CHAPTER 4 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT ISSUES OF TIRUPUR TEXTILE...

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CHAPTER 4

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT ISSUES OF TIRUPUR

TEXTILE CLUSTER

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Tirupur is located at 55 km east of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

Tirupur has been the centre of textile business since 1870. Today, it is the

foremost garment clusters in India, providing employment to more than 0.3

million people directly and indirectly. It contributes to a considerable amount

of foreign exchange earnings for India with a share of more than 50% cotton

knitwear exports from India (SIDBI 2009). Though the growth of the cluster

is phenomenal, there are many energy and environmental issues prevailing in

this garments manufacturing cluster, which lead to poor utilization of

resources. The facts on the status and operation level of the textile units will

help to identify the energy efficient and environmentally sound technologies,

which will improve the process efficiencies and effective resource utilization.

4.1.1 Growth of Tirupur

Most of Tirupur’s industrialists came from very modest background

and were basically farmers who owned well-irrigated farms. Being essentially

innovative, they managed to learn the basics of textile production as

employees in knitwear firms. Though it was begun in 1920's, textile

production took a drastic turn when sophisticated machines were imported

from Japan and Taiwan in 1948. In late 60's, the number of garment industries

in Tirupur increased to 250 units, and very soon the city emerged as hosiery

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centre of India and at present the number of units is about 6250. Till 1924,

Tirupur was not known for its knitting factories. The first garment factory was

started in 1925. In 1931, more knitting and weaving factories came into

existence. Initially, all knitting machines were imported from Germany, Japan

and New York. By 1942, there were about 34 Hosiery factories in Tirupur.

After the Second World War, due to financial assistance from banks,

availability of cheap labour, hosiery yarn and electric power, more factories

came into existence in Tirupur. Today, Tirupur has become an important and

active cluster of knitwear industry in India. Almost every household in

Tirupur town undertakes some activity related to knitwear industry in

residence-cum-factory setting. The initial growth of knitwear industry began

in 1970’s, when the production of knitted garments for local and national

market began in a small scale. In the middle of 1980’s, the capital

accumulation and development of skills enabled some of the larger units to

start producing for export, and within 20 years the modest industrial city had

grown into an industrial centre that produced more than 50% of India’s total

export of hosiery garments (TEA 2009).

4.1.2 Structure of Textile Industry

Tirupur is known for the cluster activity and mostly each activity of

garments production is being carried in knitting, dyeing and bleaching, fabric

printing, garment making, embroidery, compacting, calendaring, and other

ancillary units. The following Table 4.1 shows the composition of Tirupur

units (TEA 2009).

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Table 4.1 Structure of Tirupur textile industry

S.No. Operations Number of

Units

1 Knitting units 1500

2 Dyeing and bleaching 700

3 Fabric printing 500

4 Garment making 2500

5 Embroidery 250

6 Compacting and calendaring 300

7 Other ancillary units 500

Total 6250

4.1.3 Export Details of Tirupur

Within two decades, the export has grown up from less than

Rs.10 crores (US$ 8.5 million at the prevailing exchange rate) in 1984 to

Rs.11,000 crores (US$ 2.46 billion at the prevailing exchange rate) in

2006-07 (TEA 2009). All leading brands like Nike, Cutter & Buck, Adidas,

GAP, Tommy Hilfiger, Katzenberg, Van Heusen, Fila, Arrow etc., and

leading chain stores like C & A, Wal Mart, Target, Sears, Mothers Care and H

& M are sourcing from Tirupur. The export details are given in Table 4.2.

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Table 4.2 Export details of Tirupur textile cluster

Year Quantity (million pieces)

Value (Rs.

Crores)

Value* (US$

billions)

1996 257.4 1897 0.53

1997 298.3 2255 0.58

1998 346.1 2619 0.61

1999 376.4 3067 0.71

2000 424.3 3581 0.77

2001 383.1 3528 0.74

2002 358 3250 0.68

2003 381.2 3896 0.85

2004 411.4 4468.8 1.00

2004-2005

- 6500 1.46

2005-2006

- 8500 1.85

2006-2007

- 11000 2.46

2007-2008

- 9950 2.51

Note: *Based on prevailing exchange rate in the respective years

4.2 MAJOR UNIT PROCESSES

Production processes, energy and effluent flows of Tirupur textile

cluster have been shown in Figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1 Production processes, energy and effluent flow

4.2.1 Sizing

Sizing is a process which improves the strength of yarn to

withstand the vigour of knitting. Unit processes in sizing units are warping

and sizing. Yarn counts such as 8s, 10s, 12s, 16s, 20s, 25s, 30s, 40s and 60s

are sized in this process. In warping, the yarn from spinning frames is cleaned

and obtained on long length cones which are placed on warping creel and the

ends are drawn forward and wound on to a warper beam placed on warping

machine head stock.

