties are required to take measures (legal and/or administrative) to eliminate or heavily restrict the production and use of POP pesticides and PCBs, and to minimise the unintentional production and release of POPs. The 12 key POPs that are targeted by the Convention include Aldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, Dioxins, Endrin, Furans, Hexachlorobenzene, Heptachlor, Mirex, PCBs and Toxaphene.

Both the Stockholm Convention and the CLRTAP Protocol on POPs make allowances for further chemicals to be qualified as POPs. This allowance is described in Article 8 and Annex D of the Stockholm Convention, and requires parties to submit proposals of new POPs according to a set of strict screening criteria. In order to integrate some of the aspects of the Basel Convention, Article 6(2) of the Stockholm Convention outlines the requirements for cooperation between the two ruling bodies. By integrating and ratifying the various global instruments for dealing with hazardous wastes and POPs, regional and national leaders can establish effective legal and institutional controls on such chemicals.BASEL CONVENTION

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland, in response to a public outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.

Awakening environmental awareness and corresponding tightening of environmental regulations in the industrialized world in the 1970s and 1980s had led to increasing public resistance to the disposal of hazardous wastes in accordance with what became known as the NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) syndrome and to an escalation of disposal costs. This in turn led some operators to seek cheap disposal options for hazardous wastes in Eastern Europe and the developing world, where environmental awareness was much less developed and regulations and enforcement mechanisms were lacking. It was against this background that the Basel Convention was negotiated in the late 1980s, and its thrust at the time of its adoption was to combat the toxic trade, as it was termed. The Convention entered into force in 1992.

Objective

The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as hazardous wastes based on their origin and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as two types of wastes defined as other wastes - household waste and incinerator ash. Aims and provisions

The provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims:

the reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;

the restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and

a regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.

The first aim is addressed through a number of general provisions requiring States to observe the fundamental principles of environmentally sound waste management (article 4). A number of prohibitions are designed to attain the second aim: hazardous wastes may not be exported to Antarctica, to a State not party to the Basel Convention, or to a party having banned the import of hazardous wastes (article 4).

Parties may, however, enter into bilateral or multilateral agreements on hazardous waste management with other parties or with non-parties, provided that such agreements are no less environmentally sound than the Basel Convention (article 11).

In all cases where transboundary movement is not, in principle, prohibited, it may take place only if it represents an environmentally sound solution, if the principles of environmentally sound management and non-discrimination are observed and if it is carried out in accordance with the Conventions regulatory system.

The regulatory system is the cornerstone of the Basel Convention as originally adopted. Based on the concept of prior informed consent, it requires that, before an export may take place, the authorities of the State of export notify the authorities of the prospective States of import and transit, providing them with detailed information on the intended movement. The movement may only proceed if and when all States concerned have given their written consent (articles 6 and 7). The Basel Convention also provides for cooperation between parties, ranging from exchange of information on issues relevant to the implementation of the Convention to technical assistance, particularly to developing countries (articles 10 and 13). The Secretariat is required to facilitate and support this cooperation, acting as a clearing-house (article 16). In the event of a transboundary movement of hazardous wastes having been carried out illegally, i.e. in contravention of the provisions of articles 6 and 7, or cannot be completed as foreseen, the Convention attributes responsibility to one or more of the States involved, and imposes the duty to ensure safe disposal, either by re-import into the State of generation or otherwise (articles 8 and 9).

The Convention also provides for the establishment of regional or sub-regional centres for training and technology transfers regarding the management of hazardous wastes and other wastes and the minimization of their generation to cater to the specific needs of different regions and subregions (article 14). Fourteen such centres have been established. They carry out training and capacity building activities in the regions.

TROPICAL DEPRESSION

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane (/hrken/ or /hrkn/), typhoon /tafun/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, and simply cyclone.

Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy from the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation. This energy sourc