CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

2.1 Speaking

Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). Meanwhile, Tarigan (1990:3-4) defines that speaking is a language skill that is developed in child life, which is produced by listening skill, and at that period speaking skill is learned.According to Competence Based Curriculum, speaking is one of the four basic competences that the students should gain well. It has an important role in communication. Speaking can find in spoken cycle especially in Joint Construction of Text stage (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2004). In carrying out speaking, students face some difficulties, one of them is about language itself. In fact, most of students get difficulties to speak even though they have a lot of vocabularies and have written them well. The problems are afraid for students to make mistakes. (http://area.dgidc.min-edu.pt/gramatica/whatspeakingis.html).Speaking is the productive skill. It could not be separated from listening. When we speak we produce the text and it should be meaningful. In the nature of communication, we can find the speaker, the listener, the message and the feedback. Speaking could not be separated from pronunciation as it encourages learners to learn the English sounds. (http://area.dgidc.min-edu.pt/gramatica/whatspeakingis.html).Harmer, (2001) writes that when teaching speaking or producing skill, we can apply three major stages, those are:

1) Introducing new language

2) Practice

3) Communicative activity.

Speaking has been regarded as merely implementation and variation, outside the domain of language and linguistic proper. Linguistic theory has mostly developed in abstraction from context of use and source of diversity. Therefore, Clark and Clark, (1977: 233) in Nunan, (1991: 23) said that speaking is fundamentally an instrument act. Speakers talk in order to have some effect on their listener. It is the result of teaching learning process. Students skill in conversation is core aspect in teaching speaking, it becomes vitally aspect in language teaching learning success if language function as a system for expression meaning. As Nunan (1991:39) states that the successful in speaking is measured through someone ability to carry out a conversation in the language. We confess that there are many proponent factors that influence teaching speaking success and there are many obstacle factors why it is not running well. (http://area.dgidc.min-edu.pt/gramatica/whatspeakingis.html).

According to Ladouse, (1992) in Nunan, (1991: 23) speaking is described as the activity as the ability to express oneself in the situation, or the activity to report acts, or situation in precise words or the ability to converse or to express a sequence of ideas fluently.

From the explanation above, the researcher concludes that speaking is what we say to what we see, feel and think. When we feel something, we want someone can hear us. So, in this process we can call it is an interaction between two sides.

When someone speaks to other person, there will be a relationship. The relationship itself is communication. Furthermore, Wilson (1983:5) defines speaking as development of the relationship between speaker and listener. In addition, speaking determining which logical linguistic, psychological a physical rules should be applied in a given communicate situation. It means that the main objective of speaking is for communication. In order to express effectively, the speaker should know exactly what he/she wants to speak or to communicate, he/she has to be able to evaluate the effects of his/her communication to his/her listener, he/she has to understand any principle that based his speaking either in general or in individual.

In relation to the statements above the researcher infers that if someone speaks, he/she should understand what he/she is about. In this section, the writer should develop ideas or build some topics to be talked and to make other responds to what speakers says.

Stern, (1975) in Risnadedi, (2001: 56-57) says watch a small childs speech development. First he listens, then he speaks, understanding always produces speaking. This must be the right order of presenting the skills in a foreign language. In this learning of language includes speaking, there in an activity of speaker and and it has to have an effect to build speakers or learners desires and express how his/her feeling and acting out his/her attitudes through speaking.

On the other hand, speaking can be called as oral communication and speaking is one of skills in English learning. This becomes one important subject that teacher should be given. That is why the teachers have big challenge to enable their students to master English well, especially speaking English in class or out of the class. Wallace (1978:98) stated that the oral practice (speaking) becomes meaningful to students when they have to pay attention what they are saying. Thus, the students can learn better on how to require the ability to converse or to express their ideas fluently with precise vocabularies and good or acceptable pronunciation.

Speaking ability is the students ability in expressing their ideas orally which is represented by the scores of speaking. Speaking is only an oral trail of abilities that it got from structure and vocabulary, Freeman, in Risnadedi (2001: 56-57) states speaking ability more complex and difficult than people assume, and speaking study like study other cases in study of language, naturalize many case to language teachers.

2.1.1 The Nature of Speaking

Speaking is a productive skill with which people produce words or send a message orally. This skill is closely bound up with the receptive skill work. As Harmer states, in many situations productive skill is combined with the practice of receptive skills. The conversation between two or more people is a blend of listening and speaking where the comprehension of what has been said is necessary for what the participant says next.

