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Chapter 5

Threats to Maryland’s Wildlife

Species and Their Habitats

APPENDICES

2015-2025 Maryland State Wildlife Action Plan

Chapter 5 Appendices

5a. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Threat Categories

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IUCN THREAT Categories - adapted for use in Maryland's State Wildlife Action Plan

Level

1 Level

2 Level 3 Definition / Details Exposition

1 Residential and Commercial Development Threats from human settlements or other non-agricultural land uses with a substantial

footprint

These are threats tied to a defined and relatively compact area, which distinguishes them from those

in 4. Transportation & Service Corridors which have a long narrow footprint, and 6. Human

Intrusions & Disturbance which do not have an explicit footprint.

1.1 Housing and Urban Areas

Human cities, towns and settlements including non-housing development typically

integrated with housing

This category obviously dovetails somewhat arbitrarily with 1.2 Commercial and

Industrial Areas. As a general rule, however, if people live in the development, it should fall

into this category.

1.1.1

Land conversion from natural habitat to urban and other residential

areas (large and small scale)

Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation; species decline and loss; remaining habitats no

longer support species; remaining fragmented patches are increasingly isolated and

movement corridors are restricted or eliminated

1.1.2

Residential development using materials that cause collision

hazards Increase in bird deaths from flying into windows

1.2 Commercial and Industrial Areas Commercial and non-extractive industrial development and operations

Shipyards and airports fall into this category, whereas shipping lanes and flight paths fall under 4.

Transportation & Service Corridors. Dams are NOT included here, rather they are in 7.2 Dams

& Water Management/Use. Mines are NOT included here, rather they are in 3. Energy

Production and Mining. Industrial discharge and settling ponds are in 9.2 Industrial and

Military Effluents.

1.2.1

Land conversion from natural habitat to commercial or industrial

areas (large and small scale)

Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation; species decline and loss; remaining habitats no

longer support species; remaining fragmented patches are increasingly isolated and

movement corridors are restricted or eliminated

1.2.2

Commercial development using materials that cause collision

hazards Increase in bird deaths from flying into windows

1.3 Tourism and Recreational Areas Tourism and recreation sites with a substantial footprint

There is a fine line between housing and vacation housing/resorts. Be careful not to confuse

this category, which focuses on the habitat effects of recreation areas, with those in 6.1

Recreational Activities, which focuses on the disturbance effects posed by recreation.

1.3.1

Land conversion from natural habitat to recreation or

tourism areas (large and small scale) Conversion of significant natural habitats into parks with ball fields, camping

areas, or other inappropriate recreational areas

2 Agriculture and Aquaculture Threats from farming and ranching as a result of agricultural expansion and intensification,

including silviculture, mariculture and aquaculture

Threats resulting from the use of agrochemicals, rather than the direct conversion of land to

agricultural use, should be included under 9.3 Agricultural & Forestry Effluents. Likewise in

cases where conversion to agriculture causes increased run-off and hence sedimentation of rivers

and lakes, that is also best treated under 9.3 Agricultural & Forestry Effluents.

2.1 Annual and Perennial Crops (non-timber) Crops planted for food, fodder, fiber, fuel or other uses

2.1.1 Shifting Agriculture

2.1.2 Small-holder Farming

2.1.3

Agro-industry

Inappropriate placement of new facilities or expansion of existing facilities

that causes loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitat

2.2 Wood and Pulp Plantations Growing and harvesting trees and other woody vegetation for timber, fiber or fuel

If it is one or a couple timber species that are planted on a rotation cycle, it belongs

here. If it is multiple species or enrichment plantings in a quasi-natural system, it belongs in 5.3

Logging & Wood Harvesting.

2.2.1 Small Holder

Appendix 5a. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Threat Categories

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2.2.2 Agro-industry Plantations



2.3 Livestock Farming and Ranching

In farming, animals are kept in captivity; in ranching they are allowed to roam in wild habitats. If a

few animals are mixed in a subsistence cropping system, it belongs in 2.1 Annual & Perennial

Non-Timber Crops. Forage of wild resources for stall-fed animals falls under 5.2 Gathering

Terrestrial Plants. Domesticated livestock that has gone feral should be treated under 8.1 Invasive

Non- native/Alien Species, but other wild-roaming livestock may also require closer consideration

to determine if they are best placed here or also under 8.1.

