Chapter 8: Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches

PSY 338: Motivation

Early philosophers provided cognitive explanations

Plato argued that we perceive to be right based on our ideas of what is right

He felt that we are motivated to maximize virtue which we determine by our thoughts

Plato(424/423–348/347 BCE)

Tolman’s Purposive Behavior

Tolman (1932)Argued for a holistic study of behaviorMolar Behavior: Studying behavior as a whole rather than component parts

Edward Tolman(1886-1959)

Characteristics of Molar Behavior

Tolman (1932)1.Behavior directed toward or away from some specific goal:

Persistent - continue until the goal is obtained

2.Consistent pattern of responses - not random3.Selective - shortest / easiest path

Purpose & Cognition

The three characteristics of molar behavior imply that an organism has some knowledge about the goals towards which its behavior is leadingPurposive - observed not inferred;

Objectively defined by the behaviors observedLearned vs. Performed - learning occurs in absence of behavioral change; motivation activates learning/translates to performanceWe expect that a particular behavior in the future will lead to our goal

Example: Author’s “cognitive cat”

Tolman (1932)

Purpose & Cognition

Tolman (1932)Cognitive Map - where goals may be foundHe did not believe in stimulus response approaches No chain of responses needed Organism has a general sense about where reinforcement can be found; not a series of responses to reach a goalThe concept of a cognitive map suggests that organisms acquire expectations both that behavior will be rewarded and that the reward can be found in specific locationsTolman argued that place learning is the more usual way in which animals learn

Purpose & Cognition

The Great Debate: Behaviorists vs. Cognitivists Cognitivists

•Learning takes place in the mind, not in behavior

•The formation of mental representations of the elements of a task and the discovery of how these elements are related

•Forming a cognitive map of the environment (Tolman, 1948)

•Learning the correct place

Behaviorists

•Learning involves the formation of associations between specific actions and specific events (stimuli) in the environment (Hull, 1949)

•Learning the correct response

Purpose & Cognition

In one experiment, after rats received the reward on their right, the researchers simply rotated a mazeTolman’s theory (place) would predict that the rats would check their cognitive map for the location of the maze within the room, and make a left turn to compensate for the change in starting position Hull’s theory (response) would predict rats would make a right turn as they have been trained to do Maze Arrangements for Testing

Place vs. Response Learning

Purpose & Cognition

Tolman, Ritchie, & Kalish (1946)ProceduresLab rats conditioned to getting the reward on their right, then researchers rotated the mazeUsed maze with flat alleys, no walls, and elevatedDistinctive features in the room were clearly seen from the maze

ResultsRats made left turn

InterpretationSpecific environmental cues encourage cognitive learning; responses or cognitive maps may be learned; rats and people are flexible in their use of whatever cues are available

Force Field Theory

Lewin (1936)Another molar approach to understanding motivationHomeostatic cognitive model of motivationDynamic approach that emphasized that forces acting to initiate behavior are constantly changingHe posits that several forces are simultaneously exerting their influence on us

Force Field Theory

Lewin (1936)Reaction of an object is the result of all forces acting on that object w/in a fieldTension: Need to reach homeostasis

Force Field Theory

Lewin’s (1938) Theory is based on Gestaltist notions and the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment [B = f ( P, E)]Life space = a person’s psychological reality that contains different regions of the person and his perceptions of the environmentMotivation occurs because regions associated with particular needs/goals are in tension until the goals are achieved.

Valence or relative attractiveness influence the level of tension and thus the level of motivation to eliminate the tension

Lewin’s notions of B=f(P,E) and of valence and potency are important to current expectancy-based motivation theories

The Zeigarnik Effect

State of tension will continue to motivate until behavior associated with task is completedEasier to remember unfinished tasks than completed ones

Expectancy-Value Theory

Combination of individual needs and value of goals available in environment

Depends on:1. Value of goal for individual2. Expectancy of obtaining goal

Expectancy-Value Theory

Motivation as a joint function of the value people place on an outcome, and the extent to which they believe they can attain it

i.e., we are driven to attain goals that matter a lot to us but also one’s we believe we can accomplish

