Chapter nineChapter nine

Language and literatureLanguage and literature

9.1 introduction9.1 introduction The history of styleThe history of style The definition of stylisticsThe definition of stylistics The features of stylistics in different periods:The features of stylistics in different periods: 1960s1960s 1970s1970s 1980s1980s 1990s1990s Remarks of Remarks of 申丹：申丹： plural-heads developmentsplural-heads developments Different schools of stylistics compete for developmenDifferent schools of stylistics compete for developmen

t and new schools emerge now and then.t and new schools emerge now and then.

9.2 some general features of the 9.2 some general features of the literary languageliterary language

Features of literary language are displayed in tFeatures of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects:he following three aspects:

1. phonology1. phonology 2. grammar2. grammar 3. semantics3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary langLiteray language differs from non-literary lang

uage in that the former is foregrounded in the uage in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.above three aspects.

The term “foregrounding”The term “foregrounding”

DefinitionDefinition Deviation of language involves all levels Deviation of language involves all levels

of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc.meaning, graphology,etc.

Repetition is also a kind of deviation.Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures Alliteration, parallism, and many figures

of speech are the examples of foregrounof speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.ding in literary language.

9.2.1 foregrounding and the 9.2.1 foregrounding and the grammatical formgrammatical form

In literary texts, the grammatical system In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experiof the language is often exploited, experimented with, or in Mukarosky’s words, mented with, or in Mukarosky’s words, made to “deviate from other, more evemade to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result ryday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning”.and in meaning”.

9.2.2 literal language and figurative 9.2.2 literal language and figurative languagelanguage

The definitions of the twoThe definitions of the two Is non-literary language the same as literal Is non-literary language the same as literal

language?language? Is literary language the same as figurative Is literary language the same as figurative

language?language? What the difference of the two groups of ideas?What the difference of the two groups of ideas? Literary language Literary language Non-literary languageNon-literary language

Literal languageLiteral language Figurative language Figurative language

Trope Trope

It is another word for the figurative It is another word for the figurative use of language, which refers to use of language, which refers to language used in a figurative way for language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.a rhetorical purpose.

Some forms of tropeSome forms of trope

SimileSimile MetaphorMetaphor MetonymyMetonymy SynecdocheSynecdoche

Why people use language in a Why people use language in a figurative way?figurative way?

The figurative use of language has The figurative use of language has the effect of making the concepts the effect of making the concepts under discussion more domestic and under discussion more domestic and acceptable. Readers can……acceptable. Readers can……

9.2.3 the analysis of literay languag9.2.3 the analysis of literay languagee

Procedures we should follow when we analyze the Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text.text.

1.1. 2.2. 3.3. 4.4. 5.5. 6.6. 7.7. 8.8.

The function of the figurative use of The function of the figurative use of languagelanguage

It might be to make the abstract It might be to make the abstract seem concrete; to make the seem concrete; to make the mysterious or frightening seem safe, mysterious or frightening seem safe, ordinary and domestic, or to make ordinary and domestic, or to make the everyday usage seem wonderful the everyday usage seem wonderful and unusual.and unusual.

9.3 the language in 9.3 the language in poetrypoetry

9.3.1 sound patterning9.3.1 sound patterning

Rhyme is salient feature of poetry.Rhyme is salient feature of poetry. End rhyme occurs at the end of a line in a poeEnd rhyme occurs at the end of a line in a poe

m, the pattern is cVC. The last word of a line ham, the pattern is cVC. The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of anos the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or belther line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away.ow, sometimes one or more lines away.

End rhyme is very common in some poetic stylEnd rhyme is very common in some poetic styles, and particularly in children’s poetry.es, and particularly in children’s poetry.

It is also a feature in plays and songs.It is also a feature in plays and songs.

9.3.2 different forms of sound 9.3.2 different forms of sound patterning / patterning / different rhymesdifferent rhymes

Internal rhyme:Internal rhyme: Alliteration: the initial consonants are identical in it (CAlliteration: the initial consonants are identical in it (C

vc).vc). Assonance : it describes syllables with a common vowAssonance : it describes syllables with a common vow

el (cVc).el (cVc). Consonance: it describes syllables with the same consConsonance: it describes syllables with the same cons

onants (cvC). It is also called half-rhyme.onants (cvC). It is also called half-rhyme. Reverse rhyme: syllables sharing the vowel and initial Reverse rhyme: syllables sharing the vowel and initial

consonant, CVc, rather than the vowel and the final coconsonant, CVc, rather than the vowel and the final consonant as is the case in end rhyme, Cvc.nsonant as is the case in end rhyme, Cvc.

Pararhyme: two syllables having the same initial and fPararhyme: two syllables having the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels (CvC), they pararinal consonants, but different vowels (CvC), they pararhyme.hyme.

Repetition: two exactly same syllables.Repetition: two exactly same syllables.