2.3.1 Small-holder Grazing

2.3.2 Agro-industry Grazing



2.4 Marine and Freshwater Aquaculture

Aquatic animals raised in one location on farmed or non-local resources; also

hatchery fish allowed to roam in the wild Farmed animals are kept in captivity; hatchery fish are put into wild habitats and

are the aquatic equivalent of terrestrial ranching.

2.4.1 Subsistence/Artisanal Aquaculture

2.4.2 Industrial Aquaculture

Inappropriate placement of new facilities or expansion of existing facilities,

such as fish hatcheries, seeded shellfish beds

3 Energy Production and Mining Threats from exploring for, developing, producing and distributing energy or geological

resources

Various forms of water use (for example, dams for hydro power) could also be put in this class, but

these threats seemed more related to other threats that involve alterations to hydrologic regimes. As a

result, they should go in 7.2 Dams & Water Management/Use.

3.1 Oil and Gas Drilling / Pipelines

Oil and gas pipelines go into 4.2 Utility & Service Lines. Oil spills that occur at the drill site

should be placed here; those that come from oil tankers or pipelines should go in 4.

Transportation & Service Corridors or in 9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents, depending on

your perspective.

3.1.1

Drilling and distribution of petroleum and other liquid

hydrocarbons Inappropriate placement of new facilities or expansion of existing facilities


3.1.2

Hydraulic fracturing and other natural gas extraction and

distribution processes Inappropriate placement of new facilities that causes loss, degradation, and

fragmentation of habitat

3.2 Mining and Quarrying Exploring for, developing, and producing minerals and rocks

It is a judgement call whether deforestation caused by strip mining should be in this category or in 5.3

Logging & Wood Harvesting - it depends on whether the primary motivation for the deforestation is

access to the trees or to the minerals. Sediment or toxic chemical runoff from mining should be

placed in 9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents if it is the major threat from a mining operation.

3.2.1

Surface Mining - Coal Strip Mining



3.2.2

Surface Mining - Rock Quarry



3.2.3

Deep Mining



3.2.4

Sand Dredging (outside shipping lanes)

Inappropriately located dredging of offshore sand for placement on Atlantic

coastal beaches; alteration of natural habitats

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3.3 Renewable Energy Exploring, developing, and producing renewable energy Hydropower should be put in 7.2 Dams & Water Management/Use.

3.3.1 Wind Power


that increases bird and bat fatalities in movement corridors and other areas;

loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitat

3.3.2 Solar Power


that causes habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation

3.3.3 Geothermal Power


that causes impacts to groundwater hydrology in areas with cave systems or seepage

wetlands

4 Transportation and Service Corridors

Threats from long narrow transport corridors and the vehicles that use them including

associated wildlife mortality

This class includes transportation corridors outside of human settlements and industrial

developments. These corridors create specific stresses to biodiversity including especially

fragmentation of habitats and lead to other threats including farms, invasive species, and poachers.

4.1 Roads and Railroads Non-energy transportation corridors and the vehicles that use them

Off-road vehicles are treated in the appropriate category in 6. Human Intrusions &

Disturbance. If there are small roads associated with a major utility line, they belong in 4.2.

Utility & Service Lines.

4.1.1

Land conversion from natural habitat to roads and railroads

(large and small scale)

Inappropriate placement of new roads result in degradation of habitat,

including pathways for invasive species; loss of interior conditions for forest interior

dwelling species and subsequent reduced breeding success due to increased access by

predators and parasites; increase in future development

4.1.2

Movement of cars and other vehicles on roads and railroads

(large and small scale)

Wildlife mortality; disruption of movement corridors

4.2 Utility and Service Lines Transport of energy & resources

Cell phone and other communication towers connected by small access roads belong here. If there

are small utility lines using a road right of way, they belong in 4.1 Roads & Railroads. Oil spills from

pipelines should go in 9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents.

4.2.1

Land conversion from natural habitat to utility and other service

lines (large and small scale)

Inappropriate placement of new service lines result it degradation of habitat, including

pathways for invasive species; wildlife mortality; disruption of movement corridors; loss of

interior conditions for forest interior dwelling species and subsequent reduced breeding

success due to increased access by predators and parasites; increase in future development

activities.