Finished product

Yarn

EE - Electrical Energy TE - Thermal Energy EFF - Effluent WA - Water

Knitting

Bleaching/ Dyeing

Finishing

Garment making

Printing

EE

EE, TE EE, TE

EE

EFF

Sizing

EE, TE, WA

EE, TE

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In sizing, a number of warper beams as required are placed at the

back of the sizing machine and the layers of yarn are drawn and impregnated

in a sizing solution containing softener, starch etc. The yarn is then dried.

By sizing, warp yarns are provided with necessary strength, elasticity,

smoothness, and they acquire resistance to abrasion and static charge. Quality

sizing is deep sizing, where fibres are fixed in the position in which they were

before sizing. Besides deep sizing, it is also important to apply size on the

surface of the thread in the form of a film for providing outer protection of the

threads.

Thermal energy (steam) and electrical energy are used in sizing

sector. Steam is generated by burning firewood in boiler and generally steam

generation pressure ranges from 5.5 to 7 kg/cm2. Boiler capacity varies from

0.5 tonne per hour (TPH) to 1.5 TPH. The process flow for sizing has been

shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Process flow diagram for sizing

4.2.2 Knitting

Knitting is a process of interlacing one continuous yarn or two sets

of yarn in such a way as to form loops, which are interlocked to make cloth.

Electrical energy is used in this process. The conventional and modern

machines have been shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.

Yarn

Warping

Sizing

Sized Yarn

EE

EE, TE

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Figure 4.3 Conventional knitting machine

Figure 4.4 Modern knitting machine

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4.2.3 Bleaching and Dyeing

Bleaching process is to remove colouring matters from fabric.

As a result, fabric becomes white. For this purpose, various bleaching agents

like bleaching powder, sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide etc. are used.

Treatment time varies depending upon fabric. Dyeing process consists of

colouring fabrics with different dyes like reactive dyes, remozal dyes etc.

This can be a batch or continuous process.

In Tirupur, batch dyeing is being employed. Steam and electricity is

used for the production of dyed fabric. Steam is generated by burning

firewood in boiler. Steam generation pressure ranges from 4.5 to 7 kg/cm2 and

boiler capacity varies from 2 TPH to 6 TPH. Two types of machines namely,

winch and soft flow (jet dyeing) are used to dye knitted fabric. Yarn dyeing

machines are also used to dye yarn.

The number of stages in winch dyeing is about 15 while in soft

flow dyeing, it is about 10. The material to liquor (m: l) ratios in winch and

soft flow machines are about 1:12 to 1:15 and 1:6 to 1:8 respectively.

The processing time is about 8 hours in soft flow machine and 12 hours in

winch dyeing. The winch and soft flow dyeing machines have been shown in

Figures 4.5 and 4.6 respectively.

Typical process flows in a soft flow dyeing machine have been

shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8.

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Figure 4.5 Winch dyeing machine

Figure 4.6 Soft flow dyeing machine

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Figure 4.7 Typical process flow in a soft flow dyeing machine for

different shades

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Figure 4.7 Continued

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Figure 4.8 Typical process flow in a soft flow dyeing machine for white

shade

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4.2.4 Drying

Two types of drying namely, natural drying (in very small

industries) and machine drying processes are being employed. Drying is

carried out at bleaching and dyeing units. Machine drying utilises both

electrical and thermal energies. The natural and machine drying processes

have been shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10 respectively.

Figure 4.9 Natural drying

Figure 4.10 Machine drying

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4.2.5 Printing

Printing is a process of producing designs on textile fabrics using

one or more dyestuffs. On the other hand, the purpose of dyeing is to produce

uniform shade throughout the fabric. Printing is defined as localized dyeing.

There are two types of printing, namely roller printing and chest printing.

