Chapter 9 Language and Literature. 2 1. Style and Stylistics Style: variation in the language use of...

Chapter 9Chapter 9Language Language

and and LiteratureLiterature

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1. Style and Stylistics1. Style and Stylistics

Style: Style: variation in the variation in the language use of an language use of an individual, such as individual, such as formal/informal styleformal/informal style

Literary style:Literary style: ways of writing ways of writing employed in literature and by employed in literature and by individual writers; the way the individual writers; the way the mind of the author expresses mind of the author expresses itself in wordsitself in words

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StylisticsStylistics “studies the “studies the features of situationally features of situationally distinctive uses distinctive uses (varieties) of language, (varieties) of language, and tries to establish and tries to establish principles capable of principles capable of accounting for the accounting for the particular choices made particular choices made by individual and social by individual and social groups in their use of groups in their use of language.” (Crystal language.” (Crystal 1980)1980)

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StylisticsStylistics is the study of is the study of varieties of language whose varieties of language whose properties position that properties position that language in context. For language in context. For example, the language of example, the language of advertising, politics, advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, religion, individual authors, etc., or the language of a etc., or the language of a period in time, all belong in period in time, all belong in a particular situation. In a particular situation. In other words, they all have other words, they all have ‘place’.‘place’.

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StylisticsStylistics also attempts to also attempts to establish principles establish principles capable of explaining the capable of explaining the particular choices made by particular choices made by individuals and social individuals and social groups in their use of groups in their use of language, such as language, such as socialisation, the socialisation, the production and reception production and reception of meaning, critical of meaning, critical discourse analysis and discourse analysis and literary criticism.literary criticism.

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Other features of Other features of stylisticsstylistics include the use of include the use of dialogue, including dialogue, including regional accents and regional accents and people’s dialects, people’s dialects, descriptive language, the descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use sentence lengths, the use of particular language of particular language registers, etc.registers, etc.

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Many linguists do not like Many linguists do not like the term ‘the term ‘stylisticsstylistics’. The ’. The word ‘style’, itself, has word ‘style’, itself, has several connotations that several connotations that make it difficult for the term make it difficult for the term to be defined accurately. to be defined accurately. However, in However, in Linguistic CriticismLinguistic Criticism, ,

Roger Fowler makes the point that, Roger Fowler makes the point that, in non-theoretical usage, the word in non-theoretical usage, the word stylisticsstylistics makes sense and is useful makes sense and is useful in referring to an enormous range of in referring to an enormous range of literary contexts, such as John literary contexts, such as John Milton’s ‘grand style’, the ‘prose Milton’s ‘grand style’, the ‘prose style’ of Henry James, the ‘epic’ and style’ of Henry James, the ‘epic’ and ‘ballad style’ of classical Greek ‘ballad style’ of classical Greek literature, etc. (Fowler, 1996: 185). literature, etc. (Fowler, 1996: 185).

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In addition, In addition, stylisticsstylistics is a is a distinctive term that may be distinctive term that may be used to determine the used to determine the connections between the connections between the form and effects within a form and effects within a particular variety of particular variety of language. language.

Therefore, stylistics looks at Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of associations are that the style of language reveals.language reveals.

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The scope is sometimes narrowed to The scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. texts or discourses.

For example, the compact language of poetry For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels. language of plays and novels.

Literary Stylistics:Literary Stylistics: Crystal Crystal (1987) observes that, in (1987) observes that, in practice, most stylistic practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within ‘valued’ language within literature, i.e. ‘literary literature, i.e. ‘literary stylistics’. stylistics’.

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Levels of analysisLevels of analysis

Sound Sound effectseffects

VocabularyVocabulary Phraseology Phraseology Grammar Grammar Implicature Implicature

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2. Foregrounding2. Foregrounding

The 1960 The 1960 dream of high dream of high rise living rise living soon turned soon turned into a into a nightmare.nightmare.

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Four storeys have no windows left to Four storeys have no windows left to smashsmash

But in the fifth a chipped sill But in the fifth a chipped sill buttressesbuttresses

Mother and daughter the last Mother and daughter the last mistressesmistresses

Of that black block condemned to stand, Of that black block condemned to stand, not not crashcrash..

The red-haired The red-haired woman, smiling, woman, smiling, waving to the waving to the disappearing shore.disappearing shore. She left the She left the maharajahmaharajah;; she left she left innumerable other innumerable other lights o’ passing lovelights o’ passing love in towns and cities in towns and cities and theatres and and theatres and railway stations all railway stations all over the world.over the world. But But Melchior she did not Melchior she did not leave.leave.

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2.1 What is 2.1 What is ‘foregrounding’?‘foregrounding’?

In a purely linguistic In a purely linguistic sense, the term sense, the term ‘foregrounding’‘foregrounding’ is is used to refer to new used to refer to new information, in information, in contrast to elements contrast to elements in the sentence which in the sentence which form the background form the background against which the new against which the new elements are to be elements are to be understood by the understood by the listener / reader.listener / reader.

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In the wider sense of stylistics, In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the studies, it is a translation of the Czech Czech aktualisaceaktualisace (actualization), a term common (actualization), a term common with the with the Prague StructuralistsPrague Structuralists. . In this sense it has become a In this sense it has become a spatialspatial

metaphormetaphor: that of a foreground and : that of a foreground and a background, which allows the a background, which allows the term to be related to issues in term to be related to issues in perception psychology, such as perception psychology, such as figure / ground constellations. figure / ground constellations.

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The English term ‘foregrounding’ has The English term ‘foregrounding’ has come to mean several things at once: come to mean several things at once: the the (psycholinguistic) processes(psycholinguistic) processes by which by which

- during the reading act - something may - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;be given special prominence;

specific devicesspecific devices (as produced by the (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;effect on the reader;

an an analytic categoryanalytic category in order to evaluate in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific everyday conversations or scientific reports.reports.

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Thus the term covers a wide area Thus the term covers a wide area of meaning. of meaning.

