Chapter 8: Thinking and Language Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?

Thinking and Language

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Chapter 8: Thinking and Language

Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?

Section 1: Understanding Thinking

Section 2: Problem Solving

Section 3: Reasoning and Decision Making

Section 4: Language

Lab: Applying What You’ve Learned



Can animals use language? The answer depends on the definition of

language. Experiments with animals and language raise new questions

about animal intelligence.

• Washoe was one of the first chimpanzees reported to use language.

• A bonobo named Kanzi used several hundred words to communicate.

• A parrot named Alex learned about 100 words.

Language Studies with Animals

Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?

• Animals can learn to use signs and symbols and can follow some commands.

• Most psychologists use a more restrictive definition of language, however. Under this definition, the question of animal language is less clear.

Conclusions



What do you think?

• What did Washoe, Kanzi, and Alex learn to do?

• How do you think language should be defined?



Understanding Thinking

• Thinking is the mental activity that allows us to understand, process, and communicate information.

• The basic units of thought include symbols, concepts, and prototypes.

• There are three kinds of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognition.

Section 1 at a Glance



Reading Focus• What are some basic elements related to thinking?

• How do the three types of thinking differ?

Main Idea

Thinking is the mental activity that allows humans to process, understand, and communicate information. There are three types of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive.

Understanding Thinking



How do you know a sign warns of danger even though you don't read Turkish?



• Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information.

• Thinking is made possible through units of thought that include symbols, concepts, and prototypes.

• A symbol is an object or an act that stands for something else.

• Letters and words are symbols.

• Mental images are symbols.

• Symbols help us think about things that are not present.

Symbols

Basic Elements of Thinking

• A concept is a mental structure used to categorize objects, people, or events that share similar characteristics.

• People organize concepts into hierarchies.

• People learn concepts through experience.

Concepts



Prototypes• A prototype is an example of a concept that best exemplifies the

characteristics of that concept.

• Prototypes help us categorize the world and process information about it.

• Without prototypes, people might have to examine unfamiliar elements as if they were totally new.



Answer: symbols, concepts, and prototypes

Identify

What are three basic elements related to thinking?

Reading Check



• In general people think in three ways: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive.

• Convergent thinking is thought limited to facts.

• We use convergent thinking to find one solution for a problem or task.

• Developing rules and following them is one example of convergent thinking.

• Convergent thinking is not particularly creative.

Convergent

Three Kinds of Thinking

• Divergent thinking allows the mind to associate more freely to various elements of a problem.

• Divergent thinking is at the base of creativity.

• Divergent thinking typically results in multiple solutions.

Divergent



Metacognition• Metacognition consists of planning, evaluating, and monitoring

mental activities.

• It is thinking about thinking.

• It has two different aspects: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.



Answer: Convergent thinking is directed toward achieving one solution; divergent thinking is open-ended, typically resulting in multiple solutions; metacognition is thinking about thinking—for example, planning a task and then evaluating one’s performance.

Contrast

In what ways are the three ways of thinking different?

Reading Check



Automatic Thought Processes

How we think has long been of interest to psychologists. How much of our

thinking is done consciously? Do we really think about every single thing we

do? Do we deliberately make choices in all our actions? Current research

indicates that the answer is no. (Hassin, et. al, eds., 2006)

Current Research in Psychology

• Subconscious thought processes are receiving new attention in the field of psychology.

• Example: Psychologist John Bargh believes that some of our thinking is nonconscious and automatic.

• Experiments have demonstrated the automatic thought process.

• Some researchers call automatic thinking “thinking lite.”

• Bargh suggests that automatic thought processes are “mental butlers” that anticipate and take care of some tasks for us without being asked.



Thinking Critically• Think about a situation you had not encountered before.

How did your behavior at that time reflect the theory about automatic thought?

• What are some dangers of automatic thought?



Problem Solving

• Problem solving involves a series of processes, including analyzing the problem, breaking it into component parts, and establishing goals.

• Algorithms and heuristics are general approaches to problem solving.

• There are specific methods of problem solving, including systematic searching, trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, and use of analogy.




Reading Focus• What are two basic approaches to problem solving?

• How can certain methods help with problem solving?

• Why do obstacles to problem solving occur?

• What is the connection between problem solving and creativity?

Main Idea

Solving problems can be done in logical and planned ways to achieve the best results.

Problem Solving



How do you pick up a ship?



Algorithms

• An algorithm is a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem.

• Mathematical formulas are examples of algorithms.

• One kind of complex algorithm is a systematic search.

Heuristics

• Algorithms are guaranteed to work, but they are not always practical.

• This is why people use heuristics for many types of problems.

• Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us solve problems.

• They are shortcuts that are faster than algorithms, but they are not always reliable.

Approaches to Problem Solving



Answer: Algorithms and heuristics are two basic processes used in problem-solving.