4.3 Shipping Lanes Transport on and in freshwater and ocean waterways

This category includes dredging and other activities that maintain shipping lanes.

Anchor damage from dive boats belongs in 6.1 Recreational Activities. Oil spills from ships

should go in 9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents.

4.3.1

Movement of large ships in shipping lanes

Known cause of mortality for species, such as North Atlantic right whale and

Atlantic sturgeon; disruption of movement corridors

4.3.2

Dredging impacts

Inappropriate placement of dredge spoil containment facilities; alteration of natural habitats;

direct mortality of mussels in fresh tidal water

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4.4 Flight Paths Air and space transport Airports fall into 1.2 Commercial & Industrial Areas.

4.4.1 Airplane flight paths

Increased fatalities, especially during migration, within migration corridors and

concentration areas

5 Biological Resource Use

Threats from overharvesting biological resources for commercial, recreation, subsistence,

research or cultural purposes; including both deliberate and unintentional harvesting beyond

sustainable levels

Consumptive use means that the resource is removed from the system or destroyed - multiple people

cannot use the same resource, as they could under 6. Human Intrusions & Disturbance. Threats in

the class can affect both target species (harvest of desired trees or fish species) as well as "collateral

damage" to non-target species (trees damaged by felling or fisheries bycatch) and habitats (coral reefs

destroyed

by trawling). Persecution/control involves harming or killing species because they are considered

undesirable. For some of the use threats there is an additional question on whether or not

International trade is a significant driver of decline (5.1.1, 5.2.1, 5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.4.1, 5.4.2).

5.1 Hunting and Collecting Terrestrial Animals

Overharvesting terrestrial wild animals or animal products; includes accidental

mortality/bycatch

This category focuses on animals that primarily live in a terrestrial environment. There are

obviously some species that live on the terrestrial/aquatic boundary. Hunting otters, beavers,

amphibians, polar bears, penguins, waterfowl, and sea birds should (somewhat arbitrarily) go here.

Hunting seals, whales and other marine mammals, and freshwater and marine turtles go in 5.4

Fishing & Harvesting Aquatic Resources. Yes, most people "gather" honey, eggs, or insects or

other slow moving targets, rather than "hunt" them. But for consistency it was decided to keep all

animal products as being hunted. This option does not distinguish between small and large scale

(unlike others below) as generally most hunting and collecting of animals is small scale, but

arguably some hunting in the past was very large "industrial" scale.

5.1.1 Intentional Use

Includes excessive or illegal collecting of butterflies and other insects; illegal collection of

reptiles & amphibians; localized excessive beaver trapping

5.1.2 Unintentional effects

Includes bycatch of marsh birds in nutria and muskrat traps; localized loss of

beaver wetlands

5.1.3 Persecution/Control

Includes persecution of timber rattlesnake, copperhead, and similar-looking

species; localized excessive beaver trapping

5.2 Gathering Terrestrial Plants Overharvesting plants, fungi, and other non-timber/non-animal products

This category focuses on plants, mushrooms, and other non-animal terrestrial species except

trees which are treated in 5.3 Logging & Wood Harvesting.

5.2.1

Intentional Use

Includes excessive collecting of orchids and other wildflowers, ginseng and

other medicinal plants

5.2.2 Unintentional effects Trampling or other habitat destruction

5.2.3 Control

5.3 Logging and Wood Harvesting Harvesting trees and other woody vegetation for timber, fibre, or fuel

Felling trees to clear agricultural land goes in the appropriate category in 2. Agriculture &

Aquaculture. If it is a few timber species that are planted on a rotation cycle, it belongs in 2.2 Wood

& Pulp Plantations. If it is multiple species or enrichment plantings in a quasi-natural system, it

belongs here.

5.3.1 Intentional Use (subsistence/small scale)

Management of public or private lands leading to loss, fragmentation,

degradation, and isolation of forested habitats and species

5.3.2 Intentional Use (large scale)

Management of public or private lands leading to loss, fragmentation,

degradation, and isolation of forested habitats and species

5.3.3 Unintentional effects (subsistence/small scale)

5.3.4 Unintentional effects (large scale)

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5.4 Fishing and Harvesting of Aquatic Resources

Harvesting aquatic wild animals or plants for commercial, recreation, subsistence,

research, or cultural purposes, or for control/persecution reasons; includes accidental

mortality/bycatch

This category focuses on all kinds of species that are primarily found in an aquatic environment.

