Chapter 40 Class Presentation

Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function

Chapter 40

1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.

Animal Form and Function

Anatomy & Physiology• Anatomy– Biological form

• Physiology– Biological function

• Why do animals have such various appearances when they have such similar demands placed on them?

2. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.


Physical constraints • Water– Shapes of animals that are swimmers–Why streamlined?

• Size– Size of skeleton– Size of muscles– Relation to speed of organism

3. Use examples to illustrate how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions with the environment.


Exchange with the environment

Rate of exchange proportional to surface area

Amount of materials that must be exchanged is proportional to volume

Differences in unicellular vs. multicellular organisms

Interstitial fluid

Fig. 40-4

0.5 cmNutrients

Digestivesystem

Lining of small intestine

MouthFood

External environment

Animalbody

CO2 O2

Circulatorysystem

Heart

Respiratorysystem

Cells

Interstitialfluid

Excretorysystem

Anus

Unabsorbedmatter (feces)

Metabolic waste products(nitrogenous waste)

Kidney tubules

10 µm

50 µ

m

Lung tissue

5. Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system.


Hierarchical Organization Cells Tissues Organs Organ System

Digestive Circulatory Respiratory Immune Excretory Endocrine Reproductive Nervous Skeletal Muscular Integumentary

Organism

Epithelial Tissue Sheets of tightly packed cells Cells joined tightly together with little material

between them Functions

Protection Absorption or secretion of chemicals Lining of organs

Free surface Exposed to air or fluid

Basement membrane Extracellular matrix that cells at base of barrier are

attached

Classification of Epithelial tissue

Number of cell layers Simple epithelial

Single layer of cells Stratified epithelial

Multiple tiers of cells Pseudostratified epithelial

Single-layered but appears stratified Shape of cells

Cuboidal Columnar Squamous

Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue

Cuboidalepithelium

Simplecolumnarepithelium

Pseudostratifiedciliated

columnarepithelium

Stratifiedsquamousepithelium

Simplesquamousepithelium

7. Describe the function of macrophages and fibroblasts within connective tissues.


Connective Tissue• Cells spread out scattered through extracellular

matrix– Substances secreted by connective tissue cells– Web of fibers embedded in foundation

• Structure– Protein

• Function– Bind and support other cells

• Fibroblasts– Secrete protein of extracellular fibers

• Macrophages– Engulf bacteria & dead cells– Defense

6. Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.


Classification of connective tissue

Collagenous fibers Made of collagen Nonelastic fibers Do not tear easily

Elastic fibers Long threads Made of elastin Rubbery

Reticular fibers Very thin and branched Collagen Tightly woven fibers Joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

Types of Connective Tissue• Loose Connective Tissue–Most widespread– All 3 fibers– Bind epithelium & hold organs in place

• Fibrous Connective Tissue–Mostly collagenous fibers– Parallel fibers– Nonelastic strength– Tendons and ligaments

Types of Connective Tissue• Bone–Mineralized connective tissue– Osteoblasts– Hard mineral and flexible collagen– Osteons • Concentric layers of mineralized matrix

• Cartilage–Mainly collagenous fibers in rubbery matrix– Chondrocytes – Abundant in embryo skeletons

Types of Connective Tissue Adipose

Fat Loose connective tissue Cushions, insulates, stores fuel

Blood Liquid extracellular matrix (plasma) Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets

Connective TissueFig. 40-5c

Connective Tissue

Collagenous fiberLoose

connectivetissue

Elastic fiber120

µm

Cartilage

Chondrocytes

100

µm

Chondroitinsulfate

Adiposetissue

Fat droplets

150

µm

White blood cells

55 µ

m

Plasma Red bloodcells

Blood

Nuclei

Fibrousconnective

tissue

30 µ

m

Osteon

Bone

Central canal

700

µm

Muscle Tissue Contract when stimulated Contractile proteins

Actin & myosin Skeletal muscle

Voluntary muscle Striated

Cardiac muscle Heart Striated, intercalated discs Involuntary

Smooth muscle No striations Lines walls of organs Involuntary

Fig. 40-5j

Muscle Tissue

50 µmSkeletalmuscle

Multiplenuclei

Muscle fiber

Sarcomere

100 µm

Smoothmuscle

Cardiac muscle

Nucleus

Musclefibers

25 µm

Nucleus Intercalateddisk

Nervous Tissue Receives stimulus and transmits signals Glial cells

Nourish, insulate, replenish neurons Neuron

Nerve cell Cell body with 2 or more extensions

Axons Transmit signals

Dendrites Receive signals

Fig. 40-5n

Glial cells

Nervous Tissue

15 µm

DendritesCell body

Axon

Neuron

Axons

Blood vessel

40 µm

9. Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems with respect to specificity of target cells and speed and duration of response.