The two kinds of language skills: receptive and productive skills should be taught to the students in language instruction. Receptive skills are the ways in which people extract meaning from the discourse they see or hear. Besides, listening, reading is included in receptive skills. While productive skills are the skills that involve the process of language production either in oral or written forms. According Harmer, Speaking as one of the productive skills should be mastered by the students in order they can carry out a conversation with other people easily.2.1.2 Speaking is Productive SkillSpeaking is the productive skill. It cannot be separated from listening. When we speak we produce the text and it should be meaningful. In the nature of communication, we can find the speaker, the listener, the message and the feedback. Speaking cannot be separated from pronunciation as it encourages learners to learn the English sound.

(http://area.dgidc.min-edu.pt/gramatica/whatspeakingis.html).

2.1.3 Assessing SpeakingAssessment is an on going process that encompasses a much wider domain. Whenever a student responds to a question, offers a comment, or tries out a new word or structure, the teacher subconsciously makes an assessment of students performance. Written work-from a jotted down phrase to a formal essay is performance that ultimately is assessed by self, teacher and possibly other students (Brown, 2003:4).

Brown (2003:141) states as with all effective tests, designing appropriate assessment tasks in speaking begins with the specification of objective or criteria. Those objectives may be classified in term of several types of speaking performance:

1) Imitative

At one end of a continuum of types of speaking performance is the ability to simply parrot back (imitate) a word or phrase or possibly a sentence. While this is purely phonetic level of oral production, a number of prosodic, lexical and grammatical properties of language may be conclude in the criterion performance.

2) Intensive

A second type of speaking frequently employed in assessment contexts is the production of short stretches of oral language designed to demonstrate competence in a narrow band of grammatical, phrasal, lexical of phonological relationship (such as prosodic element-intonation, stress, rhythm, juncture). Examples of extensive assessment tasks include directed response tasks, reading aloud, sentence and dialogue completion limited picture-cued task including simple sequences and relationship up to the simple sentence level.

3) Responsive

Responsive assessment tasks included interaction and test comprehension but at the somewhat limited level of very short conversations, standard greetings and a small talk, simple request and comments and the like.2.1.4 The Definition of Speaking SkillSpeaking skill is the art of communications and one of four basic skills that must be mastered in learning foreign language. Good speaking skill is the act of generating words that can be understood by listeners. A good speaker is clear and informative. (http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Definition_of_speaking_skill).2.2 The Elements of SpeakingAccording to Harmer (2001: 269) the elemets of speaking, as follows:

a. Connected speech: effective speaker of English need to be able not only produce the individual phonems of English (as in Id ve Gone). In connected speech sounds are modified (assimilation), omited (elision), added (linking r), or weakned ( through contractions and stress patterning).b. Expresissive devices: native speaker of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterance, vary volume and speed, and show by other physical and non- verbal (paralinguistic) means how they are feeling (especially in face to- face interaction). The use of these devices contributes to the ability to vonvey menaings.c. Lexis and Grammar: spontananeous speech is marked by the use of a number of common lexsical phrases, especially in the perfomance of certain language functions.d. Negotiation language : effetive speaking benefits from the negotiatory language we use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what we are saying.2.2.1 Micro and Macro Speaking Skill

2.2.1.1 Macro Speaking SkillHere are macro skills of speaking which should be implemented in speaking activities (Kristiara, 2002):1) Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals.

2) Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic conventions, conversion rules, floor keeping and yielding, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.

3) Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feeling, new information and given information, generalitation and examplification.

4) Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language.

5) Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well the interlocutor is understanding students.

2.2.2.2 Micro Speaking Skills

Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:

1) Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.

2) Use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation patterns of the language clearly enough so that people can understand what said. is

3) Use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the tense, case, or gender.

4) Put words together in correct word order.

5) Use vocabulary appropriately.

6) Use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the conversation partner.

7) Make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, by whatever means the language uses.

8) Make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.

9) Make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what students are saying.

2.3 The Ways to Improve Speaking Skill

Below are five simple steps to improve speaking skill that will benefit greatly. (http://www.troyfawkes.com/how-to-improve-speaking-skills-in-7-simple-steps/).1) Speak Clearly2) Develop Flow3) Choose Their Mastery Topics4) Become a Topic Master5) Develop Style2.3.1 Speak ClearlyThe biggest flaw that most writers have, he writes, is a lack of clarity. This is also true of speakers. Speak clearly. Enunciate and choose a volume as if it were on purpose. Select the easiest words to get the point across. Only once students have mastered clarity should be begun to braid some silvery strands into the language.