Recall

What are two basic processes used in problem-solving?

Reading Check



Difference Reduction• Difference reduction is a problem-solving method in which we

identify our goal, where we are in relation to it, and the direction we must go to move closer to it.

• The aim is to reduce the difference between a present situation in which a problem is unsolved to a desired situation in which the problem is solved.

• Not always a reliable method.

Trial and Error• Somewhat similar to systematic searching, but more haphazard and

less reliable.

Problem-Solving Methods



Working Backward • Involves breaking a problem down into parts and dealing with each

part individually.

• Starts by examining the final goal, then works back to determine the best course of action.

• Very useful when the goal is known but the way to achieve it is not.

Means-End Analysis

• Means-end analysis is a heuristic problem-solving technique.

• In means-end analysis, certain things we do (means) will have certain results (ends).

• Focus on the knowledge that a particular action will have a particular result.



Analogies• An analogy is a similarity between two or more items, events, or

situations.

• When people have successfully solved one problem, they may try to use the same approach in solving another problem if it is similar enough to the first one.



Answer: trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, analogies

Identify

What are five problem-solving methods?

Reading Check



Functional Fixedness• Another obstacle to problem solving is called functional fixedness,

which is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for.

• Functional fixedness can interfere with finding a solution to a problem.

Mental Sets• The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that

was successfully used with similar problems is called mental set.

• Mental set can get in the way of problem-solving.

Obstacles to Problem Solving



Answer: As with mental set, functional fixedness brings a preexisting attitude or approach to solving a problem.

Compare

In what ways is functional fixedness a type of mental set?

Reading Check



Recombination• Recombination is the mental rearrangement of elements of a

problem.

Flexibility• Flexibility is the ability to adapt to new, different, or changing

situations.

• Flexibility leads to original thinking.

Problem Solving and Creativity



Insight and Incubation• Insight gives us sudden understanding of a problem.

• The incubation effect is the tendency to arrive at a solution after a

period of time away from the problem.



Answer: flexibility, recombination, insight, incubation

Describe

What are some methods for solving problems creatively?

Reading Check



Reasoning and Decision Making

• Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive and inductive.

• People use a variety of methods to make decisions, including using a balance sheet and some types of heuristics.




Reading Focus• What is deductive reasoning?

• What are the steps in inductive reasoning?

• When can weighing costs and benefits be helpful?

• What are some shortcuts in decision making?

Main Idea

Deductive and inductive reasoning are used in the decision-making process. Various strategies can help us make decisions.

Reasoning and Decision Making



How does a pitcher make quick decisions?



• Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

• In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is true if the premises are true.

• A premise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions.

Deductive Reasoning



Answer: The premises must be true to reach an accurate solution.

Identify

What is one problem with using deductive reasoning?

Reading Check



• In deductive reasoning, we usually start out with a general statement or principle and reason down to specifics that fit that statement or principle.

• In inductive reasoning, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion.

• In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is sometimes wrong, even when the premises are correct.

• Even though inductive reasoning does not allow us to be certain that our assumptions are correct, we use inductive reasoning all the time.

• Most sciences, including psychology, rely on inductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning



Answer: Inductive reasoning moves from specific information to a (sometimes inaccurate) general conclusion; deductive reasoning will always arrive at the correct answer if the premises are true.

Contrast

How is inductive reasoning different from deductive reasoning?

Reading Check



• Making decisions means choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals.

• When we make decisions, we weigh the pluses and minuses of each possible course of action.

• Making a balance sheet can help ensure that all available information has been considered.

• A balance sheet can also be helpful when a person is making a decision between two or more alternatives.

Weighing Costs and Benefits



Answer: weighing costs and benefits

Recall

What is one method for making good decisions?

Reading Check



The Representativeness Heuristic• Based on the representativeness heuristic, people make decisions

about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent.

• The representativeness heuristic can be misleading.

The Availability Heuristic• The availability heuristic can help people make decisions on the

basis of available information in their immediate consciousness.

Shortcuts in Decision Making



The Anchoring Heuristic• The anchoring heuristic is the process of making decisions based

on certain ideas or standards held by the decision maker.

• Family traditions, political beliefs, religion, and ways of life are common anchors.



Answer: availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring heuristic

Identify Main Ideas

What are three shortcuts in decision making?

Reading Check



Language

• Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to rules of grammar.

• Language contains three basic elements: phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.

• Children everywhere learn language in the same sequence of steps. Heredity and environment both affect language learning.

• Bilingualism is the ability to understand and speak two languages.




Reading Focus• What are some of the basic concepts of language?

• How do the basic elements of language build on each other?

• What are the stages of language development?

• Why is bilingualism a significant aspect of modern society?