There are obviously some species that live on the terrestrial/aquatic boundary. Hunting otters,

beavers, amphibians, polar bears, penguins, waterfowl, and sea birds should (somewhat arbitrarily)

go in 5.1Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals. Hunting seals, whales and other marine

mammals, and freshwater and marine turtles go here. It is important to consider the distinction

between intentional and an unintentional fisheries - the former specifically targets a species or

adjusts its fishing tactics to catch a particular species, whereas the unintentional option covers all

other fisheries including bycatch and discards.

5.4.1 Intentional Use (subsistence/small scale) Includes potentially excessive horseshoe crab harvest, etc.

5.4.2 Intentional Use (large scale)

5.4.3 Unintentional effects (subsistence/small scale) Includes loss of diamond-backed terrapins in crab traps

5.4.4

Unintentional effects (large scale)

Includes loss of diamond-backed terrapins in crab traps; VA winter dredging of

crabs causing terrapin loss

5.4.5 Persecution/Control

6 Human Intrusions and Disturbance Threats from human activities that alter, destroy and disturb habitats and species

associated with non-consumptive uses of biological resources

Non-consumptive use means that the resource is not removed - multiple people can use the same

resource (for example, birdwatching). These threats typically do not permanently destroy habitat

except perhaps in extremely severe manifestations.

6.1 Recreational Activities

People spending time in nature or traveling in vehicles outside of established transport

corridors, usually for recreational reasons

This category does not include work involving consumptive use of biodiversity - for example

disturbance impacts from loggers or hunters would be in the appropriate category in 5. Biological

Resource Use. Vehicles and boats in established transport corridors go in 4. Transportation &

Service Corridors. The development of permanent recreational or tourist facilities (such as hotels

and resorts) should be included under section 1.3 Tourism & Recreation Areas rather than here.

6.1.1 Off-road vehicles (motorized and non-motorized)

Direct mortality; vehicles driving over dunes or through streams increase erosion and

sediment threats, increase spread of invasive plants, etc.

6.1.2 Boating

Includes disruption of waterbird colonies, other nesting habitats, or roosting

areas in the course of recreational use

6.1.3 Use of beaches

Includes disruption of nesting, roosting, foraging birds on beaches by

pedestrians and dogs

6.1.4 Exploration of caves/mines

Includes disruption of roosting, hibernating bats and other organisms in the

course of recreational use

6.1.5 Rock climbing and repelling

Includes disruption of nesting habitats, roosting areas, and sunning areas in

the course of recreational use

6.2 Military Exercises Actions by formal or paramilitary forces without a permanent footprint

This category focuses on military activities that have a large impact on natural habitats, but are not

permanently restricted to a single area. Permanent military bases should go under 1.2

Commercial & Industrial Areas. Other military activities might best be assigned to other

categories. For example, hunting of specific animals by soldiers living off the land fits under 5.1

Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals.

6.2.1 Military exercises

Includes activities at Sideling Hill Creek, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Indian

Head, Andrews AFB, etc.

6.3 Work and Other Activities

People spending time in or traveling in natural environments for reasons other than recreation

or military activities, such as law enforcement, research

6.3.1 Unauthorized research projects at significant habitats Includes excessive trampling impacts in rare natural communities

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7 Natural Systems Modifications Threats from actions that convert or degrade habitat in service of “managing”

natural or semi-natural systems, often to improve human welfare

This category deals primarily with changes to natural processes such as fire, hydrology, and

sedimentation, rather than land use. Thus it does not include threats relating to agriculture

(which should be under 2. Agriculture & Aquaculture), or infrastructure (1. Residential &

Commercial Development and 4. Transportation & Service Corridors).