Expectancy-Value theory says that motivation is governed by two things:The expectancy of success The value of that successValues of the goal interpreted in terms of costs in pursuing the goal

Expectancy-Value Theory16

Begins with the idea that everyone has a need for achievement, but in different amountsPeople are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that they expect to succeed times the value they place on the successCombination of task value and expectation for successBoth high: persistence, great effort expended, motivation for learningBoth low: refuse to participate, no motivation to learn

Expectancy-Value Theory17

Task value Attainment value Intrinsic or interest value Utility value

Authentic tasks

Expectancy-Value Theory18

CostCost refers to what a person gives up to engage in a task. For example, if Jennifer studies for her French test, she has less time to participate in other activities.If the cost is too high, a person may avoid the activity.

Expectancy-Value Theory19

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory incorporates:

Internal Factors: expectancies & values

External Factors: social situations

Rotter (1954)

Four Basic Concepts:1. Reinforcement Value (Desirability) – Relative2. Subjective Estimates (Expectations)3. Situational Factors (Based on prior experience)4. Generalized Expectations (Prior experience)

Julian Rotter(1916-2014)

Social Learning Theory

Locus of ControlInternal / External control of reinforcement

Rotter (1954)

Click on picture

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Reciprocal Determinism: person, environment, and behavior all interactIncentives: Direct, vicarious, & self-reinforcingMost learning occurs through observing others (modeling) and consequences to them (vicarious reinforcement)

Albert Bandura88 years old

Murray (1938)NeedsThe recurrent concern for a goal state and believed that a need consists of two components Directional Energizing drive20 manifest needsAchievement, autonomy, dominance, understanding, nurturantOther needs were latent but could also lead to achievement motivation

Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement

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Henry Murray(1893-1988)

Murray(1938)Defined achievement motivation as:A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control over things or people, and for rapidly attaining a high standard of excellence The desire to do things well and feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles

Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

McClelland & Atkinson (1948)Felt that important motives of an individual could be assessed by analyzing stories developed from mostly ambiguous picturesCertain themes could be determined through content analysis

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

McClelland & Atkinson (1948)ProcedureArranged to have men on a submarine base go varying lengths of time without foodDeception usedAsked to looked at slides of various scenes that might suggest food seeking or eating and then write stories about the pictureResultsLength of food deprivation correlated to the amount of food imagery found in their storiesInterpretationMotive states were reflected in the interpretations of the TAT pictures

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell (1953)TAT consists of a series of ambiguous figuresParticipants task is to make up a story from the pictureReliability and validity questionableRemains popular and one of the most frequently used test by clinical psychologists

Test measures latent motivations Apperception is the process of projecting imagery onto an

outside stimulus, such as a picture

Typical TAT pictures testing achievement motivation in children

Typical TAT procedure

Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value

Atkinson & Birch (1978)Achievement motivation is an expectancy-value theory because the tendency to engage in a particular activity is related to the strength of the expectation (belief) that the behavior will lead to a particular consequenceValue of consequence is importantBoth intrinsic and extrinsic motivations seem to be involved in approach-avoidance of an achievement-related situation

Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value

Four variables involved in the tendency to approach or avoid achievement situations:

1.Motive for success Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards

being associated with achievement-related cues; positive emotion consequences

2.Motive to avoid failure Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards

being associated with achievement-related cues; negative emotion consequences

3.Probability of success Varies from situation to situation; a person’s subjective estimate of

success

4.Incentive value Varies from situation to situation; some goals are worth more than others

Research on Achievement Motivation

Atkinson & Litwin (1960)ProcedureAssessed college males on motive for success; motive to avoid failureRing-toss game; they could select distance to the peg anywhere form 1-15 feet ResultsThose scoring higher in motive for success than motive to avoid failure selected intermediate distances

Research on Achievement Motivation

Isaacson (1964) Found that college males scoring higher in motive for

success than motive to avoid failure selected majors of intermediate difficulty more often than those scoring higher in motive to avoid failure than motive for success