Main Idea

Language is a complex human activity that allows humans to communicate with others over time and space. It has specific elements, and people acquire language in specific steps.

Language



What language is written on the Phaistos Disk?



• Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to the rules of grammar.

• Language makes it possible for people to share knowledge.

• The psychology of language is called psycholinguistics.

• The natural tendency to acquire language can be called a language acquisition device (LAD).

• The LAD enables the brain to understand and use grammar and to turn ideas into sentences.

• Most people are capable of acquiring language from about 18 months of age to puberty.

Hereditary Influences

Basic Concepts of Language

• Children learn language partly by observing and imitating other people.

• Children acquire the languages of their parents and then pass them down to their children.

• In this manner, languages pass, with small changes, from generation to generation.

Environmental Influences



Answer: hereditary (natural tendency to acquire learning) and environmental (observation and imitation)

Contrast

What are the two main sources of language acquisition?

Reading Check



Phonemes

• Phonemes are the basic sounds of language.

• English uses about 43 phonemes, including some that are not found in other languages.

Syntax

• The way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences is syntax.

• The rules for word order are the grammar of a language.

Morphemes

• The units of meaning in a language are called morphemes.

• Morphemes are made up of phonemes.

Semantics

• The study of meaning in language is called semantics.

• Semantics involves the relationship between language and the objects depicted in the language.

The Basic Elements of Language



Answer: phonemes, morphemes, syntax

Describe

What are the three basic elements of language?

Reading Check



Words, Words, Words• The learning of words is the start of true language development.

• Most early words are nouns.

• Research indicates that reading to children increases their vocabulary.

Crying, Cooing, and Babbling• Crying is an effective form of verbal expression for infants.

• Infants begin to coo during their second month of age.

• Infants begin to babble at about six months of age.

• Crying, cooing, and babbling are basic human abilities.

• Babies understand much of what other people are saying before they learn to talk.

The Stages of Language Development



Development of Grammar• The first things children say are usually brief, but they have a

grammar.

• Most children who are nearing two years old will begin to use two-word sentences.

• Two-word sentences usually show understanding of grammar.

• Children make language errors because of overregularization.



Click on the image to play the Interactive.



Answer: They begin by crying, cooing, and babbling, then learn to use words, and finally develop an understanding of grammar.

Sequence

In what order do children learn language?

Reading Check



• To speak two languages fluently is to be bilingual.

• In general, learning a second language during childhood is easier than learning it later in life.

• The bilingual population of the United States is growing.

• Many people in other countries speak two or more languages.

• Most psychologists believe that bilingualism is good for children’s cognitive development.

Bilingualism



Answer: increased cognitive flexibility in children, improved mastery over child’s native language

Make Generalizations

What are some advantages to bilingualism?

Reading Check



Disappearing Languages

By the year 2100 about half of the world’s 7,000 or so languages are likely to

have disappeared. As a result, information about cultures, their history, the

environment, and the different ways that people think will also disappear.

Cultural Diversity and Psychology

• Languages die as the few remaining people who speak them die.

• Languages are disappearing most rapidly in five regions.

• Two of the regions are the upper Pacific Coast and the Southwest.

• One reason languages die out is because of the influence of “predator” languages.

• When a language is lost, so is an entire culture.

• Different ways of thinking and different ways of using language are also lost.

• Many countries are working to save or revive dying languages.



Thinking Critically• What are three reasons why languages are dying?

• Do you think that the English language reveals unique features of our culture? If so, what are they?



Children, Thinking, and Language

Help new parents understand how their child will think, solve problems,

and use language in these processes.

• You will create a pamphlet designed to help parents understand how their children think and solve problems and the importance of language in this process.

1. Introduction

Lab: Applying What You’ve Learned

• Focus on concerns parents have about how well their children will acquire language and use language to think.

• Focus on steps parents can take to ensure their children develop language skills.

2. Conducting Your Research



• Share your expertise with your group members.

• Include the following:

• Name of your topic

• Important terms and concepts related to your topic

• How your topic is important

• Examples of how your topic works

3. Sharing Your Expertise

Lab (con’t.)

• Your pamphlet must have five sections, one for each topic, plus a cover with a title, your name, and a graphic or illustration.

• Each section must include:

• Three to five sentences or bullet points

• At least two terms related to the topic

• An example

• A graphic or illustration

4. Making the Pamphlet



• Exchange pamphlets with another group.

• Review the new pamphlet.

• Note information you did not include in your own pamphlet.

• Look at the examples and illustrations.

5. Exchange Pamphlets

Lab (con’t.)

• Hold a group discussion about:

• Overall success of lab

• The topics, examples, and illustrations

• How parents might use the information

• Challenges in problem-solving

• How language might change during your lifetime

6. Discussion

Chapter 8: Thinking and Language Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?

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Transcript of Chapter 8: Thinking and Language Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?