7.1 Fire and Fire Suppression

Suppression or increase in fire frequency and/or intensity outside of its natural range of

variation

This category focuses on the human activities that lead to either not enough fire or too much fire in

the ecosystem in question. If fire escapes from established agricultural lands, it belongs here, if fire is

used to clear new agricultural lands, it belongs in the appropriate category in 2. Agriculture &

Aquaculture. It also includes damaging "natural" fires in systems that have lost their natural

resilience.

7.1.1 Increase in Fire Frequency/Intensity Including illegal fires set in lower Eastern Shore marshes in late winter

7.1.2 Suppression of Fire Frequency/Intensity Including lack of fire in fire-dependent habitats

7.2 Dams and Water Management/Use

Changing water flow patterns from their natural range of variation either deliberately or

as a result of other activities

This category focuses on the human activities that lead to either not enough water or too much water

in the ecosystem in question. Note that homogenizing flows to a constant level may be outside the

"natural range of variation." Dredging belongs in 4.3 Shipping Lanes.

7.2.1 Abstraction of Surface Water (domestic use)

Includes water diversion from streams and rivers; ditching, impounding, and

other marsh management techniques for mosquito control; stream channelization

7.2.2 Abstraction of Surface Water (commercial use)

7.2.3 Abstraction of Surface Water (agricultural use) Includes stream ditching and channelization

7.2.5 Abstraction of Ground Water (domestic use)

Includes the disruption of groundwater hydrology during construction of

residential or commercial developments

7.2.6 Abstraction of Ground Water (commercial use)

Includes the disruption of groundwater hydrology during mining operations

and hydraulic fracturing

7.2.7 Abstraction of Ground Water (agricultural use) Includes groundwater pumping for irrigation

7.2.9 Small Dams

7.2.10 Large Dams

7.2.11 Dams (size unknown)

7.2.12 Culverts

7.2.13 Stream Burial Loss of headwater/ intermittent streams

7.2.14 Impervious Surfaces

Hydrological alterations resulting in "flash" pulses of rainwater, loss of groundwater

recharge areas, increased stream bank destabilization, etc.

7.3 Other Ecosystem Modifications

Other actions that convert or degrade habitat in service of “managing” natural systems to

improve human welfare

This option includes both too much management (over-management) or too little

(abandonment). The latter is particularly relevant when former agricultural lands are abandoned.

7.3.1 Shoreline Stabilization Includes rip-rap, jetties, bulkheads, groins, etc.

7.3.2 Inappropriate timing of mowing Includes roadside mowing, haying of fields

7.3.3 Removal of coarse woody debris (streams, forests)

7.3.4

Lack of natural disturbance patterns or ecosystem functions

due to species loss

7.3.5

Imbalanced predator-prey dynamics

Includes increased levels of predation by mesocarnivores due to loss of apex

carnivores

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8 Invasive and Other Problematic Species, Genes and Diseases

Threats from non-native and native plants, animals, pathogens/microbes, or genetic materials

that have or are predicted to have harmful effects on biodiversity following their introduction,

spread and/or increase in abundance

After much deliberation it was decided to restrict the use of "invasive species" to refer to non-native

species to keep things simple for policy makers. The term "problematic native species" is used

instead to refer to native species that have become superabundant or otherwise cause problems. If

possible, also record the source of the invasive species and/or conditions that exacerbate their effect.

This is the class of threats that covers diseases. Where the Kingdom for a fungal disease is unknown,

it should be coded under 8.1.1, 8.2.1 or 8.3.1 and the disease name should be noted in the text field.

8.1 Invasive Non-native/ Alien Species/ Diseases

Harmful plants, animals, pathogens not originally found within the ecosystem(s) in question

and directly or indirectly introduced and spread into it by human activities

We are defining non-native/alien/exotic species and diseases as those brought in either intentionally

or accidentally by humans in the last 10,000 years. Note that for diseases, it is the infective agent

which is considered to be the threat, with the disease being its manifestation in individuals.

