Chapter 9 Developmental Theories: Life Course and Latent Trait.

Chapter 9Chapter 9

Developmental Theories: Life Course and Latent Trait

Developmental TheoriesDevelopmental Theories

• Seek to identify, describe, and Seek to identify, describe, and understand the development understand the development factors the explain the onset and factors the explain the onset and continuation of a criminal careercontinuation of a criminal career

– Intertwining of personal factors, social factors, Intertwining of personal factors, social factors, socialization factors, cognitive factors, and socialization factors, cognitive factors, and situational factorssituational factors

– Two distinct groups: Two distinct groups: 1.1. Life course theories Life course theories

2.2. Latent trait theoriesLatent trait theories

The Life Course ViewThe Life Course View

• The Glueck ResearchThe Glueck Research– Popularized the research on the life cycle of Popularized the research on the life cycle of

delinquent careersdelinquent careers– ““The deeper the roots of childhood maladjustment, The deeper the roots of childhood maladjustment,

the smaller the change of adult adjustment”the smaller the change of adult adjustment”– Family relations are paramount in terms of quality of Family relations are paramount in terms of quality of

discipline and emotional ties with parentsdiscipline and emotional ties with parents


• The Glueck ResearchThe Glueck Research– Children most likely to be delinquent:Children most likely to be delinquent:

• Low IQ’sLow IQ’s

• A background of mental disease, and A background of mental disease, and

• A powerful physiqueA powerful physique


• Life Course ConceptsLife Course Concepts– Loeber & LeBlanc Loeber & LeBlanc

• Devoted time to the evolution of the criminal careerDevoted time to the evolution of the criminal career

– Attention should be given to how a criminal career Attention should be given to how a criminal career unfoldsunfolds

– People may show a propensity of offend early in their People may show a propensity of offend early in their liveslives

The Life Course ViewThe Life Course View• Problem Behavior SyndromeProblem Behavior Syndrome

– Criminal behavior is one of many antisocial behaviors Criminal behavior is one of many antisocial behaviors that cluster together and typically involve family that cluster together and typically involve family dysfunction, sexual and physical abuse, substance dysfunction, sexual and physical abuse, substance abuse, smoking, and precocious sexuality. abuse, smoking, and precocious sexuality.

• Two distinct viewpoints: Two distinct viewpoints: 1.1. Life course theories Life course theories

• Criminality is viewed as a dynamic processCriminality is viewed as a dynamic process• Influenced by a multitude of:Influenced by a multitude of:

• Individual characteristicsIndividual characteristics• TraitsTraits• Social ExperiencesSocial Experiences


• Two distinct viewpoints: Two distinct viewpoints: 1.1. Life course theories Life course theories

2.2. Latent trait theoriesLatent trait theories• Human development is controlled by a “master trait”Human development is controlled by a “master trait”• Master trait is present at birth or soon afterMaster trait is present at birth or soon after



• Some people are incapable of Some people are incapable of maturing in a reasonable and maturing in a reasonable and timely fashion because of family, timely fashion because of family, environmental and personal environmental and personal problemsproblems– The propensity to commit crime is neither stable nor The propensity to commit crime is neither stable nor

constantconstant– Life course theories are multidimensionalLife course theories are multidimensional

• Suggesting criminality has multiple rootsSuggesting criminality has multiple roots

Figure Figure 9.1 9.1 Life Life Course Course and and Latent Latent Trait Trait TheoriTheorieses



• Disruption promotes criminalityDisruption promotes criminality– Disruptions in life’s major transitionsDisruptions in life’s major transitions

• Can be destructiveCan be destructive

• Can promote criminalityCan promote criminality

– People influenced by different factors as they maturePeople influenced by different factors as they mature– Negative life events can become cumulativeNegative life events can become cumulative


• Changing Life InfluencesChanging Life Influences– First First

• Family relationsFamily relations

– Adolescence Adolescence • School and peer relationsSchool and peer relations

– Adulthood Adulthood • Vocational achievement Vocational achievement

• Marital relationsMarital relations

The Life Course ViewThe Life Course View• Problem Behavior SyndromeProblem Behavior Syndrome

– All varieties of criminal behavior may be part of a All varieties of criminal behavior may be part of a generalized PBSgeneralized PBS• UnemploymentUnemployment

• Educational underachievementEducational underachievement

• School misconductSchool misconduct

• Residing in high crime and disorganized areasResiding in high crime and disorganized areas