This may have its advantages, This may have its advantages, but may also be problematic: but may also be problematic: which of the above meanings is which of the above meanings is intended must often be deduced intended must often be deduced from the context in which the from the context in which the term is used. term is used.

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2.2 Devices of 2.2 Devices of ForegroundingForegrounding Outside literature, language tends to Outside literature, language tends to

be automatized; its structures and be automatized; its structures and meanings are used routinely. meanings are used routinely.

Within literature, however, this is Within literature, however, this is opposed by devices which thwart the opposed by devices which thwart the automatism with which language is automatism with which language is read, processed, or understood. read, processed, or understood.

Generally, two such devices may be Generally, two such devices may be distinguished, distinguished, deviationdeviation and and parallelismparallelism. .

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DeviationDeviation corresponds to the traditional corresponds to the traditional idea of poetic license: the writer of idea of poetic license: the writer of literature is allowed - in contrast to the literature is allowed - in contrast to the everyday speaker - to deviate from everyday speaker - to deviate from rules, maxims, or conventions. rules, maxims, or conventions. These may involve the language, as well as These may involve the language, as well as

literary traditions or expectations set up by literary traditions or expectations set up by the text itself. the text itself.

The result is some degree of surprise in the The result is some degree of surprise in the reader, and his / her attention is thereby reader, and his / her attention is thereby drawn to the form of the text itself (rather drawn to the form of the text itself (rather than to its content). than to its content).

Cases of neologism, live metaphor, or Cases of neologism, live metaphor, or ungrammatical sentences, as well as ungrammatical sentences, as well as archaisms, paradox, and oxymoron (the archaisms, paradox, and oxymoron (the traditional tropes) are clear examples of traditional tropes) are clear examples of deviation. deviation.

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Devices of parallelismDevices of parallelism are are characterized by repetitive characterized by repetitive structures: (part of) a verbal structures: (part of) a verbal configuration is repeated (or configuration is repeated (or contrasted), thereby being contrasted), thereby being promoted into the foreground of the promoted into the foreground of the reader's perception. reader's perception. Traditional handbooks of poetics and Traditional handbooks of poetics and

rhetoric have surveyed and described rhetoric have surveyed and described (under the category of figures of (under the category of figures of speech) a wide variety of such forms of speech) a wide variety of such forms of parallelism, e.g., rhyme, assonance, parallelism, e.g., rhyme, assonance, alliteration, meter, semantic symmetry, alliteration, meter, semantic symmetry, or antistrophe. or antistrophe.

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3. Literal language and 3. Literal language and figurative languagefigurative language

Friends, Romans and Friends, Romans and Countrymen, lend Countrymen, lend me your ears…me your ears…

Anthony in Anthony in Shakespeare’s Shakespeare’s

Julius CaesarJulius Caesar

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3.1 Simile3.1 Simile

O, my luve is O, my luve is likelike a red, red a red, red rose,rose,

That’s newly sprung in June;That’s newly sprung in June;

O, my luve is O, my luve is likelike the melodie the melodie

That’s sweetly play’d in tune.That’s sweetly play’d in tune.

Robert BurnsRobert Burns

(1759-96)(1759-96)

3.2 Metaphor3.2 MetaphorAll the world’s All the world’s a stagea stage,,

And all the men and women merely And all the men and women merely playersplayers;;

They have their exits and their They have their exits and their entrances.entrances.

And one man in his time plays many And one man in his time plays many parts,parts,

His acts being His acts being seven agesseven ages … …

William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare

(1564-1616)(1564-1616)

3.3 Metonymy3.3 Metonymy

There is no armour against There is no armour against fate;fate;

Death lays his icy hand on Death lays his icy hand on kings;kings;

SceptreSceptre and and CrownCrown

Must tumble downMust tumble down

And in the dust be equal madeAnd in the dust be equal made

With the poor crooked With the poor crooked ScytheScythe and and SpadeSpade..

James Shirley (1596-1666)James Shirley (1596-1666)

3.4 Synecdoche3.4 Synecdoche

They were short of They were short of handshands at at harvest time. (part for whole)harvest time. (part for whole)

Have you any Have you any copperscoppers? ? (material for thing made)(material for thing made)

He is a poor He is a poor creaturecreature. (genus . (genus for species)for species)

He is the He is the NewtonNewton of this of this century.century. (individual for class)(individual for class)

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Name the kind of trope:Name the kind of trope: The boy was as cunning as a fox.The boy was as cunning as a fox. ...the innocent sleep,... the death of ...the innocent sleep,... the death of

each day's life,... (Shakespeare)each day's life,... (Shakespeare) Buckingham Palace has already been Buckingham Palace has already been

told the train may be axed when the told the train may be axed when the rail network has been privatised. rail network has been privatised. ((Daily MirrorDaily Mirror, 2 February 1993), 2 February 1993)

Ted Dexter confessed last night that Ted Dexter confessed last night that England are in a right old spin as to England are in a right old spin as to how they can beat India this winter. how they can beat India this winter. ((Daily Mirror, 2 February 1993)Daily Mirror, 2 February 1993)

4. Analysis of literary 4. Analysis of literary languagelanguage Foregrounding on the level of Foregrounding on the level of

lexislexis Foregrounding on the level of Foregrounding on the level of

syntax: word order, word groups, syntax: word order, word groups, deviant or marked structuresdeviant or marked structures

Rewriting for comparative Rewriting for comparative studiesstudies

MeaningMeaning ContextContext Figurative languageFigurative language

5. The language of poetry5. The language of poetry

Little Bo-peepLittle Bo-peep

Has lost her sheepHas lost her sheep

And doesn’t know where to find themAnd doesn’t know where to find them

Leave them aloneLeave them alone

And they will come homeAnd they will come home

Waggling their tails behind themWaggling their tails behind them

Fair is foul and foul is fairFair is foul and foul is fairHover through wind and murky airHover through wind and murky air

Hark! The herald angels singHark! The herald angels sing

Glory to the newborn King!Glory to the newborn King!