In roller printing, printing is done continuously. Chest printing process is

similar to block printing. These processes are followed by curing. Electrical

energy and thermal energy are used. The roller and chest printing machines

have been shown in Figures 4.11 and 4.12 respectively.

Figure 4.11 Roller printing machine

Figure 4.12 Chest printing machine

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4.2.6 Finishing

Finishing is carried out to improve the qualities of the fabric.

For this electrical energy and thermal energy are used.

4.2.7 Garment Making

Fabrics are cut and stitched into garments. Electrical energy is

utilized in this sector.

4.2.8 Technology Adoption

In Tirupur, garment manufacturers use both conventional and

modern machinery. However, these machines are not utilized effectively for

lack of skilled workers and also due to poor infrastructure facilities like

quality water. Mostly imported machines are used for knitting, dyeing,

compacting and finishing.

Knitting - Mostly imported circular and flat knitting machines

are used for knitting. These machines can knit jerseys, piques,

ribs, interlock, jacquards (mini & full), single jersey jacquards

(mini & full), pointelles, engineering stripes, sweat, french

ribs (flat back), herringbone, veloure, terry, fleece, sherpa etc.,

including lycra mixed fabrics.

Dyeing - Generally open winch dyeing machines are

employed for dyeing operation. The ratio between liquor to

material is about 16:1 which is very high when compared to

8:1 in soft flow dyeing machines. About 40% of production

comes from soft flow dyeing machines.

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Stitching and finishing - The stitching and finishing units

consist of all normal and special purpose stitching machines.

Modern machines imported from advanced countries are used

for sewing. Top class sewing machines, lay cutting machines,

steam irons, stain removing stations and all special purpose

machinery needed to finish the garment in a neat way are

being used.

Compacting - As a quality control measure, the

manufacturers adhere to the standards of shrinkage levels as

prescribed by customers. Imported machines like Tube-tex

and Albrecht are used for compacting. Shrinkage control is

also exercised by tumble drying, relax drying etc.

Embroidery - Sophisticated machines are used in embroidery.

Embroidery from monograms to heavy embroideries (like

overall embroidery) including appliqués is carried out.

Printing - Printing units have semi-automatic chest printing

machines, manual print tables, rotary printing machine etc.

Print flock, rubber, foams, transfer prints, roll prints etc. are

being carried out. The 12-colour machines with backward

integrated facilities like computer aided designing and output

devices like image setters are available for perfect design

finish and print execution.

The details of some of the imported machineries’ manufacturers

have been given in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3 Imported machinery details

S.No. Process Manufacturers

1 Knitting Mayer & Cie, Germany 2 Chest printing MHM Machines, Austria; Samsun, UK 3 Printing Wilflex, USA 4 Dyeing Thies, Germany 5 Bleaching and washing Jemco, USA. 6 Wet compacting Santex AG, Switzerland 7 Singeing Tube-Tex, USA 8 Mercerising Dornier, Germany 9 Relax drying Santex AG, Switzerland; Salvade, Italy

10 Dry compacting Santex AG, Switzerland 11 Embroidery

ZSK, Germany; Tajima, Germany; Barudan, Japan

12 Sewing Pegasus, Japan; Brother, Japan; Juki, Japan; Union Special, US.

4.3 ENERGY ISSUES

Though Tirupur textile cluster uses the most modern technologies

in some of the sub-sectors like knitting and dyeing, energy utilization is poor

in most of the modern units. The operating efficiencies of modern equipments

are low because of poor loading and scheduling. It was observed that the sizes

of the equipments are large in most of the units.

4.3.1 Energy Sources

Electrical energy, firewood, furnace oil, and high speed diesel are

the primary energy sources used, while steam and hot thermic fluid are the

secondary energy sources used in Tirupur cluster. For wet processing,

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firewood is the main energy source. Firewood is burnt to generate steam in

boilers. The availability of firewood is becoming restricted due to extensive

deforestation in the nearby areas. Subsequently, firewood has to be brought

from far-off places (more than 450 kilometers) leading to heavy transportation

cost and also vehicular pollution. The quality of the firewood varies resulting

in inefficiency and increased emission. The efficiencies of the boilers are also

getting affected due to the poor quality of the firewood. The furnace oil is also

used as fuel in boilers to produce steam and in the furnaces to heat the thermic

fluid. Thermic fluid is used in the drying and printing operations. High-speed

diesel is used to run the diesel generator sets in case of grid power failure.