2.3.2 Develop FlowImagine a river. The water is moving; it runs around rocks and over the ground beneath it. Its disturbed by the legs of a bridge. With flow were aiming at a level of comfort with speaking that lets the students approach all topics with equal grace. There are two aspects of flow to improve, as follows:

1) Pace

2) Pausing

Unless James Malinchak or Les Brown, students speak too quickly. A mentor told me that I spoke too quickly because I was worried that someone else might speak over memaybe thats accurate for students as well. In any case, it is a truism that we.. should slow.. our pace.. down.

We also need to be comfortable pausing. If I had only thirty seconds of their time to help the students to improve their speaking skills, researcher would tell students to replace all of their filler words with a two second pause.

A filler word is uh or um, or anything students say that is equivalent. For example I like the word like but I shouldnt. Notice whenever students use a filler word, pause for two seconds, and then continue.2.3.3 Choose Their Mastery TopicsWeve gone over how to improve speaking skills via clarity and flow. The focus was to fix some of the errors we were making and help us build a bit more confidence. The next steps let us build a stronger speaking strategies.

Mastery Topics are subjects that studentsre interested in and passionate about. When students discuss these topics, they naturally exude more confidence and excitement, and students are more likely to draw listeners into their world.

2.3.4 Become a Topic MasterGenerally students fall into a topic that studentsre comfortable with and their conversations follow similar paths. The why is fairly simple were programmed to pursue pleasure the same positive reactions to the same topics and jokes and avoid pain the potential shame of expressing an opinion that makes everyone around students uncomfortable.

Theres nothing wrong with this, but if we naturally do it all of the time we might as well do it on purpose. To add some flair to our speaking skills well need to add some sub-topics to our mastery topic.

2.3.5 Develop StyleDroning on in a monotone will never be interesting, no matter the quality of the content coming out of their mouth. The trick is to express those same words in a more appealing manner. Consider these five skills and their ability to use them to create interest in conversation:

1) Volume

2) Pace

3) Gestures

4) Humor

5) Story-telling

With all of those skills, we use them to emphasize the words that were speaking. Sometimes they replace words. Instead of going on about these skills.2.4 The Definition of Story-Telling

Pellowski (2006:4) said that storytelling is the art or craft of narration of stories in verse/ and or rose, as performed or led by one person before a live audience; the stories narrated may be spoken, chanted, or sung, with or without musical, pictorial, and/ or other accompaniment and maybe learned from oral, printed or mechanically recorded sources; one of its purposes may be that of. Strauss (2006:4) states that storytelling is the act of using voice and body language to communicate a narrative directly from one person to another.2.4.1 Types of Stories

Prose is the type of literature read most often in English classrooms. Like poetry, prose is broken down into a large number of other sub-genres. Some of these genres revolve around the structure of the text, such as novellas, biographies, and memoirs, and others are based on the subject matter, like romances, fantasies, and mysteries. In Literature that the short story, a concice from of prose fiction , has received less atention from literasy scholars than the novel, Mario Klaler (1998:13). In choosing the types of stories to be presented, it is important that the teacher consider the types of stories to match the intended audience. Acording to Mario Klaler (1998:13) that story, myth and fairy related to the oldest types textual manifestations. There are some types of stories:

a) Myths according to McKay & Dudley (1996:1), Myths are stories that recount and explain the origins of the world and the phenomena of nature.

b) Epics are long stories of human adventure and heroism recounted in many episodes. c) Legend is a story based on the life of a real person in which events are depicted larger than life. d) Folktales are stories that grew out of the lives and imaginations of the people, or folk. e) Fairy tales are magical stories about fairies. A fairy is a tiny imaginary being with supernatural powers. f) Fables is a short moral story not based on fact, using animals as characters. g) Religious stories based on religious writings or taken intact from religious manuscripts are considered to be religious stories.In conclusion, stories can be used in English foreign language learning to teach the language, to entertain, and to explain the culture. In using the stories in classroom, teachers should consider the importance of stories, the characteristic of good stories, and types of stories which is suitable for students. Stories can provide a medium in learning language. However, not all of the stories can be sed to teach language. Therefore, teachers should consider the characteristic of good stories to tell. There are some types of stories which can be chosen by the teacher in order to achieve the objective of learning English through story.2.4.2 Story Telling for Speaking Skills