Long burned hair brushesLong burned hair brushes

Across my face its spiderAcross my face its spider

Silk. I smell lavenderSilk. I smell lavender

Cinnamon: my mother’s clothes.Cinnamon: my mother’s clothes.

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5.1 Forms of sound 5.1 Forms of sound patterningpatterning RhymeRhyme AlliterationAlliteration AssonanceAssonance ConsonanceConsonance Reverse Reverse

rhymerhyme PararhymePararhyme RepetitionRepetition

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Alliteration:Alliteration: repetition of the initial repetition of the initial consonant of a wordconsonant of a word Magazine articles:Magazine articles: “ “SScience has cience has SSpoiled poiled

my my SSupper” and “upper” and “TToo Much oo Much TTalent in alent in TTennessee?”ennessee?”

Comic/cartoon characters:Comic/cartoon characters: BBeetle eetle BBailey, ailey, DDonald onald DDuck uck

Restaurants:Restaurants: CCoffee offee CCorner, orner, SSushi ushi SStation tation Expressions:Expressions: bbusy as a usy as a bbee, ee, ddead as a ead as a

ddoornail, oornail, ggood as ood as ggold, old, rright as ight as rrain, ain, etc... etc...

Music:Music: Blackalicious' “ Blackalicious' “AAlphabet lphabet AAerobics”erobics”

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Assonance:Assonance: Repetition of vowel Repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences within phrases or sentences The sThe sounound of the grd of the grounound is a nd is a nounoun.. Hear the mHear the meellow wllow weedding bdding beells. (Poe)lls. (Poe) And And murmurmuring of innumuring of innumermerable bees able bees

(Tennyson)(Tennyson) The crThe cruumbling thmbling thuunder of seas nder of seas

(Stevenson)(Stevenson) That solitThat solituude which sde which suiuits abstrts abstruuser ser

musingsmusings (Coleridge) (Coleridge) Dead in da Dead in da middlemiddle of of littlelittle ItalyItaly, , littlelittle

diddid wewe know that know that wewe riddledriddled some some middlemiddle men men who who diddidn't do n't do diddilydiddily. (Big Pun). (Big Pun)

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Consonance:Consonance: The repetition of two The repetition of two or more consonants using or more consonants using different vowels within words.different vowels within words. All maAll mammmmals naals nammed Saed Samm are cla are clammmmyy And the And the ssilken ilken ssad unad unccertain ruertain russtling tling

of each purple curtain (Poe)of each purple curtain (Poe) RRaapp rreejjeeccts my ts my ttaappe dee deckck, e, ejjeeccts ts

pprorojjeeccttile / Whether ile / Whether jjew or ew or ggenenttile I ile I rranankk ttoopp ppercenercenttile. (Hip-hop music)ile. (Hip-hop music)

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Reverse rhyme:Reverse rhyme: CC VV C C Coca-Cola; Coca-Cola; Hoola hoops Such Such storstorms can ms can bribring you to the ng you to the bribrink of all nk of all

you you feafearrReRestorstoree what what faifaith you can in th you can in fafaded hopes and ded hopes and feefeell

Pararhyme (Frame rhyme):Pararhyme (Frame rhyme): CC V V CC Each Each ststururddy y ststeeeedd-like -like ssooldldier ranked the ier ranked the ffieieldld

With With ffearearssome ome ffaacces es sseeldldom seen deom seen deffiiledled Rich Rhyme:Rich Rhyme: CC VV CC

What does it aWhat does it availvail you to pre you to prevailvail in every afin every affairfairWhen nothing you’ve When nothing you’ve gainedgained can be re can be regainedgained as spiritual as spiritual farefare

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Repetition:Repetition: ““WordsWords, , wordswords, , wordswords.” (Hamlet).” (Hamlet) ““This, it seemed to him, was This, it seemed to him, was the endthe end, ,

the endthe end of a world as he had known of a world as he had known it...” (James Oliver Curwood)it...” (James Oliver Curwood)

““We shall fightWe shall fight on the beaches, on the beaches, we shall we shall fightfight on the landing grounds, on the landing grounds, we shall we shall fightfight in the fields and in the streets, in the fields and in the streets, we we shall fightshall fight in the hills… in the hills… we shallwe shall never never surrender.” (Winston Churchill) surrender.” (Winston Churchill) ““What liesWhat lies behind behind usus and and what lieswhat lies before before usus are tiny compared to are tiny compared to what what lieslies within within usus.” (Ralph Waldo .” (Ralph Waldo Emerson) Emerson)

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5.2 Stress patterning5.2 Stress patterning

Iamb:Iamb: 2 syllables, unstressed + stressed 2 syllables, unstressed + stressed Trochee:Trochee: 2 syllables, stressed + 2 syllables, stressed +

unstressedunstressed Anapest:Anapest: 3 syllables, 2 unstressed + 3 syllables, 2 unstressed +

stressedstressed Dactyl:Dactyl: 3 syllables, stressed + 2 3 syllables, stressed + 2

unstressedunstressed Spondee:Spondee: 2 stressed syllables 2 stressed syllables Pyrrhic:Pyrrhic: 2 unstressed syllables 2 unstressed syllables

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5.3 Metrical patterning5.3 Metrical patterning

Dimetre:Dimetre: 2 feet 2 feet Trimetre:Trimetre: 3 feet 3 feet Tetrametre:Tetrametre: 4 feet 4 feet Pentametre:Pentametre: 5 feet 5 feet Hexametre:Hexametre: 6 feet 6 feet Heptametre:Heptametre: 7 feet 7 feet Octametre:Octametre: 8 feet 8 feet

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5.4 Conventional forms of 5.4 Conventional forms of metre and soundmetre and sound

Couplets:Couplets: a pair of lines of verse, a pair of lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme. It usually connected by a rhyme. It consists of two lines that usually rhyme consists of two lines that usually rhyme and have the same meter.and have the same meter. Whan that Aprille, with hise shoures Whan that Aprille, with hise shoures sootesoote,,

The droghte of March hath perced to the The droghte of March hath perced to the rooterooteAnd bathed every veyne in swich And bathed every veyne in swich licourlicour,,Of which vertu engendred is the Of which vertu engendred is the flourflour;;(from Geoffrey Chaucer: (from Geoffrey Chaucer: Canterbury TalesCanterbury Tales – General Prologue)– General Prologue)

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Quatrains:Quatrains: Stanzas of four lines Stanzas of four lines Tyger! Tyger! burning bright Tyger! Tyger! burning bright

In the forests of the night, In the forests of the night,

What immortal hand or eye What immortal hand or eye

Could frame thy fearful symmetry? Could frame thy fearful symmetry?