Domesticated livestock that has gone feral should be coded here, but there is a grey area concerning

'farmed' livestock which are allowed to roam wild; if these are rounded up periodically they could be

considered "farmed" and coded under 2.3 Livestock Farming & Ranching,

8.1.1 Unspecified Species

8.1.2 Invasive non-native aquatic animals Includes zebra mussel, blue catfish

8.1.3 Invasive non-native aquatic plants Includes hydrilla, water chestnut

8.1.4 Invasive non-native terrestrial/wetland animals Includes feral cats, hemlock woolly adelgid, feral horses

8.1.5 Invasive non-native terrestrial/wetland plants Includes phragmites, garlic mustard

8.1.6 Invasive non-native fungal/bacterial diseases Includes chytrid fungus, white-nose syndrome fungus

8.2 Problematic Native Species/Diseases

Harmful plants, animals, or pathogens that are originally found within the

ecosystem(s) in question, but have become out-of-balance or released directly or indirectly due

to human activities

It is a judgment call as to when a species becomes "problematic" or "outside its natural range of

variation."


8.2.2 Named Species Includes white-tailed deer, raccoon roundworm

8.3 Introduced Genetic Material Human altered or transported organisms or genes

Hatchery fish are not necessarily invasive species, but they can upset the gene pool

of native fish.

8.3.1

Herbicide resistant crops

Includes loss of common milkweed from excessive agricultural herbicide applications

resulting in loss and degradation of monarch habitat

8.4 Problematic Species/Diseases of Unknown Origin


8.4.2 Named Species

8.5 Viral/Prion-induced Diseases

8.5.1 Unspecified Species (Disease)

8.5.2 Named Species (Disease) Includes West Nile Virus, ranavirus, sudden oak death

8.6 Diseases of Unknown Cause

List the specific disease

9 Pollution Threats from introduction of exotic and/or excess materials or energy from point and

nonpoint sources

This class deals with exotic or excess materials introduced to the environment. There is obviously a

fine distinction when the pollution comes from another threat - for example, should an oil spill from

a pipeline be classified as 4.2 Utility & Service Lines or 9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents? You

will have to exercise some judgment here as to which represents the direct threat in your situation.

In some cases, the source of the pollution may be either unknown or from a historical source (e.g.,

heavy metals buried in sediments). In these cases, you may have to make an educated guess as to

which category to assign the pollutant.

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9.1 Domestic and Urban Waste Water

Water-borne sewage and non-point runoff from housing and urban areas that include

nutrients, toxic chemicals and/or sediments

This category does not include major industrial discharge, which falls under 9.2 Industrial &

Military Effluents. It does include chemicals and next generation pollutants (caffeine or pharmaceuticals) in household waste streams. Technically, sewage from a pipe is "point-source" whereas a leaking septic system is "nonpoint- source." This category does not include agricultural runoff, which falls under 9.3

Agricultural & Forestry Effluents.

9.1.1 Sewage

Includes leaking septic systems, discharge from municipal wastewater

treatment plants, untreated sewage

9.1.2 Run-off

Includes oil and sediment from roads, chemicals from roads and lawns, road

salt, golf course chemicals, etc

9.1.3 Other

9.2 Industrial and Military Effluents

Water-borne pollutants from industrial and military sources including mining, energy

production, and other resource extraction industries that include nutrients, toxic chemicals

and/or sediments

The source of the pollution is often far from the system – an extreme example are the heavy metals

that migrating eels bring to the Sargasso Sea. Often, the pollutants only become a problem when

they bioconcentrate through the food chain. Oil spills from pipelines should generally go here.

9.2.1 Oil Spills Includes leakage from fuel tanks, spills from pipelines, PCBs in river sediments

9.2.2 Seepage from Mining Includes acid mine drainage, mine tailings

9.2.3 Other

There are other known examples of industrial pollution, which are not specifically captured under

the classification scheme. These should be coded here for now, and the type/cause of the pollution

noted in the text box. Examples include: toxic chemicals from factories, illegal dumping of

chemicals, other industrial effluent, ship waste discharge, etc.

9.2.3 Other: Hydraulic fracturing

Includes toxic spills from failure of wastewater ponds, failure of pipe

casements, etc

9.2.4 Other: Industrial toxic settling ponds Increase in wildlife deaths from landing in or drinking from ponds

9.3 Agricultural and Forestry Effluents

Water-borne pollutants from agricultural, silvicultural, and aquaculture systems that include

nutrients, toxic chemicals and/or sediments including the effects of these pollutants on the site

where they are applied

Wind erosion of agricultural sediments or smoke from forest fires goes in 9.5 Air- Borne

Pollutants.