9.3.3 stress and metrical patterning9.3.3 stress and metrical patterning

Stressed syllable Stressed syllable Unstressed syllableUnstressed syllable Which syllable is stressed is decided by two elements:Which syllable is stressed is decided by two elements: 1.1. 2.2. Rhyme: the repetition of a sound or sound combinatioRhyme: the repetition of a sound or sound combinatio

n. (n. ( 韵）韵） Rhythms Rhythms （节奏）（节奏） come out of the arrangment of strecome out of the arrangment of stre

ssed and unstressed syllables.ssed and unstressed syllables. When stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the When stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the

term used for it is meter. (term used for it is meter. ( 韵律）韵律） Units of meter are called feet. (Units of meter are called feet. ( 音步）音步）

The types of feetThe types of feet

Iamb: Iamb: Trochee:Trochee: Anapest :Anapest : Dactyl:Dactyl: Spondee:Spondee: Pyrrhic:Pyrrhic:

Lines with different numbers of feetLines with different numbers of feet

Dimeter: a line with two feet.Dimeter: a line with two feet. Trimeter:Trimeter: Tetrameter: Tetrameter: Pentameter:Pentameter: Hexameter:Hexameter: Heptameter:Heptameter: Octameter:Octameter:

9.3.4 conventional forms of meter 9.3.4 conventional forms of meter and soundand sound

CoupletCouplet QuatrainsQuatrains Blank verseBlank verse SonnetSonnet Free verseFree verse LimericksLimericks ? What is the difference of blank ? What is the difference of blank

verse and free verse?verse and free verse?

The poetic functions of sound and The poetic functions of sound and metremetre

Why do poets use sound and metrical paWhy do poets use sound and metrical patterning in their poetry?tterning in their poetry?

1.1. 2.2. 3.3. 4.4. 5.5. 6.6.

9.3.6 how to analyse poetry?9.3.6 how to analyse poetry? Areas of discussion should be covered when wAreas of discussion should be covered when w

e analyse poetry?e analyse poetry? 1.1. 2.2. -a-a -b-b -c-c -d-d -e-e -f-f

9.4 the language in fiction9.4 the language in fiction

Three levels of discourse to account for tThree levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional prose( i.e. a novhe language of fictional prose( i.e. a novel or short story)el or short story)

1.1. 2.2. 3.3. At least there are six viewpoints to analyAt least there are six viewpoints to analy

se the discourse structure of a fictional pse the discourse structure of a fictional prose.rose.

I-narrators/ the first person I-narrators/ the first person narrationnarration

叙述者以“我”的口吻说话，并且他本人叙述者以“我”的口吻说话，并且他本人就是小说中的一个人物。如：就是小说中的一个人物。如： The Catcher The Catcher in the Rye, Wuthering Heights, Moby Dicin the Rye, Wuthering Heights, Moby Dick.k.

Strong points of it ……Strong points of it …… Weak points of it……Weak points of it……

Third-person narrationThird-person narration

叙述者是故事的局外人，他谈到作品本身叙述者是故事的局外人，他谈到作品本身的人物时，只呼其名或以“他”、“她”、的人物时，只呼其名或以“他”、“她”、“他们”来称呼。如“他们”来称呼。如 Tom Jones by Henry Tom Jones by Henry FieldingFielding

Schema-oriented languageSchema-oriented language

Given and new informationGiven and new information

deixisdeixis

9.4.2 speech and thought 9.4.2 speech and thought presentationpresentation

(1) speech can be presented in five (1) speech can be presented in five ways:ways:

1)1) 2)2) 3)3) 4)4) 5) free indirect speech5) free indirect speech examplesexamples

Thought presentationThought presentation

(2) thought can be presented also in (2) thought can be presented also in five ways.five ways.

As the effects associated with NRT, As the effects associated with NRT, NRTA or IT are roughly the same as NRTA or IT are roughly the same as those associated with speech those associated with speech presentation, attention will be presentation, attention will be focused on the discussion of DT and focused on the discussion of DT and FIT.FIT.

Direct thoughtDirect thought

The usage of it The usage of it The difference of direct thought and The difference of direct thought and

soliloquy.soliloquy.

Free indirect thoughtFree indirect thought

The typical effect of it……The typical effect of it…… The marked difference of FIS and FITThe marked difference of FIS and FIT

stream of consciousness writingstream of consciousness writing

Limited point of view of the third-Limited point of view of the third-person narrationperson narration

The features of stream of The features of stream of consciousness writingconsciousness writing

The most free version of DTThe most free version of DT Highly elliptical sentence structureHighly elliptical sentence structure …………

Prose styleProse style

Authorial styleAuthorial style Text styleText style

9.4.4 how to analyse the language 9.4.4 how to analyse the language of fictionof fiction

1.1. 2.2. 3.3. 4.4. 5.5. 6.6.

9.5 the language in drama9.5 the language in drama

A play exists in two ways---- on the A play exists in two ways---- on the page, and on the stage.page, and on the stage.

The different features of the two The different features of the two types of playtypes of play

9.5.1 how should we analyse dram9.5.1 how should we analyse drama?a?

Drama as poetryDrama as poetry Drama as fictionDrama as fiction Drama as conversationDrama as conversation

9.5.2 analyze the dramatic 9.5.2 analyze the dramatic languagelanguage

1. turn quantity and length1. turn quantity and length 2. exchange sequence2. exchange sequence 3. production errors3. production errors 4. the cooperative principle4. the cooperative principle 5. status marked through language5. status marked through language 6. register6. register 7. speech silence7. speech silence

9.5.3 how to analyze dramatic 9.5.3 how to analyze dramatic texts?texts?

1.1. 2.2. 3.3.

9.6 the cognitive 9.6 the cognitive approach to literatureapproach to literature

9.6.1 theoretical background9.6.1 theoretical background

Three cognitive tools Three cognitive tools Figure and groundFigure and ground Image schemataImage schemata Cognitive metaphorCognitive metaphor

9.6.2 an example of cognitive 9.6.2 an example of cognitive analysisanalysis