(from William Blake, “The Tyger”)(from William Blake, “The Tyger”)

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Blank verse:Blank verse: lines in iambic pentametre lines in iambic pentametre which do not rhymewhich do not rhymeYe elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and

groves, groves, And ye that on the sands with printless foot And ye that on the sands with printless foot Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him When he comes back; you demi-puppets that When he comes back; you demi-puppets that By moonshine do the green sour ringlets make By moonshine do the green sour ringlets make Whereof the ewe not bites; and you whose Whereof the ewe not bites; and you whose

pastime pastime Is to make midnight mushrooms, that rejoice Is to make midnight mushrooms, that rejoice To hear the solemn curfew; by whose aid, To hear the solemn curfew; by whose aid, Weak masters though ye be, I have bedimmed Weak masters though ye be, I have bedimmed The noontide sun, called forth the mutinous The noontide sun, called forth the mutinous

winds, winds, And 'twixt the green sea and the azured vault And 'twixt the green sea and the azured vault Set roaring war - to the dread rattling thunder Set roaring war - to the dread rattling thunder Have I given fire, and rifted Jove's stout oak Have I given fire, and rifted Jove's stout oak With his own bolt;... With his own bolt;...

(from Shakespeare: (from Shakespeare: The TempestThe Tempest, 5.1), 5.1)

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Sonnet: Sonnet: The term “sonnet” derives The term “sonnet” derives from the Provençal word from the Provençal word sonetsonet and and the Italian word “the Italian word “sonettosonetto,” both ,” both meaning “little song.” By the meaning “little song.” By the thirteenth century, it had come to thirteenth century, it had come to signify a poem of fourteen lines that signify a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure.specific structure. One of the most well known sonnet One of the most well known sonnet

writers is Shakespeare, who wrote 154 writers is Shakespeare, who wrote 154 sonnets.sonnets.

The proper rhyme scheme for an English The proper rhyme scheme for an English Sonnet is: Sonnet is: a-b-a-b / c-d-c-d / e-f-e-f / g-ga-b-a-b / c-d-c-d / e-f-e-f / g-g

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Let me not to the marriage of true minds (a)Let me not to the marriage of true minds (a)Admit impediments, love is not love (b)Admit impediments, love is not love (b)Which alters when it alteration finds, (a)Which alters when it alteration finds, (a)Or bends with the remover to remove. (b)Or bends with the remover to remove. (b)O no, it is an ever fixed mark (c)O no, it is an ever fixed mark (c)That looks on tempests and is never shaken; (d)That looks on tempests and is never shaken; (d)It is the star to every wand'ring bark, (c)It is the star to every wand'ring bark, (c)Whose worth's unknown although his height be Whose worth's unknown although his height be taken. (d)taken. (d)Love's not time's fool, though rosy lips and Love's not time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks (e)cheeks (e)Within his bending sickle's compass come, (f)Within his bending sickle's compass come, (f)Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, (e)(e)But bears it out even to the edge of doom: (f)But bears it out even to the edge of doom: (f) If this be error and upon me proved, (g) If this be error and upon me proved, (g) I never writ, nor no man ever loved. (g) I never writ, nor no man ever loved. (g)

(Shakespeare's (Shakespeare's Sonnet 116Sonnet 116 ) )

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ROMEO:ROMEO: If I profane with my unworthiest handIf I profane with my unworthiest handThis holy shrine, the gentle fine is this:This holy shrine, the gentle fine is this:My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready standMy lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready standTo smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss.To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss.

JULIET: JULIET: Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much,Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much,Which mannerly devotion shows in this;Which mannerly devotion shows in this;For saints have hands that pilgrim’s hands do For saints have hands that pilgrim’s hands do

touch,touch,And palm to palm is holy palmer’s kiss.And palm to palm is holy palmer’s kiss.

ROMEO:ROMEO: Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too?Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too?JULIET:JULIET: Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer.Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer.ROMEO:ROMEO: O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do;O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do;

They pray, grant thou, lest faith turn to despair.They pray, grant thou, lest faith turn to despair.JULIET:JULIET: Saints do not move, though grant for prayer’s Saints do not move, though grant for prayer’s

sake.sake.ROMEO:ROMEO: Then move not, while my prayer’s effect I take.Then move not, while my prayer’s effect I take.

(from Shakespeare: (from Shakespeare: Romeo and JulietRomeo and Juliet))

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Free verse: Free verse: styles of poetry that are not written styles of poetry that are not written using strict meter or rhyme, but that still are using strict meter or rhyme, but that still are recognizable as poetry by virtue of complex recognizable as poetry by virtue of complex patterns of one sort or another that readers patterns of one sort or another that readers will perceive to be part of a coherent whole.will perceive to be part of a coherent whole. The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-

panes,panes,The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-paneswindow-panesLicked its tongue into the corners of the evening,Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening,Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys,chimneys,Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap,Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap,And seeing that it was a soft October night,And seeing that it was a soft October night,Curled once about the house, and fell asleep.Curled once about the house, and fell asleep.(from T. S. Eliot: (from T. S. Eliot: The Love Song of J. Alfred The Love Song of J. Alfred PrufrockPrufrock))

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LimericksLimericks The word derives from the Irish town of The word derives from the Irish town of

Limerick. Apparently a pub song or Limerick. Apparently a pub song or tavern chorus based on the refrain tavern chorus based on the refrain “Will you come up to Limerick?” where, “Will you come up to Limerick?” where, of course, such bawdy songs or of course, such bawdy songs or ‘Limericks’ were sung.‘Limericks’ were sung.