9.3.1 Nutrient Loads

Includes nutrient loading from fertilizer run-off, manure from feedlots,

nutrients from aquaculture, etc.

9.3.2 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation

Includes soil erosion from overgrazing, increased run-off and hence

sedimentation due to conversion of forests to agricultural lands, etc.

9.3.3 Herbicides and Pesticides Includes herbicide run-off from agricultural fields, etc.

9.3.3

Control of insect pests leading to mortality of non-target

species

Includes mosquito control using larvacides and adulticides, etc.

9.3.4 Other

9.4 Garbage and Solid Waste Rubbish and other solid materials including those that entangle wildlife

This category generally is for solid waste outside of designated landfills - landfills themselves should

go in 1.2 Commercial & Industrial Areas. Likewise, toxins leaching from solid waste - for

example, mercury leaking out of a landfill into groundwater - should go in 9.2 Industrial & Military

Effluents.

9.4.1

List the type, source, and if possible, the specific pollutants of

concern

Includes municipal waste, litter from cars and boats, waste that entangles or

strangles wildlife, construction debris, etc.

9.5 Airborne Pollutants Atmospheric pollutants from point and nonpoint sources

It may be difficult to determine the sources of many atmospheric pollutants – and

thus hard to take action to counter them.

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9.5.1 Acid Rain

Includes acid rain, excess nitrogen deposition, wind dispersion of pollutants or sediments,

radioactive fallout, smoke from forest fires, etc.

9.5.2 Smog

Includes smog from vehicle emissions, coal burning, smoke from forest fires, wind dispersion

of pollutants or sediments, hydraulic fracturing pollutants, etc.

Smog is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines

and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also

combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. Smog is also caused by large

amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke, sulphur dioxide and other

components.

9.5.3 Ozone

Includes ozone from vehicle emissions, factory smoke emissions, smoke from forest fires,

wind dispersion of pollutants or sediments, etc.

Ozone is not emitted directly by car engines or by industrial operations, but formed by the reaction of

sunlight on air containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that react to form ozone directly at

the source of the pollution or many kilometers down wind.

9.5.4 Methane Includes methane from hydraulic fracturing emissions

9.5.5 Herbicides and Pesticides

Includes impacts to non-target organisms and habitats from aerial application of chemicals to

control pests, such as gypsy moths, mosquitos, etc.

9.6 Excess Energy Inputs of heat, sound, or light that disturb wildlife or ecosystems These inputs of energy can have strong effects on some species or ecosystems.

9.6.1 Light Pollution

Includes lamps attracting insects, beach lights disorienting turtles, tower lights

disorienting migrating birds, etc.

9.6.2 Thermal Pollution

Includes heated water from power plants and impervious surfaces, damaging

atmospheric radiation resulting from ozone holes, etc.

9.6.3 Noise Pollution

Includes noise from highways or airplanes, sonar from submarines that disturb

whales, offshore wind development construction, etc.

9.6.4 Other

10 Geological Events

Threats from geological events that may eliminate a vulnerable species or habitat

Strictly speaking, geological events may be part of natural disturbance regimes in many ecosystems.

But they need to be considered a threat if a species or habitat is damaged from other threats and has

lost its resilience and is thus vulnerable to the disturbance.

10.1 Volcanoes

List the specific problem

10.2 Earthquake/Tsunamis

List the specific problem Increase in seismic activity

10.3 Avalanches/Landslides

List the specific problem Includes mudslides, landslides, etc.

11 Climate Change and Severe Weather Threats from long-term climatic changes or other severe weather that may eliminate a

vulnerable species or habitat

Strictly speaking climatic events may be part of natural disturbance regimes in many ecosystems. But

they are a threat if a species or habitat is damaged from other threats and has lost its resilience and is

thus vulnerable to the disturbance. Many climatic events may also be increasing in frequency or

intensity outside their natural range of variation due to human causes.

11.1 Habitat Shifting or Alteration Major changes in habitat composition and location This category focuses primarily on the habitat effects of climate change.

