Chapter 5Chapter 5LearningLearning

Chapter 5 OverviewChapter 5 Overview

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning– Learning through association of Learning through association of stimulistimuli

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning– Learning through consequencesLearning through consequences

Cognitive learningCognitive learning– Learning through mental Learning through mental processesprocesses

LearningLearning

A relatively permanent A relatively permanent change in behavior, change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired attitude that is acquired through experience and through experience and cannot be attributed to cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or illness, injury, or maturation maturation

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning A type of learning through A type of learning through which an organism learns to which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with associate one stimulus with anotheranother– A A stimulusstimulus is any event or is any event or object in the environment to object in the environment to which an organism respondswhich an organism responds

What type of learning did What type of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) discovered discovered classical classical conditioningconditioning– Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US)– Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR)– Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

What kind of learning did What kind of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (US)(US)– Elicits an unconditioned Elicits an unconditioned response without learningresponse without learning

e.g., food, loud noise, light e.g., food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eyein eye, puff of air in eye

Unconditioned response Unconditioned response (UR)(UR)– Response elicited by an Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus without learningwithout learning

e.g.,e.g., salivation,salivation, startle, startle, contraction of pupil, contraction of pupil, eyeblinkeyeblink

What kind of learning did What kind of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Neutral stimulus that, after Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with US, repeated pairing with US, becomes associated with it and becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned responseelicits a conditioned response

e.g., a tonee.g., a tone Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

– Learned response thatLearned response that comes to comes to be elicited by a conditioned be elicited by a conditioned stimulusstimulus

e.g., salivation in response e.g., salivation in response to a toneto a tone

Higher order conditioningHigher order conditioning– Occurs when conditioned Occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked to form a stimuli are linked to form a series of signalsseries of signals

What kinds of changes in What kinds of changes in stimuli and learning stimuli and learning

conditions lead toconditions lead to changes in changes in conditioned responses?conditioned responses?

ExtinctionExtinction– Weakening and eventual Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated as a result of repeated presentation of the CS presentation of the CS without the USwithout the US

Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery– Reappearance of an Reappearance of an extinguished CR when extinguished CR when organism is exposed to organism is exposed to the CS following a rest the CS following a rest periodperiod

What kinds of changes in What kinds of changes in stimuli and learning stimuli and learning conditions lead to changes in conditions lead to changes in conditioned responses?conditioned responses? GeneralizationGeneralization

– Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CSthat is similar to the original CS

DiscriminationDiscrimination– Learned ability to distinguish Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimulibut not to similar stimuli

How did Watson demonstrate How did Watson demonstrate that fear could be classically that fear could be classically conditioned?conditioned? Watson and Rayner Watson and Rayner (1920) “Little (1920) “Little Albert” studyAlbert” study

Conditioned fears Conditioned fears “persist and modify “persist and modify personality personality throughout life”throughout life”

Mary Cover Jones Mary Cover Jones (1924) later used (1924) later used classical classical conditioning to conditioning to remove fears in remove fears in another boyanother boy

According to Rescorla, what is According to Rescorla, what is the critical element in the critical element in classical conditioning?classical conditioning?

Pavlov and WatsonPavlov and Watson– Believed that the critical element Believed that the critical element of classical conditioning is of classical conditioning is repeated pairing of the CS and USrepeated pairing of the CS and US

Robert RescorlaRobert Rescorla– Showed that the critical element Showed that the critical element is whether the CS provides is whether the CS provides information that enables the information that enables the organism to reliably predict the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the USoccurrence of the US

How do biological How do biological predispositions affect predispositions affect classical conditioning?classical conditioning?

Biological predispositionsBiological predispositions affect classical conditioningaffect classical conditioning– Organisms are biologically Organisms are biologically predisposed to rapidly acquire predisposed to rapidly acquire classically conditioned associations classically conditioned associations that enhance chances for survivalthat enhance chances for survival

Garcia and Koelling study Garcia and Koelling study (1966)(1966)

Rats learned to associate nausea Rats learned to associate nausea with flavored water, and electric with flavored water, and electric shock with noise and lightsshock with noise and lights

But did not learn to associate But did not learn to associate nausea with noise and lights, or nausea with noise and lights, or electric shock with flavored electric shock with flavored waterwater

Results demonstrated that animals Results demonstrated that animals are biologically predisposed to are biologically predisposed to make certain associations but not make certain associations but not othersothers

What types of everyday What types of everyday responses can be subject to responses can be subject to classical conditioning?classical conditioning?

Why diet soda can make people Why diet soda can make people hungryhungry– Sweet taste of soda becomes a CS Sweet taste of soda becomes a CS that elicits insulin increase, that elicits insulin increase, leading to feelings of hungerleading to feelings of hunger

AdvertisingAdvertising– An attractive celebrity (US) is An attractive celebrity (US) is associated with a product (CS)associated with a product (CS)

– After repeated pairings, the product After repeated pairings, the product elicits excitement (CR)elicits excitement (CR)

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

A type of learning in which A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior the consequences of behavior are manipulated so as to are manipulated so as to increase or decrease the increase or decrease the frequency of an existing frequency of an existing response or to shape an response or to shape an entirely new responseentirely new response

What did Thorndike and Skinner What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the effects of discover about the effects of consequences on behavior?consequences on behavior?