Limericks consist of five anapaestic Limericks consist of five anapaestic lines.lines. Lines 1, 2, and 5 of Limericks have seven to Lines 1, 2, and 5 of Limericks have seven to

ten syllables and rhyme with one another.ten syllables and rhyme with one another. Lines 3 and 4 of Limericks have five to Lines 3 and 4 of Limericks have five to

seven syllables and also rhyme with each seven syllables and also rhyme with each other.other.

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Variants of the form of poetry Variants of the form of poetry referred to as Limerick poems can referred to as Limerick poems can be traced back to the fourteenth be traced back to the fourteenth century English history. century English history. Limericks were used in Nursery Rhymes Limericks were used in Nursery Rhymes

and other poems for children. and other poems for children. But as limericks were short, relatively But as limericks were short, relatively

easy to compose and bawdy or sexual in easy to compose and bawdy or sexual in nature they were often repeated by nature they were often repeated by beggars or the working classes in the beggars or the working classes in the British pubs and taverns of the British pubs and taverns of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventh fifteenth, sixteenth and seventh centuries. centuries.

The poets who created these limericks The poets who created these limericks were therefore often drunkards! were therefore often drunkards! Limericks were also referred to as dirty.Limericks were also referred to as dirty.

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Limerick poems have received Limerick poems have received incredibly bad press and dismissed incredibly bad press and dismissed as not having a rightful place as not having a rightful place amongst what is seen as ‘cultivated amongst what is seen as ‘cultivated poetry’. The reason for this is three-poetry’. The reason for this is three-fold:fold: The content of many limericks is often The content of many limericks is often

of a bawdy and humorous nature.of a bawdy and humorous nature. A Limerick as a poetry form is by A Limerick as a poetry form is by

nature simple and short – limericks nature simple and short – limericks only have five lines.only have five lines.

And finally the somewhat dubious And finally the somewhat dubious history of limericks have contributed to history of limericks have contributed to the critics attitudes.the critics attitudes.

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Limericks by Edward LearLimericks by Edward Lear

There was an Old Man with a beard,There was an Old Man with a beard,Who said, ‘It is just as I feared!Who said, ‘It is just as I feared!Two Owls and a Hen,Two Owls and a Hen,Four Larks and a Wren,Four Larks and a Wren,Have all built their nests in my Have all built their nests in my beard!’beard!’

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There was a Young Lady whose chin,There was a Young Lady whose chin,Resembled the point of a pin;Resembled the point of a pin;So she had it made sharp,So she had it made sharp,And purchased a harp,And purchased a harp,And played several tunes with her And played several tunes with her chin. chin.

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5.5 The poetic functions of 5.5 The poetic functions of sound and metresound and metre

Aesthetic pleasureAesthetic pleasure Conforming to a formConforming to a form Expressing/innovating Expressing/innovating

with a formwith a form Demonstrating skill, Demonstrating skill,

intellectual pleasureintellectual pleasure For emphasis or For emphasis or

contrastcontrast Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia

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5.6 The analysis of poetry5.6 The analysis of poetry

Info about the poem:Info about the poem: poet, period, genre, poet, period, genre, topic, etc.topic, etc.

Structure:Structure: layout, layout, number of lines, length number of lines, length of lines, metre, rhymes, of lines, metre, rhymes, sound effects, etc. plus sound effects, etc. plus

general commentgeneral comment on on the poemthe poem

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““ Easter Wings”, by George Easter Wings”, by George Herbert (1593—1663)Herbert (1593—1663)

Lord, who createdst man in wealth and Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store,store,

Though foolishly he lost the same,Though foolishly he lost the same,Decaying more and more,Decaying more and more,

Till he became Most poore:Till he became Most poore:With theeWith thee

O let me riseO let me riseAs larks, harmoniously,As larks, harmoniously,

And sing this day thy victories:And sing this day thy victories:Then shall the fall further the flight in Then shall the fall further the flight in

me.me.

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E. E. Cummings (1894-E. E. Cummings (1894-1962)1962)

l(a l(a le le af af fa fa ll ll s) s) one one l l iness iness

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r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r who who a)s w(e loo)k a)s w(e loo)k upnowgath upnowgath PPEGORHRASS PPEGORHRASS eringint(o- eringint(o- aThe):l aThe):l eA eA !p: !p: S a S a (r (r rIvInG .gRrEaPsPhOs) rIvInG .gRrEaPsPhOs) to to rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly ,grasshopper; ,grasshopper;

6. The language of fiction6. The language of fiction

From realism to From realism to modernismmodernism

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6.1 Modernist literature6.1 Modernist literature Modernist literatureModernist literature is defined by is defined by

its move away from Romanticism, its move away from Romanticism, venturing into subject matter that venturing into subject matter that is traditionally mundane--a prime is traditionally mundane--a prime example being example being The Love Song of J. The Love Song of J. Alfred PrufrockAlfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot. by T. S. Eliot. Modernist literature often features a Modernist literature often features a

marked pessimism, a clear rejection of marked pessimism, a clear rejection of the optimism apparent in Victorian the optimism apparent in Victorian literature. literature.

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A common A common motifmotif in Modernist in Modernist fiction is that of an alienated fiction is that of an alienated individual--a dysfunctional individual--a dysfunctional individual trying in vain to make individual trying in vain to make sense of a predominantly urban sense of a predominantly urban and fragmented society. and fragmented society. However, many Modernist works However, many Modernist works

like like T. S. EliotT. S. Eliot's 's The Waste LandThe Waste Land are are marked by the absence of a central, marked by the absence of a central, heroic figure.heroic figure.