11.1.1 Sea Level Rise

Includes coastal habitat alterations, such as existing tidal marshes converting to open water

and adjacent uplands converting to tidal marshes

11.2 Droughts Periods in which rainfall falls below the normal range of variation

11.2.1 Droughts Timing of droughts may eliminate small wetlands and streams; freshwater mussel loss

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11.3 Temperature Extremes

Periods in which temperatures exceed or go below the normal range of

variation; Includes heat waves, extreme cold spells, oceanic temperature changes, etc.

11.3.1 Temperature extremes

Includes surface temperature increase and general temperature increases that

lead to loss of habitats and species adapted to cooler temperatures, such as

"frost pocket" wetlands in Garrett County

11.4 Storms and Flooding

Extreme precipitation and/or wind events, including hurricanes, tornados, ice

storms, excessive beach erosion

11.4.1 Storms and flooding

Extreme flooding breaches existing natural sand berms along shores that normally limit tidal

flooding events and cause conversion of "baymouth barrier wetlands" to open water or other

natural communities

11.5 Phenology Shifting or Alteration

11.5.1 Phenology shifts related to pollination ecology

Includes timing of host plant life history is mismatched with timing of wildlife life history,

i.e., plants may bloom before required pollinators are present

11.5.2 Phenology shifts related to predator-prey ecology

Includes mismatched timing of animal movements with their prey item life

cycle, e.g., migratory songbirds may not return in spring at time of maximum caterpillar

emergence

11.6 Increased Rainfall Includes long-term increases in soil moisture

12 Resource Management Needs

12.1 Resource information collection needs

12.1.1

Lack of initial baseline inventory

Includes need for new surveys for new SGCN and new surveys in

undersurveyed or new locations

12.1.2 Lack of up-to-date existing information Includes resurveying previous locations; monitoring

12.1.3 Need to answer research question May include monitoring

12.1.4 Need to develop new technique

12.2 Management decision needs

12.2.1 Need to provide technical assistance

Includes assistance to landowners, public and private land managers,

government agencies

12.2.2 Need to conduct environmental reviews

Includes review and providing recommendations to avoid, minimize, and mitigate impacts

to various types of private or public development projects

12.2.3 Need for fish, wildlife and/or habitat planning

Includes creating, regularly reviewing, and updating species management

plans, public land management plans, private land management plans, prioritization

or targeting plans

13 Recreation Needs

13.1 Training Needs

13.1.1

Need for more and/or improved training in outdoor

recreational methods

13.1.2 Need to improve safety/ethics in outdoor recreation

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13.2 Public access needs

13.2.1

Need for more public access to areas or facilities for outdoor

recreation

13.2.2

Need to maintain or improve quality of areas or facilities for

outdoor recreation

13.3 Utilization needs

13.3.1

Lack of information on how fish and wildlife resources are

utilized

13.3.2

Lack of information on how outdoor recreation areas and

facilities are utilized

13.3.3

Lack of information on locations of fish and wildlife

resources and public access areas and facilities

13.3.4

Need to maintain or increase recruitment and/or retention

of outdoor recreationalists

14 Education/ Outreach Needs

14.1 Utilization needs

14.1.1 Need to maintain or increase supply of fish to support fishing

14.2 Education needs

14.2.1

Need for improved knowledge of fish and wildlife and their

habitats Includes training for contractors to recognize vernal pools and other wetland

types

14.2.2 Lack of aquatic resources and wildlife education facilities

14.2.3

Need for improved knowledge of WSFR grant programs and

their accomplishments

14.3 Outreach needs

14.3.1

Need to develop and/or maintain a broad base of support for

agency goals and objectives

14.3.2 Need to maintain and/or increase constituent base

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15 Administrative Needs

15.1 Infrastructure needs

15.1.1

Need to maintain or improve fish and wildlife agency

administrative facilities

15.1.2

Need to maintain or improve information management

systems Includes Biotics central GIS

15.2 Organizational/program planning needs

15.2.1

Need for agency organizational planning to meet goals and

objectives

15.2.2

Need for WSFR program/subprogram planning to meet goals

and objectives

15.3 Coordination/administration needs

15.3.1

Need for agency administrative support for effective

operations

15.3.2

Need for coordination for effective program/project

management

15.3.3 Need for increased legal protection Includes updating existing laws/regulations and enacting new laws/regulations

15.3.4 Need for increased enforcement of laws

15.3.5 Need for changes in government policies

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