Story telling can be used to enhance speaking skills. Cooper and Saxby (1994: 11) argued that story telling can help students enhance their speaking skills because real purpose-telling story is involved. For example, when telling a story, students should use gestures and body movement; organize the story in a sequence easily understandable to the listeners. Speak clearly- all for the purpose of making the story enjoyable for the listeners. When children and adolescents retell a story they have heard, they practice their speaking skills. Teachers should encourage retellings.The story telling in the classroom is that it can attract listeners and promote communication or improve speaking ability. Besides, the tellers have to use stories which are motivating and immensely interesting. Furthermore, the story-telling is a valuable instructional tool for both teachers and students in the teaching-learning process of language. It also expands the students language abilities, helps them learn the characteristics of stories and develops interpretation of the stories.

Story telling activities help students to develop communication skills and encourage shared learning experiences. It helps the students to improve their speaking ability.

Speaking ability is improved through attention to articulation, clarity, and volume. Moreover, story telling can make the classroom situation become more enjoyable and improve students confidence. So, the story telling is a valuable instructional tool for the teaching-learning process of language in order to develop students speaking ability.2.4.3 The Advantages of Story Telling

Mixon and Temu (2006 : 14) said that Story telling gives a child rich and versatile experience with language and culture. Teachers can use stories to teach language and to introduce other subjects such as culture and society. Stories from around the world are excellent to use in the classroom, but teacher also need to use stories from the students own culture and heritage. Using local or national stories insures that the students know the background culture and may already know the stories .According to Tompkins and Hoskisson (1995:316) stories give meaning to the human experience, and they are a powerful way of knowing and learning. Children develop an understanding about stories as they read and write stories during learning activities at school.

Jalongo (1992:33) said that sharing stories with children is an essential part of their growth in literacy because stories (1) increase childrens knowledge and understanding of other races and beliefs, (2) introduce children to a wider range of story-sharing experiences, (3) stimulate childrens imagination, (4) expand vocabulary and provide children with good models of usage, enunciation, and pronunciation, (5) encourage children to listen, concentrate, and follow event-structured material, (6) challenge assumptions and introduce new ideas in a nonthreatening way, (7) develop childrens thinking skills, (8) nurture and encourage a sense of humor, and (9) increase children appreciation of literature and reinforce cultural values.

According to Jianing (2007) Some reasons that make storytelling be recommended in EFL speaking classroom: (1) stories can motivate and make students interested because the contexts of the stories can attract listeners and promote students attention to communicate; (2) stories are regarded as the models of language and treasures of the culture because for hundred of years thousands of stories have been created. So, from the story, learners at various language level and age can find suitable stories to be read and told. Besides, stories are inexpensive and can be easily accessed; (3) the lively and real life contexts created in the story can encourage the readers or listeners especially students to talk and discuss each other .

Story telling entertains and excites which is an important part of learning. If children are having fun, they are involved and motivated to learn more. And then, storytelling is the natural way to introduce children to the wonderful world of books and reading. It is good idea to have plenty of reading material available so that the class can do follow up work, and read stories similar to the ones you have been telling.

There are many ways to use stories in the English classroom. The teacher can read the story or tell it to students. Another way is encourage the students to find more interesting stories and create different ways to use them. The teacher can ask students to select the story they like and tell to their friends in class or write a review to display in wall magazine. Students creativity and imaginations can be improved and the students become confident to express themselves spontaneously and creatively.2.5 Teaching Speaking Using Story-Telling TecniqueSpeaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts. Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues.

Telling stories or narrating is human beings nature. Traditionally, human beings are regarded as reasoning animals. When Fisher (1984) proposed an assumption that humans are also rhetorical beings, he did not disregard the traditional point of view, but believed that reasoning does not necessarily need to be in the form of argumentative prose or in clear-cut inferential or implicative structures. It can be in all kinds of symbolic action: both non-discursive and discursive (Fisher, 1984: 1). Narration is a tool used by human beings to express their ideas, persuade others to accept their ideas and to understand the world. In ancient times, people painted pictures on walls or on rocks to deliver information or express their adoration toward gods or goddesses. Nowadays, one can find various stories in literary works, advertisements, speeches and many other discourses.Many people feel that speaking in a new language is harder than reading, writing or listening for two reasons. First, unlike reading and writing, speaking happens in real time: usually the person you are talking to is waiting for you to speak right then. Second, when you speak, you cannot edit and revise what you wish to say, as you can if you are writing. Thus, speaking is the productive aural/oral skill. It consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning. Utterances are simply things people say (Bailey, 2005:2). Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information.Storytelling is the sharing of stories and events through words, sounds and visual images. An effective storyteller captures the attention of listeners and accomplishes the goal of telling the story, which may be to entertain, convey information, teach an important life lesson, or persuade listeners to take action of some kind. Storytelling techniques may incorporate a combination of tone usage, animated sounds and gestures, and digital tools. Here are strategies for teaching storytelling as follows:

a. Learn effective storytelling techniques. Teach others the art of telling stories by first becoming an engaging storyteller. Take a storytelling class. Sign up for a storytelling workshop at a college or community center. Practice telling stories. Strengthen your storytelling skills by taking the opportunity to tell relevant stories whenever possible to your colleagues, students, friends, relatives and neighbors.

b. Notice the reactions of others to your stories. Attentiveness, laughter, an emotional response and/or sustained eye contact are indications that you are achieving your storytelling goal. A listener's attempts to change the subject, fidgety mannerisms and general inattentiveness may indicate a need to adjust the pace, tone, details or other elements of your storytelling technique.c. Improve your storytelling skills. If you are losing the attention of your listeners, make sure that your story is relevant to your audience and that it has a clear beginning, middle and an end. Identify your reason for telling the story and whether it will meet the needs of your listener. Use props, sounds and visual tools. If teaching young children, a story about a cat with a strange meow will capture their attention more if accompanied by your enactment of the actual meow. To persuade adults to conform to your opinion or to sell a product, using pictures and presentation software may enhance the story and help you to achieve the storytelling goal.

d. Determine if you are ready to teach storytelling to others. You will know that you have mastered storytelling when children ask that you retell a story or adults ask you to share the story with others. Other indications that you are a storytelling master are sustained engagement on the part of your listeners and/or positive changes in behavior as a result of telling a story.e. Identify the age group of your storytelling class. Your students may be young children in a school where you are already a teacher. Or they may be adults who report to you in a marketing firm where you are a manager.f. Assess the needs of the specific age group and plan accordingly.

Give explanations and structure to children. Young children need structured activities, continual guidance and verbal instructions. Provide a syllabus, handout and reading materials to adults. Teens and adults are more self-directed and benefit from materials that they can read on their own, such as an explanation of storytelling techniques and upcoming assignments.g. Teach storytelling techniques. Share the knowledge and skills that you gained in the process of becoming an effective storyteller.

Ask the class to think of an interesting story. Provide ideas related to the particular age group and goal of the class. A public speaking class intended to improve an adults social life will tell different types of stories than a group of salespeople trying to sell a product.

h. Give feedback to students. Observe your own engagement while listening to students' stories, as well as classmates' reactions. Pay particular attention to the storytelling speed, tone, details, gestures, props and graphics tools.

Encourage students by providing positive feedback. Public speaking is a prevalent fear, so comment on things that students did well to generate a desire to continue perfecting their storytelling skills. Provide constructive criticism. Instead of saying that a story was boring, draw the student's attention to areas of the story that can be enlivened by adding interesting details or voice inflections.http://www.wikihow.com/Teach-StorytellingAccording to Wright (1995 : 5), the teachers should consider the technique just before telling the story, the ways of the beginning, the manner, voice, language, and body. Therefore, Brewster & Girard (2003:28) consider different techniques to be provided to support the children understanding the story. The techniques are:

a. if they are unfamiliar with the story telling, begin with short sessions which do not demand too much from them and over-extend their concentration span.b. Read slowly and clearly. Give your pupils time to relate what they hear to what they see in the pictures, to think, ask questions, make comments.c. Make comments about the illustrations and point to them to focus the pupils attention.d. Encourage your pupils to take part in the story telling by repeating key vocabulary items and phrases.e. Using gestures, mime, facial gestures to help convey the meaning.f. Vary the pace, tone ad volume of voice. Are you going to whisper to build up suspense? Are you going to introduce an element of surprise by raising your voice?, Pause where appropriate to add dramatic effect or to give children time to relate what they hear to what they see, and to assimilate details in the illustrations.g. Disguise the voice for the different character as much as you can to signal when different characters are speaking and help convey meaning.h. Ask questions to involve children What do you think is going to happen next?, What would you do?.i. Do not be afraid to repeat, expand and reformulate. It gives opportunities to expose the language and gives the children a second change to work out the meaning and have it confirm. If it is needed, walk around the class to show children the pictures, repeat the text again and again.10