Edward Thorndike formulated the Edward Thorndike formulated the law of effectlaw of effect– The consequence, or effect, of a The consequence, or effect, of a response determines whether the response determines whether the tendency to respond in the same way tendency to respond in the same way in the future is strengthened or in the future is strengthened or weakenedweakened

i.e., organisms tend to repeat behaviors i.e., organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequencesthat bring about pleasant consequences

The law of effect formed the basis The law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner’s work on for B. F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioningoperant conditioning

What are the effects of What are the effects of positive reinforcement and positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?negative reinforcement? Anything that follows a response Anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the and strengthens it or increases the probability that it will be probability that it will be repeatedrepeated

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement– A pleasant or desirable consequence A pleasant or desirable consequence that increases the probability that a that increases the probability that a response will be repeatedresponse will be repeated

Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement– Termination of an unpleasant condition Termination of an unpleasant condition after a response, which increases the after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be probability that the response will be repeatedrepeated

What are the effects of What are the effects of positive reinforcement and positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?negative reinforcement?

Primary reinforcerPrimary reinforcer– A reinforcer that fulfills a basic A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need and does not depend on physical need and does not depend on learninglearning

Secondary reinforcerSecondary reinforcer– A reinforcer that is acquired or A reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with learned through association with other reinforcersother reinforcers

What are the four types of What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, and which type is most and which type is most effective?effective? Fixed-ratio (FR)Fixed-ratio (FR)

– Reinforcer given after a fixed number Reinforcer given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responsesof correct, nonreinforced responses

Variable-ratio (VR)Variable-ratio (VR)– Reinforcer is given after a varying Reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responsesnumber of nonreinforced responses

Fixed-interval (FI)Fixed-interval (FI)– Reinforcer is given after first Reinforcer is given after first correct response after a specific correct response after a specific period of time has elapsedperiod of time has elapsed

Variable-interval (VI)Variable-interval (VI)– Reinforcer is given after first Reinforcer is given after first correct response following a varying correct response following a varying period of timeperiod of time

What are the four types of What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, and which type is most and which type is most effective?effective?

Ratio schedules Ratio schedules yield higher yield higher response rates than response rates than interval schedulesinterval schedules– Fixed ratioFixed ratio schedule schedule has highest response has highest response raterate

Variable schedules Variable schedules are most resistant are most resistant to extinctionto extinction

What are the goals of shaping, What are the goals of shaping, extinction, generalization, and extinction, generalization, and discriminative stimuli in the discriminative stimuli in the operant conditioning process?operant conditioning process?

ShapingShaping– Gradually molding a desired behavior Gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired in the direction of the desired responseresponse

– Eventually, responses are guided Eventually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal by rewarding toward the ultimate goal by rewarding successive approximationssuccessive approximations

A series of gradual steps, each of which is A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired responsemore similar to the final desired response

What are the roles of shaping, What are the roles of shaping, extinction, generalization, and extinction, generalization, and discriminative stimuli in the discriminative stimuli in the operant conditioning process?operant conditioning process?

ExtinctionExtinction– Weakening and eventual disappearance Weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response as a of a conditioned response as a result of withholding reinforcementresult of withholding reinforcement

GeneralizationGeneralization– Tendency to make a learned response Tendency to make a learned response to a stimulus similar to that for to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally which the response was originally reinforcedreinforced

Discriminative stimulusDiscriminative stimulus– Stimulus that signals whether a Stimulus that signals whether a response or behavior is likely to be response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punishedrewarded, ignored, or punished

How does punishment affect How does punishment affect behavior?behavior?

PunishmentPunishment is the removal of a is the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a responseprobability of a response– Positive punishmentPositive punishment

Decrease in behavior that results from Decrease in behavior that results from an added consequencean added consequence

– Negative punishmentNegative punishment Decrease in behavior that results from a Decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequenceremoved consequence

The disadvantages of The disadvantages of punishmentpunishment

It does not extinguish undesirable It does not extinguish undesirable behavior, rather, it suppresses the behavior, rather, it suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent behavior when the punishing agent is presentis present

It indicates that a behavior is It indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate people develop more appropriate behaviorbehavior

The person who is punished often The person who is punished often becomes fearful and feels angry becomes fearful and feels angry toward the punishertoward the punisher

It frequently leads to aggressionIt frequently leads to aggression

Alternatives to punishmentAlternatives to punishment

Removing the rewarding consequences Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior may be the of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish itbest way to extinguish it– Not giving in to a child’s demands Not giving in to a child’s demands during a tantrumduring a tantrum

– Ignoring misbehavior that is performed Ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely to get attention and giving merely to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate attention to more appropriate behaviorsbehaviors

Using positive reinforcement can Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewardingmake good behavior more rewarding

Making punishment more Making punishment more effectiveeffective

Punishment is most effective Punishment is most effective when applied during the when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward misbehavior or as soon afterward as possibleas possible

Punishment should be of the Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behaviorsuppress the problem behavior

To be effective, punishment must To be effective, punishment must be applied consistentlybe applied consistently

When is avoidance learning When is avoidance learning desirable, and when is it desirable, and when is it maladaptive?maladaptive?