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Modernist literature transcends Modernist literature transcends the limitations of the Realist the limitations of the Realist novel with its concern for larger novel with its concern for larger factors such as social or factors such as social or historical change; this is largely historical change; this is largely demonstrated in demonstrated in “stream of “stream of consciousness”consciousness” writing. writing. Examples can be seen in Examples can be seen in Virginia Virginia

WoolfWoolf's 's Kew GardensKew Gardens and and Mrs Mrs DallowayDalloway, , James JoyceJames Joyce's 's Portrait of Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manthe Artist as a Young Man and and UlyssesUlysses, , William FaulknerWilliam Faulkner's 's The The Sound and the FurySound and the Fury, and others. , and others.

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Modernism as a literary movement is Modernism as a literary movement is seen, in large part, as a reaction to the seen, in large part, as a reaction to the emergence of city life as a central emergence of city life as a central force in society.force in society. Many Modernist works are Many Modernist works are

studied in schools today, studied in schools today, from from Ernest HemingwayErnest Hemingway's 's The Old Man and the Sea,The Old Man and the Sea, to to T. S. EliotT. S. Eliot's 's The Waste The Waste LandLand, to , to James JoyceJames Joyce's 's UlyssesUlysses and and A Portrait of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manthe Artist as a Young Man..

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It had been an easy birth, but then It had been an easy birth, but then for Abel and Zaphia Rosnovski for Abel and Zaphia Rosnovski nothing had ever been easy, and in nothing had ever been easy, and in their own ways they had both their own ways they had both become philosophical about that. become philosophical about that. Abel had wanted a son, an heir who Abel had wanted a son, an heir who would one day be chairman of the would one day be chairman of the Baron Group. By the time the boy Baron Group. By the time the boy was ready to take over, Abel was was ready to take over, Abel was confident that his own name would confident that his own name would stand alongside those of Ritz and stand alongside those of Ritz and Statler and by then the Baron would Statler and by then the Baron would be the largest hotel group in the be the largest hotel group in the world. world.

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Abel had paced up and down the Abel had paced up and down the colourless corridor of St. Luke’s colourless corridor of St. Luke’s Hospital waiting for the first cry, his Hospital waiting for the first cry, his slight limp becoming more slight limp becoming more pronounced as each hour passed. pronounced as each hour passed. Occasionally he twisted the silver Occasionally he twisted the silver band that encircled his wrist and band that encircled his wrist and stared at the name so neatly stared at the name so neatly engraved on it. He turned and engraved on it. He turned and retraced his steps once again, to retraced his steps once again, to see Doctor Dodek heading towards see Doctor Dodek heading towards him.him.

Jeffrey Archer: Jeffrey Archer: The Prodigal The Prodigal DaughterDaughter

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There is the Hart of the Wud in the There is the Hart of the Wud in the Eusa Story that wer a stage every 1 Eusa Story that wer a stage every 1 knows that. There is the hart of the knows that. There is the hart of the wood meaning the veryes deap of it wood meaning the veryes deap of it thats a nother thing. There is the thats a nother thing. There is the hart of the wood where they bern the hart of the wood where they bern the chard coal thats a nother thing agen chard coal thats a nother thing agen innit. Thats a nother thing. Berning innit. Thats a nother thing. Berning the chard coal in the hart of the the chard coal in the hart of the wood. That’s what they call the stack wood. That’s what they call the stack of wood you see. The stack of wood of wood you see. The stack of wood in the shape they do it for chard coal in the shape they do it for chard coal berning. Why do they call it the hart berning. Why do they call it the hart tho? That’s what this here story tels tho? That’s what this here story tels of.of. Russell Hoban: Russell Hoban: Ridley WalkerRidley Walker

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Sir Tristram, violer d’amores, fr’over the Sir Tristram, violer d’amores, fr’over the short sea, had passen-core rearrived from short sea, had passen-core rearrived from North Armorica on this side the scraggy North Armorica on this side the scraggy isthmus of Europe Minor to wielderfight his isthmus of Europe Minor to wielderfight his penisolate war: nor had topsawyer’s rocks by penisolate war: nor had topsawyer’s rocks by the stream Oconee exaggerated themselse to the stream Oconee exaggerated themselse to Laurens County’s gorgios while they went Laurens County’s gorgios while they went doublin their mumper all the time: nor avoice doublin their mumper all the time: nor avoice from afire bellowsed mishe mishe to tauftauf from afire bellowsed mishe mishe to tauftauf thuartpeatrick not yet, though venissoon thuartpeatrick not yet, though venissoon after, had a kidscad buttended a bland old after, had a kidscad buttended a bland old isaac: not yet, though all’s fair in vanessy, isaac: not yet, though all’s fair in vanessy, were sosie sesthers wroth with twone were sosie sesthers wroth with twone nathandjoe. Rot a peck of pa’s malt had Jhem nathandjoe. Rot a peck of pa’s malt had Jhem or Shen brewed by arclight and rory end to or Shen brewed by arclight and rory end to the regginbrow was to be seen ringsome on the regginbrow was to be seen ringsome on the aquaface. the aquaface.

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The fall The fall (bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbron (bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbron ntonner-ntonner-ronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoo ronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoo hoordenenthur— nuk!) of a once wallstrait hoordenenthur— nuk!) of a once wallstrait oldparr is retaled early in bed and later on life oldparr is retaled early in bed and later on life down through all christian minstrelsy. The down through all christian minstrelsy. The great fall of the offwall entailed at such short great fall of the offwall entailed at such short notice the pftjschute of Finnegan, erse solid notice the pftjschute of Finnegan, erse solid man, that the humptyhillhead of humself man, that the humptyhillhead of humself prumptly sends an unquiring one well to the prumptly sends an unquiring one well to the west in quest of his tumptytumtoes: and their west in quest of his tumptytumtoes: and their upturnpikepointandplace is at the knock out in upturnpikepointandplace is at the knock out in the park where oranges have been laid to rust the park where oranges have been laid to rust upon the green since dev-linsfirst loved livvy. upon the green since dev-linsfirst loved livvy.