Results supported Atkinson & Litman (1960)Interpretation of these research studies on

achievement motivation: Those high in motive for success want take part in

challenging tasks that they are capable of being successful at

Criticisms of Need-Achievement Theory

1. Failures to replicate some important findings; preference for intermediate tasks is one

Textbook cites three studies on page 250 that call this finding into question

2. Dual constructs for motive for success and motive to avoid failure make interpreting research on achievement motivation difficult

Difficult to differentiate the two; much overlap

3. Some researchers question if the need for achievement is motivational

Entwisle (1972) found low correlation between grades of high school students and their need-achievement scores

4. Achievement motivation is multidimensional and this makes it difficult to accurately determine

Revisions to Need-Achievement Theory

Dweck & Elliott (1983)Felt we were motivated by two specific goals

Learning Goals Someone motivated by this type of goal will

seek to master a task for the sake of increasing personal competence

Performance Goals How one’s competence compares to others is

the primary motivator for these type of goals

Attitudes, behaviors, and expectancy-ValueDo attitudes correlate with behavior?Bickman (1972)ProcedureInterviewed people who were walking in front of either a college library or a storefront nearby the collegeAsked them if they thought it was everyone’s responsibility to pick up litter or just those who get paid to do soAfter interview, participants would have to walk around or step over trash as it was in their pathResults94% said its everyone’s responsibility to pickup trash; yet only 1.4% actually did pick it upInterpretationAttitudes do not predict behaviors very wellOther factors may be interacting

The Theory of Planned Behavior

Ajzen (1991)Actual Behavioral Control

Intentions and resources to perform the behavior; time and ability

Perceived Behavioral Control One’s level of belief that they can successfully

perform a given behavior Can be accurate perception; can be inaccurate

The Theory of Planned Behavior: Research & Applications

Large body of literature on the subject; most focus on predicting behaviors related to health and safetyThe Theory of Planned Behavior increases accuracy in predicting diverse behaviors:

Texting while driving Gambling Exercising Academic cheating Using public transportation Engaging in safe sex, drinking alcohol, taking

medication, etc.

Social Loafing

A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooledIndividuals are slacking off based on the expectancy that the rest of the group will work hard enough to accomplish a valued goal

Social Loafing

Ringelman’s (1880’s) experimentsIndividual output declined on pooled tasks in all his experiments

Units pulled in rope-tugging task:1 person 100 2 people 186 3 people 2558 people 392

Force exerted in a rope-tugging task:1 person 184 lbs.7 people averaged 143 lbs.

Social Loafing

Ingham et al (1974) ProcedureBlind folded rope pullingDV: EffortIV: Thought people were behind them or notResultsParticipants pulled 18% harder when they thought they were aloneInterpretationDecreased motivation due to an increase in group size

Expectancy Value Theory & Social LoafingKarau & Williams (1993)

Collective Effort ModelIndividuals will be motivated to perform well in tasks if they expect their effort will lead to obtaining a valued goalThree prerequisites for maximal individual effort to occur in a collective effort

One must believe that individual effort will lead to improved group performance

One must expect that the group’s performance will lead to a valued group outcome

The group outcome must result in a valued individual outcome

Predicting & Reducing Social Loafing

Karau & Williams (1993)Performed meta-analysis of 78 studies on social loafing to determine which variables were most involved in this phenomenon

Social loafing can be reduced if: If participants think that individual contributions are

identifiable If participants think that their contributions are unique and

necessary for group success If participants value the task they are performing as being

meaningful Less loafing in small groups Less loafing on simple tasks

Alternatives to the Expectancy-Value Approach to Social LoafingLatane, Williams, & Harkins (1979)Social Impact TheoryThis theory posits that performance in a group decreases because the pressure to work is dispersed among the members of the groupThe larger the group, the less pressure each member of the group feels to perform

Credits

Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:ftp://ftp.amberton.edu/_...01/.../HBD4741%20Lecture%202-16-11.p...

www.psychology.sunysb.edu/.../becca_laptook_