Escape learningEscape learning– Learning to performing a behavior because it Learning to performing a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive eventprevents or terminates an aversive event

Avoidance learningAvoidance learning– Learning to avoid events or conditions Learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequenceassociated with aversive consequence

– Can be adaptiveCan be adaptive Avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has Avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has been drinkingbeen drinking

– But much avoidance learning is maladaptiveBut much avoidance learning is maladaptive Avoiding situations because of phobiasAvoiding situations because of phobias

What are some applications of What are some applications of operant conditioning?operant conditioning?

BiofeedbackBiofeedback– The use of sensitive equipment to The use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so internal physiological processes so that they can learn to exercise that they can learn to exercise control over themcontrol over them

Has been used to control migraine Has been used to control migraine headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety, epilepsy, sexual asthma, anxiety, epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions, neuromuscular disorders, dysfunctions, neuromuscular disorders, etc.etc.

What are some applications of What are some applications of operant conditioning?operant conditioning?

Behavior modificationBehavior modification – Changing behavior based on the learning Changing behavior based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational operant conditioning, or observational learninglearning

– Has been used to change self-injurious Has been used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with behavior in children and adults with autismautism

Token economyToken economy– A program that motivates socially A program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokenstokens

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Cognitive processes Cognitive processes are mental are mental processes such as thinking, processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental remembering, and forming mental representationsrepresentations– Behaviorists such as Watson and Behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner believed that learning could Skinner believed that learning could be explained without reference to be explained without reference to internal mental processesinternal mental processes

– Today, however, most psychologists Today, however, most psychologists stress the role of mental processes stress the role of mental processes by broadening the study of learning by broadening the study of learning to include to include cognitive processescognitive processes

What is insight, and how does What is insight, and how does it affect learning?it affect learning?

InsightInsight– Sudden realization of the Sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a relationship between elements in a problem, which makes the solution problem, which makes the solution apparentapparent

KKööhler studies with chimpanzeeshler studies with chimpanzees– Chimpanzees who had given up attempts Chimpanzees who had given up attempts to get bananas suddenly returned with to get bananas suddenly returned with a solution a solution

– Their behavior seemed to be based on Their behavior seemed to be based on insight, not trial-and-error learninginsight, not trial-and-error learning

What did Tolman discover about What did Tolman discover about the necessity of the necessity of reinforcement?reinforcement?

Latent learningLatent learning– Learning that occurs without Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do somotivated to do so

Cognitive mapCognitive map– A mental representation of a spatial A mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a mazearrangement such as a maze

What did Tolman learn about What did Tolman learn about the necessity of the necessity of

reinforcement?reinforcement? Rats rewarded for Rats rewarded for running a maze after 11 running a maze after 11 days of days of nonreinforcement showed nonreinforcement showed marked improvement the marked improvement the next day and next day and outperformed rats that outperformed rats that were rewarded dailywere rewarded daily

These rats had learned These rats had learned the maze without the maze without reinforcementreinforcement– They formed a They formed a cognitive cognitive mapmap, but did not use it , but did not use it until they were until they were reinforcedreinforced

What do we learn by observing What do we learn by observing others?others?

Albert Bandura: Many behaviors Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are acquired through are acquired through observational learningobservational learning– Learning by observing the behavior Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitationthat behavior; learning by imitation

Model Model is the individual who demonstrates is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitateda behavior or whose behavior is imitated

What do we learn by observing What do we learn by observing others?others?

Modeling effectModeling effect– Learning a new behavior from a model through Learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responsesthe acquisition of new responses

Facilitation effectFacilitation effect– Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situationa model in an unfamiliar situation

Inhibitory effectInhibitory effect– Suppressing a behavior because a model is Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behaviorpunished for displaying the behavior

Disinhibitory effectDisinhibitory effect– Displaying a previously suppressed behavior Displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving because a model does so without receiving punishmentpunishment

What does research suggest about What does research suggest about the effects of violence on the effects of violence on television and in electronic games television and in electronic games on viewers’ and players’ behavior?on viewers’ and players’ behavior?

Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studiesBandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies– Children imitate aggressive behavior Children imitate aggressive behavior of an adult model seen on filmof an adult model seen on film

Recent researchRecent research– Individuals who watch the most Individuals who watch the most violence as children are more likely violence as children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as to engage in acts of violence as adultsadults

Children also imitate prosocial Children also imitate prosocial behaviorbehavior– As seen on shows such as As seen on shows such as Sesame StreetSesame Street

What does research suggest about What does research suggest about the effects of violence on the effects of violence on television and in electronic games television and in electronic games on viewers’ and players’ behavior?on viewers’ and players’ behavior?

Recent research suggest that playing Recent research suggest that playing violent video games increases violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent imagessensitivity to violent images

But, like television, video games But, like television, video games can also teach positive messages and can also teach positive messages and skillsskills– Can teach teenagers to drive more safelyCan teach teenagers to drive more safely– Can enhance spatial cognitive skillsCan enhance spatial cognitive skills