(from James Joyce: (from James Joyce: Finnegans WakeFinnegans Wake))

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6.2 Fictional prose and 6.2 Fictional prose and point of viewpoint of view

I-narratorsI-narrators Third-person narratorsThird-person narrators Schema-oriented languageSchema-oriented language Given vs New informationGiven vs New information DeixisDeixis

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Schema-oriented language:Schema-oriented language: different participants in the different participants in the same situation will have same situation will have different different schemasschemas, related to , related to their different their different viewpointsviewpoints. . Shopkeepers and their Shopkeepers and their

customers will have shop customers will have shop schemas which in many schemas which in many respects will be mirror images respects will be mirror images of one another, and the of one another, and the success of shopkeepers will success of shopkeepers will depend in part on their being depend in part on their being able to take into account the able to take into account the schemas and points of view of schemas and points of view of their customers.their customers.

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Morley railway station from Morley railway station from viewpoint of Fanny: viewpoint of Fanny: She opened the door of her She opened the door of her grimy, grimy,

branch-line carriagebranch-line carriage, and began to , and began to get down her bags. The porter was get down her bags. The porter was nowhere, of course, but there was nowhere, of course, but there was Harry... There, on the Harry... There, on the sordid little sordid little station under the furnacesstation under the furnaces... (D. H. ... (D. H. Lawrence: Lawrence: Fanny and AnnieFanny and Annie))

unfavorable.unfavorable.

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Given vs New information:Given vs New information: narrative narrative reference to everything in the fiction reference to everything in the fiction except items generally assumed by except items generally assumed by everyone in our culture (e.g. the everyone in our culture (e.g. the sun) must be new, and hence should sun) must be new, and hence should display indefinite reference. display indefinite reference. OneOne evening of late summer, before the evening of late summer, before the

nineteenth century had reached one nineteenth century had reached one third of its span, third of its span, aa young man and young man and woman, woman, thethe latter carrying latter carrying aa child, were child, were approaching the large village of approaching the large village of Weydon-Priors, in Upper Wessex, on Weydon-Priors, in Upper Wessex, on foot.foot. (Thomas Hardy: (Thomas Hardy: The Mayor of The Mayor of CasterbidgeCasterbidge))

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Deixis:Deixis: reference by means of an reference by means of an expression whose interpretation is expression whose interpretation is relative to the (usually) relative to the (usually) extralinguistic context of the extralinguistic context of the utterance, such as utterance, such as who is speaking who is speaking the time or place of speaking the time or place of speaking the gestures of the speaker, or the gestures of the speaker, or the current location in the discourse. the current location in the discourse.

Examples of deictic expressions in Examples of deictic expressions in English: English: II, , YouYou, , NowNow, , ThereThere, , ThatThat, , The followingThe following, ,

&& Tenses Tenses

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Because deixis is speaker-related Because deixis is speaker-related it can easily be used to indicate it can easily be used to indicate particular, and changing, particular, and changing, viewpointviewpoint. . Mr Verloc Mr Verloc heardheard the creaky plank in the creaky plank in

the floor and the floor and was contentwas content. He . He waitedwaited. .

Mrs. Verloc was Mrs. Verloc was comingcoming..

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6.3 Speech presentation6.3 Speech presentation

Direct speech (DS)Direct speech (DS) Free indirect speech (FIS)Free indirect speech (FIS) Indirect speech (IS)Indirect speech (IS) Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of

speech acts (NRSA)speech acts (NRSA) Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of

speech (NRS)speech (NRS)

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(1)(1) He thanked her many He thanked her many times, and said that the times, and said that the old dame who usually did old dame who usually did such offices for him had such offices for him had gone to nurse the little gone to nurse the little scholar whom he had scholar whom he had told her of. told her of. (2)(2) The child The child asked how he wasasked how he was ，， and and hoped he was better. hoped he was better. (3)(3) “No,” rejoined the “No,” rejoined the schoolmaster, shaking schoolmaster, shaking his head sorrowfully, “No his head sorrowfully, “No better. better. (4)(4) They even say They even say he is worse.” (Charles he is worse.” (Charles Dickens: Dickens: The Old The Old Curiosity ShopCuriosity Shop ))

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6.4 Thought presentation6.4 Thought presentation

Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of thought (NRT)thought (NRT)

Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of thought acts (NRTA)thought acts (NRTA)

Indirect thought (IT)Indirect thought (IT) Free indirect thought (FIT)Free indirect thought (FIT) Direct thought (DT)Direct thought (DT) Stream of consciousnessStream of consciousness

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““He will be late”, she thought. He will be late”, she thought. (DT)(DT)

She thought that he would be She thought that he would be late. late. (IT)(IT)

He was bound to be late! He was bound to be late! (FIT)(FIT) He spent the day thinking. He spent the day thinking. (NRT)(NRT) She considered his She considered his

unpunctuality. unpunctuality. (NRTA)(NRTA)He will be

late …

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Stream of consciousnessStream of consciousness Filthy shells. Devil to open them too. Filthy shells. Devil to open them too.

Who found them out? Garbage, sewage Who found them out? Garbage, sewage they feed on. Fizz and Red bank oysters. they feed on. Fizz and Red bank oysters. Effect on the sexual. Aphrodis. (Effect on the sexual. Aphrodis. (sicsic) He ) He was in the Red bank this morning. Was was in the Red bank this morning. Was he oyster old fish at table. Perhaps he he oyster old fish at table. Perhaps he young flesh in bed. No. June has no ar young flesh in bed. No. June has no ar ((sicsic) no oysters. But there are people like ) no oysters. But there are people like tainted game. Jugged hare. First catch tainted game. Jugged hare. First catch your hare. Chinese eating eggs fifty years your hare. Chinese eating eggs fifty years old, blue and green again. Dinner of old, blue and green again. Dinner of thirty courses. Each dish harmless might thirty courses. Each dish harmless might mix inside. Idea for a poison mystery. mix inside. Idea for a poison mystery. (James Joyce: (James Joyce: UlyssesUlysses ))