4.3.2 Energy Utilization

Firewood is charged into the boilers irrespective of the load.

There is no control on the size of firewood fed into the grate. High amount of

moisture in the firewood is noticed since it is stored in the open ground.

There is no proper damper operation practised during the boiler operation.

The excess air amount is also very high (as high as 430%). High excess air is

because of high capacity of induced draught fans. This results in heavy heat

loss as heat is being carried away by flue gases. The temperatures of flue

gases are also high in most of the units. This may be due to the fouling of heat

transfer surfaces due to ash deposits.

The boiler feed water is preheated by heat content in the condensate

and in some cases this is not very effective because of radiation loss in the

un-insulated condensate tank and mixing of the condensate with large

quantity of water in a second tank. This mixed water is being fed into the

boiler and also the feed water tank is not insulated. The condensate lines are

not insulated. This results in heat loss through convection. Steam is generated

at a pressure of about 6 to 7 kg/cm2 and it is used in sizing at a pressure of 3

to 4 kg/cm2. The operating pressure of boilers is only in the range of 6 to 7

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kg/cm2 whereas the rated pressure is 10.54 kg/cm2. This low pressure

operation causes under utilization of overall capacity of the boilers and also

the quality of the steam gets affected (high wetness). This again results in low

efficiency. Steam lines are not insulated in some places.

It was observed that many of the motors are underloaded. As per

the norms, motor should be loaded in the range of 75% to 85% to get

maximum efficiency. By replacing these motors with correct size motors,

energy saving could be achieved.

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

In Tirupur, as in other Indian cities, there is no separate zone for

industrial/commercial activities. Therefore, many industries are located in

residential areas. Urbanization, industrialization and associated activities

increase pollution. Also, Tirupur is facing a severe problem of water and land

pollution because of primitive processing methods of dyeing.

4.4.1 Water Utilization

Tirupur is in a dry, water-scarce region and the rapid expansion of

the textile industry has taken place in an unplanned manner, with no

associated development of supporting infrastructure or institutional capacity.

As a result, the growth has led to the depletion of groundwater reserves and a

serious deterioration in environmental quality of both surface and

groundwater (Nick and Sarah 2000). The dyeing process (including peroxide

bleaching) requires high quality water. About 40 litres of water per kg of

processed fabric is needed for chlorine bleaching. Depending on shade,

technique and chemicals used, the volume of water required to dye 1 kg of

fabric varies between 70 to 240 litres. Also, about 42 to 80 kg of salts requires

15,000 litres of water.

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4.4.2 Water Pollution

Specific water consumption in Tirupur is around 200 to 400 litres

per kg of finished product, compared with the international norm of 120 to

150 litres per kg (Nick and Sarah 2000). The estimated wastewater generation

from the industrial cluster of Tirupur is around 102 million litres per day

(Sivakumar 2001) and about 56,492 tonnes of solid waste is produced each

year (Ramesh 2000). Though most modern machineries are used for wet

processing, the majority of fabric dyeing is carried out in open winches,

which requires more water.

Effluents from bleaching and dyeing vary widely in colour and

invariably are turbid. Traces of heavy metals such as copper, zinc, chromium,

and cadmium are also seen. Lower stretches of the river Noyyal that is full

with effluents have high pH. The electrical conductivity of the surface water

samples ranged between 1940 and 21000 micro mhos/cm, again related to the

quantity of discharge. Electrical conductivity of water for irrigation according

to the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is only 250 micro mhos/cm. The total

solids (TS) in the water have crossed 10000 milligram per litre (mg/lit).

The total dissolved solids (TDS) have also reached approximately the same

level. TDS, inorganic in nature, is due to salts used in processing the fabric.

In many places, alkalinity of the river water samples was about 800 mg/lit and

total hardness about 4000 mg/lit. The sodium content in surface water is very

high because of large-scale use of common salt. The level of chloride of the

surface water samples reached up to 4360 mg/lit, while its BIS limit for

irrigation is only 250 mg/lit. The high sodium in surface water combined with

chloride makes the level of potassium very low. It ranged between 10 and 80

mg/lit. While biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ranged up to 150 mg/lit,

chemical oxygen demand (COD) reached 1260 mg/lit. High BOD and COD

are expected to reduce dissolved oxygen in water. However, river Noyyal

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being a shallow stream, the possibility of high oxygen exchange with

atmosphere may offset the effect.