• Exposure to racism and povertyExposure to racism and poverty

• Personal problems such as suicide attempts, sensation Personal problems such as suicide attempts, sensation seeking, early parenthood, accident-proneness, medical seeking, early parenthood, accident-proneness, medical problems, mental disease, anxiety, and eating problems, mental disease, anxiety, and eating disordersdisorders


• Pathways to CrimePathways to Crime– Loeber and associates identified 3 distinct pathways Loeber and associates identified 3 distinct pathways

to a criminal careerto a criminal career• Authority conflict:Authority conflict:

– Begins at an early age with stubborn behaviorBegins at an early age with stubborn behavior

• Covert pathway:Covert pathway: – Begins with minor underhanded behavior and leads to Begins with minor underhanded behavior and leads to

property damageproperty damage

• Overt pathway:Overt pathway: – Escalates into aggressive acts and then to violenceEscalates into aggressive acts and then to violence

Figure 9.2 Figure 9.2 Loeber’s Loeber’s Pathways to Pathways to CrimeCrime



• Age of Onset/Continuity of CrimeAge of Onset/Continuity of Crime– Life course theory suggests criminal careers are Life course theory suggests criminal careers are

planted early in lifeplanted early in life• May begin with truancy, cruelty to animals, lying, and May begin with truancy, cruelty to animals, lying, and

thefttheft

• Some offenders peak at an early age, whereas others Some offenders peak at an early age, whereas others persist into adulthoodpersist into adulthood


• Age of Onset/Continuity of CrimeAge of Onset/Continuity of Crime– Continuity and desistance:Continuity and desistance:

• Poor parental discipline and monitoring may be key to Poor parental discipline and monitoring may be key to early criminalityearly criminality

• Rejection by peers and academic failure sustains Rejection by peers and academic failure sustains antisocial behaviorantisocial behavior


• Gender Similarities and DifferencesGender Similarities and Differences– Like boys, early onset girls continue to experience Like boys, early onset girls continue to experience

difficulties such as difficulties such as • Drug/alcohol useDrug/alcohol use

• Poor school adjustmentPoor school adjustment

• Mental health problems, and Mental health problems, and

• A variety of relationship dysfunctionsA variety of relationship dysfunctions


• Gender Similarities and DifferencesGender Similarities and Differences– Early onset path for males results in:Early onset path for males results in:

• Problems at work Problems at work

• Substance abuseSubstance abuse

– Early onset pathways for females are more likely to Early onset pathways for females are more likely to lead to:lead to:• Depression Depression

• A tendency to commit suicideA tendency to commit suicide


• Adolescent Limiteds and Life Adolescent Limiteds and Life Course Persisters Course Persisters – Moffet Moffet

• Most offenders are adolescent limited in that antisocial Most offenders are adolescent limited in that antisocial behavior peaks and then diminishesbehavior peaks and then diminishes

– A small group of offenders are A small group of offenders are persisterspersisters • Begin offending at an early age and continue into Begin offending at an early age and continue into

adulthoodadulthood


• Adolescent Limiteds and Life Adolescent Limiteds and Life Course Persisters Course Persisters

– Early starters experience: Early starters experience: 1.1. Poor parentingPoor parenting

2.2. Deviant behaviors Deviant behaviors

3.3. Involvement with delinquent groupsInvolvement with delinquent groups


• Supporting ResearchSupporting Research– Recent research supports Moffit’s viewsRecent research supports Moffit’s views– Early onset delinquents are influenced by individual Early onset delinquents are influenced by individual

traits traits • Low verbal abilityLow verbal ability

• Hyperactivity, and Hyperactivity, and

• Negative personality traitsNegative personality traits

– Community-level factors such as poverty and Community-level factors such as poverty and instability seem to have little effect on their behaviorinstability seem to have little effect on their behavior

Theories of the Criminal Theories of the Criminal Life CourseLife Course• The Social Development Model The Social Development Model

– Integration of social control, social learning, and Integration of social control, social learning, and structural theories structural theories • Weis, Catalano, HawkinsWeis, Catalano, Hawkins

– Community-level risk factors contribute to criminality Community-level risk factors contribute to criminality • Social control, disorganization, and opportunities Social control, disorganization, and opportunities

– Prosocial bonds may inhibit antisocial behaviors Prosocial bonds may inhibit antisocial behaviors • Attachment to conventional activities and beliefsAttachment to conventional activities and beliefs