6.5 Prose style6.5 Prose style Authorial style:Authorial style: way of way of

writingwriting recognizable recognizable across a range of texts across a range of texts written by the same written by the same writerwriter

Text style:Text style: linguistic linguistic choices which are choices which are intrinsically connected intrinsically connected with meaning and effect with meaning and effect on the readeron the reader Text style of a bookText style of a book Text style of a writerText style of a writer

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6.6 Analyzing the language 6.6 Analyzing the language of fictionof fiction Lexis/vocabularyLexis/vocabulary Grammatical Grammatical

organizationorganization Textual organizationTextual organization Figures of speechFigures of speech Style variationStyle variation Discoursal patterningDiscoursal patterning Viewpoint Viewpoint

manipulationmanipulation

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7. The language of 7. The language of dramadrama Drama as Drama as poetrypoetry Drama as Drama as fictionfiction Drama as Drama as

conversationconversation

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7.1 Analyzing dramatic 7.1 Analyzing dramatic languagelanguage Turn quantity and lengthTurn quantity and length Exchange sequenceExchange sequence Production errorsProduction errors The cooperative principleThe cooperative principle Status marked through Status marked through

languagelanguage RegisterRegister Speech and silenceSpeech and silence

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Turn: Turn: Because conversations need to Because conversations need to be organised, there are rules or be organised, there are rules or principles for establishing who talks principles for establishing who talks and then who talks next. This process and then who talks next. This process is called is called turn-takingturn-taking..

Two guiding principles in Two guiding principles in conversations: conversations: Only one person should talk at a time. Only one person should talk at a time. We cannot have silence. We cannot have silence.

The transition between one speaker The transition between one speaker and the next must be as smooth as and the next must be as smooth as possible and without a break.possible and without a break.

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Ways of indicating that a turn will be Ways of indicating that a turn will be changed: changed: Formal methods:Formal methods: for example, selecting for example, selecting

the next speaker by name or raising a the next speaker by name or raising a hand. hand.

Adjacency pairs:Adjacency pairs: for instance, a question for instance, a question requires an answer. requires an answer.

Intonation:Intonation: for instance, a drop in pitch for instance, a drop in pitch or in loudness. or in loudness.

Gesture:Gesture: for instance, a change in sitting for instance, a change in sitting position or an expression of inquiry. position or an expression of inquiry.

The most important device for indicating The most important device for indicating turn-taking is through a change in turn-taking is through a change in gaze gaze directiondirection..

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The rules of turn-taking are The rules of turn-taking are designed to help conversation take designed to help conversation take place smoothly. Interruptions in a place smoothly. Interruptions in a conversation are violations of the conversation are violations of the turn-taking rule. turn-taking rule. Interruption:Interruption: where a new speaker where a new speaker

interrupts and gains the floor. interrupts and gains the floor. Butting in:Butting in: where a new speaker tries where a new speaker tries

to gain the floor but does not succeed. to gain the floor but does not succeed. Overlaps:Overlaps: where two speakers are where two speakers are

talking at the same time.talking at the same time.

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Minimal responses:Minimal responses: Responses Responses such as such as mmmmmmmm and and yeahyeah. . These are not interruptions but These are not interruptions but

rather are devices to show the rather are devices to show the listener is listening, and they assist listener is listening, and they assist the speaker to continue. the speaker to continue.

They are especially important in They are especially important in telephone conversations where the telephone conversations where the speaker cannot see the listener's speaker cannot see the listener's eyes and hence must rely on verbal eyes and hence must rely on verbal cues to tell whether the listener is cues to tell whether the listener is paying attention. paying attention.

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There is some evidence that There is some evidence that women tend to use minimal women tend to use minimal responses more than men, and this responses more than men, and this is a possible reason why, in mixed is a possible reason why, in mixed conversations, men talk more than conversations, men talk more than women. With the encouragement women. With the encouragement of these minimal responses, men of these minimal responses, men often continue to talk, and without often continue to talk, and without the encouragement of these the encouragement of these minimal responses, many women minimal responses, many women will stop talking. will stop talking.

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Story-telling within a conversation Story-telling within a conversation is indicated by some kind of is indicated by some kind of preface. This is a signal to the preface. This is a signal to the listener that for the duration of the listener that for the duration of the story, there will be no turn-taking. story, there will be no turn-taking. Once the story has finished, the Once the story has finished, the

normal sequence of turn-taking can normal sequence of turn-taking can resume. resume.

Young children, in learning about this Young children, in learning about this convention, have to be asked not to convention, have to be asked not to interrupt when someone is telling a interrupt when someone is telling a story within a conversation. story within a conversation.

7.2 Analyzing dramatic 7.2 Analyzing dramatic textstexts ParaphrasingParaphrasing CommentatingCommentating

WordsWords GrammarGrammar Meaning Meaning ConversationConversation

Using theoriesUsing theories

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8. The cognitive approach 8. The cognitive approach to literature to literature

GoingGoingThere is an evening coming inThere is an evening coming inAcross the fields, one never seen before,Across the fields, one never seen before,That lights no lamps.That lights no lamps.Silken it seems at a distance, yetSilken it seems at a distance, yetWhen it is drawn up over the knees and When it is drawn up over the knees and breastbreastIt brings no comfort.It brings no comfort.Where has the tree gone, that lockedWhere has the tree gone, that lockedEarth to the sky? What is under my Earth to the sky? What is under my hands,hands,That I cannot feel?That I cannot feel?What loads my hands down?What loads my hands down?

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Cognitive analysisCognitive analysis

What are the main attractors at What are the main attractors at the beginning of the poem? the beginning of the poem?

What is the figure (trajectory) What is the figure (trajectory) and ground (landmark) in the and ground (landmark) in the first two stanzas? first two stanzas?

Based on the above, what then, Based on the above, what then, or who, is or who, is goinggoing? ?

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See Textbook, pp. 237-240, for a See Textbook, pp. 237-240, for a detailed analysis of the poem detailed analysis of the poem ‘Going’.‘Going’.

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