Coordination and Control in Animals• Endocrine System– Signaling molecules in bloodstream– Coordinates gradual changes• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion

– Hormones • Only picked up by cells with the correct receptors• Slow acting but long lasting

• Nervous System– Impulse travels along target cell only– Transmission is very fast and short lasting– Immediate response• Locomotion, behavior

11. And 12.Regulating the Internal Environment

Homeostasis• Negative feedback– Change in environment triggers control

mechanism to turn off stimulus– Prevent small changes to become big

problems–Most body processes• Sweating

• Positive feedback– Change in environment triggers control

mechanism to increase stimulus– Childbirth

Fig. 40-UN1

Homeostasis

Stimulus:Perturbation/stress

Response/effector

Control center

Sensor/receptor

13. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their eat budgets.

Regulating the Internal Environment

Thermoregulation• Five general adaptations help animals

thermoregulate:– Insulation– Circulatory adaptations– Cooling by evaporative heat loss– Behavioral responses– Adjusting metabolic heat production

14. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.


16. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with the environment.


17. Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body.


Fig. 40-12

Canada goose Bottlenosedolphin

Artery

Artery

Vein Vein

Blood flow

33º35ºC

27º30º

18º20º

10º 9º

23. Describe the basic source of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.

The Bioenergetics of Animals

Fig. 40-17Organic molecules

in foodExternalenvironment

Animalbody Digestion and

absorption

Nutrient moleculesin body cells

Carbonskeletons

Cellularrespiration

ATP

HeatEnergy lost

in feces

Energy lost innitrogenous

waste

Heat

Biosynthesis

Heat

Heat

Cellularwork

25. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.


Metabolic Rate• Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time• Measured in calories or Joules• Calculated – heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2 produced,

food consumption• Endothermic

– Warm-blooded– Heat generated by metabolism– Requires lots of energy

• Exothermic– Cold-blooded– Requires less energy– Incapable of intense activity for long period of time

26. Distinguish between BMR and SMR.The Bioenergetics of Animals

Metabolic rate (cont)• Metabolic rate is inversely proportional

to body size• Basal metabolic rate–Metabolic rate of nongrowing endotherm at

rest, empty stomach, no stress– Human average = 1600 – 1800 kCal per day

for males; 1300-1500 kCal per day for females

• Standard metabolic rate–Metabolic rate of resting, fasting, non-

stressed ectotherm– Alligator = 60 kCal per day

Metabolic Rate (cont)• Maximum metabolic rate = peak

activity times• Maximum rate = inversely proportional

to duration of activity• Sustained activity depends on ATP

supply and respiration rate• Age, sex, size, temperature, quality &

quantity of food, activity level, oxygen availability, hormonal balance, time of day all affect metabolic rate

28. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budget of small and large endotherms differ.


Fig. 40-20

Ann

ual e

nerg

y ex

pend

iture

(kca

l/hr)

60-kg female humanfrom temperate climate

800,000Basal

(standard)metabolism

ReproductionThermoregulation

Growth

Activity

340,000

4-kg male Adélie penguinfrom Antarctica (brooding)

4,000

0.025-kg female deer mousefrom temperateNorth America

8,000

4-kg female easternindigo snake

Endotherms Ectotherm

Fig. 40-19

Elephant

Horse

HumanSheep

DogCat

RatGround squirrel

MouseHarvest mouse

Shrew

Body mass (kg) (log scale)B

MR

(L O

2/hr)

(Iog

sca

le)

10–3 10–210–2

10–1

10–1

10

10

1

1 102

102

103

103

(a) Relationship of BMR to body size

Shrew

Mouse

Harvest mouse

SheepRat Cat

DogHuman

HorseElephant

BM

R (L

O2/h

r) (p

er k

g)

Ground squirrel

Body mass (kg) (log scale)10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

8

7

(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size

Chapter 40 Class Presentation

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