– SDM-based interventions can help reduce SDM-based interventions can help reduce delinquency and drug abusedelinquency and drug abuse

Theories of the Criminal Theories of the Criminal Life CourseLife Course•Sampson and Laub: Age-Sampson and Laub: Age-

Graded TheoryGraded Theory– Sampson & Laub identified “turning points” Sampson & Laub identified “turning points”

(critical events) that may enable an (critical events) that may enable an offender to desist from crimeoffender to desist from crime• Career and marriage are turning pointsCareer and marriage are turning points

– Social Capital:Social Capital: • Refers to positive relations with individuals and Refers to positive relations with individuals and

institutions, which support conventional behaviorinstitutions, which support conventional behavior– People who maintain a successful marriage People who maintain a successful marriage

and become parents are more likely to and become parents are more likely to mature out of crimemature out of crime

Figure Figure 9.3 9.3 Sampson Sampson and and Laub’s Laub’s Age-Age-Graded Graded TheoryTheory

Theories of the Criminal Theories of the Criminal Life CourseLife Course

Theories of the Criminal Theories of the Criminal Life CourseLife Course• Testing Age-Graded TheoryTesting Age-Graded Theory

– Indicators tend to support age-graded theory (i.e. Indicators tend to support age-graded theory (i.e. employment)employment)

– Research suggests the greater the social capital, the Research suggests the greater the social capital, the more likely one will be insulated from crimemore likely one will be insulated from crime

Theories of the Criminal Theories of the Criminal Life CourseLife Course• The Marriage Factor: The Marriage Factor:

• People who marry and become parents are most likely People who marry and become parents are most likely mature out of crimemature out of crime

– Laub and Sampson are following up on the original Laub and Sampson are following up on the original research cohort of the Glueck’sresearch cohort of the Glueck’s

– Recent research Recent research • Piquero, MacDonald, and ParkerPiquero, MacDonald, and Parker

– Future research Future research • Military, conforming to employment, etc.Military, conforming to employment, etc.

Latent Trait ViewLatent Trait View

• Assumes some people have a Assumes some people have a personal attribute that controls personal attribute that controls their propensity to commit crimetheir propensity to commit crime– The trait is either present at birth or established The trait is either present at birth or established

early in lifeearly in life– Propensity and opportunity to commit crime Propensity and opportunity to commit crime

fluctuate over timefluctuate over time

Latent Trait ViewLatent Trait View

• Crime and Human NatureCrime and Human Nature– Wilson & Herrnstein’s human nature theory Wilson & Herrnstein’s human nature theory

• Genetics, intelligence, and body build contribute to Genetics, intelligence, and body build contribute to criminalitycriminality

– Biological and psychological traits influence crime Biological and psychological traits influence crime choice and non-crime choices choice and non-crime choices

– Their work suggests the existence of an elusive trait Their work suggests the existence of an elusive trait that predisposes people to commit crimethat predisposes people to commit crime

Latent Trait Theories Latent Trait Theories

• General Theory of Crime (GTC)General Theory of Crime (GTC)– Gottfredson & Hirschi modified social control theory Gottfredson & Hirschi modified social control theory

and integrated concepts of biosocial, psychological, and integrated concepts of biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theoriesroutine activities, and rational choice theories

– GTC considers the offender and the criminal act as GTC considers the offender and the criminal act as separate conceptsseparate concepts

– People commit crime when it promises rewards and People commit crime when it promises rewards and they are predisposed to commit crimethey are predisposed to commit crime


• General Theory of Crime (GTC) General Theory of Crime (GTC) – Tendencies to commit crime is contingent on a Tendencies to commit crime is contingent on a

person’s level of self-controlperson’s level of self-control– Root of poor self-control is traced to inadequate Root of poor self-control is traced to inadequate

child-rearing practiceschild-rearing practices– Gottfredson and Hirschi maintain the GTC explains Gottfredson and Hirschi maintain the GTC explains

all varieties of criminal behaviorall varieties of criminal behavior– Empirical evidence tends to support the GTCEmpirical evidence tends to support the GTC


• The Act and the OffenderThe Act and the Offender– The criminal act and the criminal offender are The criminal act and the criminal offender are

separate conceptsseparate concepts• Criminal Acts:Criminal Acts:

– Illegal events that offenders engage in when seen as Illegal events that offenders engage in when seen as advantageousadvantageous

• Criminal Offenders:Criminal Offenders:– People predisposed to commit crimesPeople predisposed to commit crimes

But not robotsBut not robots

Figure 9.4 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s Figure 9.4 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of CrimeGeneral Theory of Crime



• Impulsivity and Crime?Impulsivity and Crime?– Self-ControlSelf-Control

• People with limited self-control:People with limited self-control:– ImpulsiveImpulsive– InsensitiveInsensitive– Physical rather than mentalPhysical rather than mental– Risk-takersRisk-takers– ShortsightedShortsighted– NonverbalNonverbal


• Self-Control and CrimeSelf-Control and Crime– All crime stems from a deficiency in self-controlAll crime stems from a deficiency in self-control– Differences in gender, race, and ecology Differences in gender, race, and ecology

• Can be explained by differences in self-controlCan be explained by differences in self-control

– Explains all crimesExplains all crimes

Latent Trait TheoriesLatent Trait Theories

• Support for GTCSupport for GTC– Numerous studiesNumerous studies

• U.S. and Abroad U.S. and Abroad – Relationship between impulsiveness and self-control and Relationship between impulsiveness and self-control and

crimecrime


• Analyzing the General Theory of Analyzing the General Theory of CrimeCrime– Some critics charge GTC is: Some critics charge GTC is:

• Tautological:Tautological: – Crime and impulsive behaviorCrime and impulsive behavior

• Different Classes of Criminals:Different Classes of Criminals: – Research indicates offenders occupy more than one class Research indicates offenders occupy more than one class

and more than one factor may contribute to their and more than one factor may contribute to their criminalitycriminality

• Ecological/Individual Differences:Ecological/Individual Differences: – Fails to address individual and ecological patterns in crime Fails to address individual and ecological patterns in crime

ratesrates



• Racial and Gender Differences:Racial and Gender Differences: – Little evidence that males are more impulsive than Little evidence that males are more impulsive than

females and overlooks racism and poverty issuesfemales and overlooks racism and poverty issues

• Moral Beliefs: Moral Beliefs: – GTC ignores the moral concept of right and wrongGTC ignores the moral concept of right and wrong

• Peer Influence: Peer Influence: – Negative influences of peers increases the likelihood of Negative influences of peers increases the likelihood of

criminality rather than reducing itcriminality rather than reducing it



• People Change: People Change: – Propensity to commit crime does change and it is not Propensity to commit crime does change and it is not

static as suggested by GTCstatic as suggested by GTC

• Modest Relationship: Modest Relationship: – Self control is modestly related to antisocial behaviorSelf control is modestly related to antisocial behavior

• Cross Cultural Differences: Cross Cultural Differences: – GTC may be weak in cross-national studiesGTC may be weak in cross-national studies



• Misreads Human Nature: Misreads Human Nature: – GTC assumes people are selfish, self-serving, and GTC assumes people are selfish, self-serving, and

hedonistichedonistic

• Personality Disorder: Personality Disorder: – GTC ignores personality disordersGTC ignores personality disorders

Evaluating Developmental Evaluating Developmental Theories Theories • Criminal CareersCriminal Careers

– Must be understood as a passage along which people Must be understood as a passage along which people traveltravel

– Factors affecting a criminal career may include Factors affecting a criminal career may include • Structural factorsStructural factors

– Income and statusIncome and status

• Socialization factorsSocialization factors– Family and peer relationsFamily and peer relations

Evaluating Developmental Evaluating Developmental Theories Theories • Criminal CareersCriminal Careers

– Factors affecting a criminal career may include Factors affecting a criminal career may include • Pyschological factorsPyschological factors

– Intelligence and personalityIntelligence and personality

• Opportunity factorsOpportunity factors– Free time, inadequate protection and a supply of easily Free time, inadequate protection and a supply of easily

stolen merchandisestolen merchandise

Public Policy Implications Public Policy Implications of Developmental Theory of Developmental Theory • Policy ImplicationsPolicy Implications

– Multi-systematic treatment efforts Multi-systematic treatment efforts – Programs targeting those at high risk to improve Programs targeting those at high risk to improve

their developmental skillstheir developmental skills– SMART (skills, mastery, and resistance training)SMART (skills, mastery, and resistance training)

Chapter 9 Developmental Theories: Life Course and Latent Trait.

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