Phosphate content, originating mostly from detergents, reached

about 5 mg/lit in the river water. Nitrite ranged from 0.01 to 0.26 mg/lit.

Concentration of dissolved fraction of copper in the surface water ranged

from 0.08 to 2.76 microgram per litre (g/lit). Chromium concentration

ranged between 1.25 and 2.48 g/lit, cadmium between below detection limit

(BDL) and 0.20 g/lit. Overall, in Tirupur, examined parameters of the

surface water exceeded the BIS standards for drinking and irrigation

purposes.

4.4.3 Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs)

Tirupur faced with the situation of excessive water use and

pollution. Public pressure to improve the situation has been a powerful force

for change, notably numerous actions by local farmers, labour, environmental

and consumers' organisations. This pressure has helped to prompt the Tamil

Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) to take action to enforce

environmental regulations on water pollution. The authorities have been

hampered by a lack of resources, compounded by the difficulty of controlling

the discharge of hundreds of small producers. For this reason, the TNPCB has

focused on the installation of common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) as

the most effective solution (Nick and Sarah 2000). There are about 20 CETPs

in Tirupur cluster (Revathy 2009).

Despite setting up CETPs and the Federation of CETPs, the dyers

in Tirupur could not resolve their water pollution related problems.

The incoming TDS in the ETPs range between 6000 and 9000 mg/lit and

there was a slight increase in the treated effluents, perhaps due to soluble

fractions of coagulants during the treatment. As such CETPs remove only the

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colour and other suspended organic matter. As against standard (2100 mg/lit)

for TDS, the existing TDS levels above 5000 mg/lit is a gross violation.

The Noyyal River and ground water survey in Tirupur shows that TDS has

grossly contaminated the waters. As such the water is not fit for irrigation in

the downstream stretches. The CETPs remove only 40% of the COD and

BOD and most of the time the BOD of the treated waste waters is above 100

mg/lit as against limiting standard of 30 mg/lit for discharge into river waters.

This is yet another non-compliance by the CETPs. It is generally seen that

sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions dominate in the wastewaters indicating

the use of common salt (NaCl) in the dyeing processes. Relatively lower

levels of sulphates (SO4--) indicate that sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) is used to a

much lesser extent. Generally, sodium chloride is recoverable (50 to70%)

from dye bath solutions using nano-filtration membranes, and recovered brine

is reusable in dyeing processes along with low hardness water recovered

through reverse osmosis (RO) processes. In order to reverse the ecological

damages in the area, the existing CETPs require upgradation in terms of

RO/nano systems followed by multi stage evaporator systems to constrain

high TDS discharges into the river (CPCB 2005).

4.4.4 CO2 Emission

Utilization of fuels like firewood, diesel, and fuel oil in thermal

systems liberate large volume of CO2, which is the major greenhouse gas in

this cluster. The efficiencies of these systems are low, resulting in large

consumption of fuels. The steam required for process heating is generated in

old and inefficient boilers like lancashire and locomotive boilers, which

consume more fuel. This results in increased direct CO2 emission into the

atmosphere. Electricity is also extensively used in this cluster, which in turn

emits CO2 at power plants (indirect emission). Both direct and indirect

emissions are included in this study. Though biomass combustion is

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considered to be carbon neutral, many studies suggests that it is not so.

Hence, CO2 emission from biomass combustion is included, and not reported

separately.

Most of the guidance for carbon foot printing and most published

carbon footprints presume that biomass heating fuels are carbon neutral.

However, it is increasingly recognized that this is incorrect (Johnson 2009).

Timothy et al (2009) pointed out that exempting emissions from bio-energy

use is improper for greenhouse gas regulations. Replacing fossil fuels with

bio-energy does not by itself reduce carbon emissions, because the CO2

released by tail- pipes and smokestacks is roughly the same per unit of energy

regardless of the source. Ann (2009) highlighted that wood has a lower

hydrogen content than fossil fuels, which causes it to release more carbon per

unit of heat. Sebastiaan et al (2008) noted that old-growth forests accumulate

carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it. However, that much of

this carbon, even soil carbon, will move back to the atmosphere, if these

forests are disturbed.

4.5 ENERGY AUDITS

To find the resource utilization and performance of existing

technologies in different textile units, detailed energy audits were conducted

in 56 units. Energy resources consumption details were collected for the

period 1996 to 2006. Apart from these data, corresponding production data

were also collected. The details of data collected (only for a few units) are

given in Tables 4.4 to 4.9. Though data were collected from 173 factories,

data pertaining to only three factories are given in Tables for indicative

purposes. From these data, specific energy consumptions of the respective

textile unit operations were calculated.

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Table 4.4 Data collected from sizing units

Parameters Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Annual production (tonne) 1423 1530 1240

Firewood consumption (tonne/year) 1008 1014 1350

Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 72354 74867 71311 Diesel consumption (litre/year) 3624 2847 3424

Table 4.5 Data collected from knitting units

Parameters Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Annual production (tonne) 261 257.5 312 Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 47844 35893 25332

Diesel consumption (litre/year) 1560 2378 834

Table 4.6 Data collected from dyeing units

Parameters Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Annual production (tonne) 787 3952.4 979 Firewood consumption (tonne/year) 1749 7964 2468

Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 242758 1231645 386643 Diesel consumption (litre/year) 2290 2045 7645

Table 4.7 Data collected from printing units


Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 616543 710820 844329 Diesel consumption (litre/year) 10438 7448 8367 Fuel oil consumption (litre/year) 262444 321021 382653

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Table 4.8 Data collected from compacting units

Parameters Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Annual production (tonne) 3587 3952.4 2354

Firewood consumption (tonne/year) 102040 113340 72394

Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 95874 101234 64984


Table 4.9 Data collected from garment making units


Electricity consumption (kWh/year) 357960 41667 342957


Boiler trials were conducted in the textile units to find the

efficiency. The duration of the trials was more than 8 hours. Efficiency was

calculated by both direct and indirect methods. Anemometer was used to find

the flow of combustion air. Flue gas analyzer was used to find the percentage

of CO2 from the exhaust gas. From this value, excess air amount was

calculated. Ultimate analyses of the fuel were also carried out. From the trial,

specific fuel consumption was calculated based on the corresponding

production. Temperatures were measured using K-type thermocouples.

Electrical measurements of motors (prime mover) were taken using

load manager. Based on the measurements, the loading of the equipments was

calculated. Also, power consumption of the individual equipments was

measured.

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The specifications of the multi-component flue gas analyzer have

been given in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10 Specifications of multi-component flue gas analyzer

Parameter Range Resolution

CO 0 - 10% 0.01%

CO2 0 - 20% 0.1%

HC 0 - 2% 1ppm

O2 0 - 25% 0.01%

Accuracy OIML CLASS I -

Operating temperature + 5°C to + 40°C -

The specifications of the load manager have been given in Table

4.11.

Table 4.11 Specifications of the load manager


AC Current 4 - 750 A 0.1 A

AC Voltage 4 - 600 V 0.1 V

Power 0 - 9999 kW 0.01%

Power Factor 0 - 1 0.001

AC Apparent Power 0 - 9999 kVA 0.01%

AC Reactive Power 0 - 9999 kVAr 0.01%

Accuracy ± 1% -

The specifications of the K-type thermocouple (ANSI MC 96.1)

have been given in Table 4.12.

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Table 4.12 Specifications of the K-type thermocouple

Parameter Range/Details Resolution

Accuracy ± 2.2 °C -

Temperature 0 - 1000°C ± 1°C

Hot Junction Ungrounded -

Sheath diameter 22 mm -

Sheath Length 300 mm below head -

Sheath Material INCONEL 600 -

Wire Gauge 14 SWG -

Insulation Ceramic Beads -

The specifications of the vane type anemometer have been given in

Table 4.13.

Table 4.13 Specifications of the vane type anemometer


Velocity 0.3-45 m/s 0.1 m/s

Accuracy ± 0.1 m/s -

4.6 SUMMARY

In Tirupur textile cluster, garments production is being carried in

knitting, dyeing and bleaching, fabric printing, garment making, embroidery,

compacting, calendaring, and other ancillary units. Though modern machines

are used, these are not utilized effectively. Electrical energy, firewood,

furnace oil, and high speed diesel are the primary energy sources used, while

steam and hot thermic fluid are the secondary energy sources. There are more

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potential for improvements in both electrical and thermal energy utilization.

Water requirement per kg of fabric is also high which results in more volume

of effluent generation in the cluster. Improper equipments and operations lead

to increased CO2 emission.

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